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{{Short description|Species of bird}}
{{speciesbox
{{speciesbox
| status = LC
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22721052/0 |title=''Passerella iliaca'' |author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year=2012 |access-date=26 November 2013|ref=harv}}</ref>
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International. |year=2016 |title=''Passerella iliaca'' |volume=2016 |page=e.T103779110A94696453 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T103779110A94696453.en |access-date=8 April 2021}}</ref>
| image = Passerella iliaca-001.jpg
| image = Passerella iliaca-001.jpg
| image_caption = [[Red fox sparrow]] (''P. i. iliaca''), [[Whitby, Ontario|Whitby]], [[Ontario]]
| image_caption = [[Red fox sparrow]] (''P. i. iliaca''), [[Whitby, Ontario|Whitby]], [[Ontario]]
Line 13: Line 14:
}}
}}


The '''fox sparrow''' (''Passerella iliaca'') is a large [[American sparrow]]. It is the only member of the genus ''Passerella'', although some authors split the species into four (see below).
The '''fox sparrow''' (''Passerella iliaca'') is a large [[New World sparrow]]. It is the only member of the genus '''''Passerella''''', although some authors split the species into four (see below).


==Taxonomy==
==Taxonomy==
[[File:FoxSparrow-Sooty-4DEC2017.jpg|alt=Sooty Fox Sparrow|left|thumb|268x268px|[[Sooty fox sparrow|Sooty Fox Sparrow]]. [[Sacramento, California]].]]
[[File:FoxSparrow-Sooty-4DEC2017.jpg|alt=Sooty Fox Sparrow|left|thumb|268x268px|[[Sooty fox sparrow]], [[Sacramento, California]]]]
More specific information regarding plumage is available in the accounts for the various [[taxa]].
More specific information regarding plumage is available in the accounts for the various [[Taxon|taxa]].
*[[Red fox sparrow]], ''P. i. iliaca'' <small>(Merrem, 1786)</small> – this taxon breeds in the taiga of Canada and Alaska and winters in central and eastern North America. This is the brightest colored group.
*[[Red fox sparrow]], ''P. i. iliaca'' <small>(Merrem, 1786)</small> – this taxon breeds in the taiga of Canada and Alaska and winters in central and eastern North America. This is the brightest colored group.
*[[sooty fox sparrow]], ''P. i. unalaschcensis'' <small>(Gmelin, JF, 1789)</small> – this taxon breeds along the Pacific coast of North America from the Aleutian Islands south to northwestern Washington, and winters from southeastern Alaska south to northern Baja California. It is browner and darker than the red fox sparrow.
*[[Sooty fox sparrow]], ''P. i. unalaschcensis'' <small>(Gmelin, JF, 1789)</small> – this taxon breeds along the Pacific coast of North America from the Aleutian Islands south to northwestern Washington, and winters from southeastern Alaska south to northern Baja California. It is browner and darker than the red fox sparrow.
*[[slate-colored fox sparrow]], ''P. i. schistacea'' <small>Baird, SF, 1858</small> – this taxon breeds in interior western North America and winters to the south and west. It has a gray head and mantle, brown wings, brown breast streaks, and a russet tail.
*[[Slate-colored fox sparrow]], ''P. i. schistacea'' <small>Baird, SF, 1858</small> – this taxon breeds in interior western North America and winters to the south and west. It has a gray head and mantle, brown wings, brown breast streaks, and a russet tail.
*[[thick-billed fox sparrow]], ''P. i. megarhyncha'' <small>Baird, SF, 1858</small> – this taxon is mostly restricted to California and Oregon. This group is similar in coloration to the slate-colored fox sparrow, but features a particularly thick bill, as its name would suggest.
*[[Thick-billed fox sparrow]], ''P. i. megarhyncha'' <small>Baird, SF, 1858</small> – this taxon is mostly restricted to California and Oregon. This group is similar in coloration to the slate-colored fox sparrow, but features a particularly thick bill, as its name suggests.


==Description==
==Description==
{{Listen
{{Listen
|filename=Passerella iliaca iliaca - Fox Sparrow - XC62943.ogg
|filename=Passerella iliaca iliaca - Fox Sparrow - XC62943.ogg
|title=''Passerella-iliaca'' call
|title=''Passerella iliaca'' call
|description=Call
|description=Call
|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|format=[[Ogg]]}}


Adults are among the largest sparrows, heavily spotted and streaked underneath. All feature a messy central breast spot though it is less noticeable on the [[Thick-billed fox sparrow|thick billed]] and [[Slate-colored fox sparrow|slate-colored]] varieties. Plumage varies markedly from one group to another.
Adults are among the largest sparrows, heavily spotted and streaked underneath. All feature a messy central breast spot though it is less noticeable on the [[Thick-billed fox sparrow|thick billed]] and [[Slate-colored fox sparrow|slate-colored]] varieties. Plumage varies markedly from one group to another.

'''Measurements'''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fox Sparrow Identification, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology|url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Fox_Sparrow/id|access-date=2020-09-29|website=www.allaboutbirds.org|language=en}}</ref>''':'''

* '''Length''': 5.9-7.5 in (15–19&nbsp;cm)
* '''Weight''': 0.9-1.6 oz (26-44 g)
* '''Wingspan''': 10.5-11.4 in (26.7–29&nbsp;cm)


==Behavior==
==Behavior==
Fox sparrows are a generally common bird within their range. They forage by scratching the ground which makes them vulnerable to cats and other predators. Most populations of Fox sparrows [[bird migration|migrate]] north for breeding, however some stable populations exist along the west coast of North America.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Swarth |first1=H. W. |title=Revision of the avian genus Passerella with specia reference to the distribution and migration of the races in California |journal=University of California Publications in Zoology |date=1920 |volume=21 |pages=75–224}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=C. P. |title=Leap-frog migration in the Fox Sparrow: minimizing the cost of spring migration |journal=Condor |date=1997 |volume=99 |issue=2 |pages=470–477|doi=10.2307/1369953 |jstor=1369953 }}</ref>
These birds forage by scratching the ground, which makes them vulnerable to cats and other predators, though they are generally common. Fox sparrows [[bird migration|migrate]] on the west coast of the United States.


===Diet===
===Diet===
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==Systematics==
==Systematics==
<!-- [[File:FoxSparrow23.jpg|thumb|left]] [can this bird be identified to population?] -->
<!-- [[File:FoxSparrow23.jpg|thumb|left]] [can this bird be identified to population?] -->
The review by Zink & Weckstein (2003),<ref name="Zink Weckstein 2003" /> which added [[mtDNA]] [[cytochrome b|cytochrome ''b'']], [[NADH dehydrogenase]] [[Protein subunit|subunit]] 2 and 3, and [[D-loop]] [[DNA sequence|sequence]], confirmed the four "subspecies groups"<ref>Not defined by the [[International Code of Zoological Nomenclature|ICZN]]</ref> of the fox sparrow that were outlined by the initial limited mtDNA [[haplotype]] comparison (Zink 1994).<ref name="Zink 1994" /> These should probably be recognized as separate species, but this was deferred for further analysis of hybridization. Particularly the contact zones between the slate-colored and thick-billed fox sparrows which are only weakly distinct [[Morphology (biology)|morphologically]] were of interest; the other groups were found to be distinct far earlier.<ref name="Swarth 1920" /> A further study of the nuclear genome, using microsatellites, showed similar separation between the four groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zink|year=2008|title=Microsatellite and mitochondrial dna differentiation in the fox sparrow|journal=The Condor|volume=110|issue=3|pages=482–492|doi=10.1525/cond.2008.8496}}</ref>
The review by Zink & Weckstein (2003),<ref name="Zink Weckstein 2003" /> which added [[mtDNA]] [[cytochrome b|cytochrome ''b'']], [[NADH dehydrogenase]] [[Protein subunit|subunit]] 2 and 3, and [[D-loop]] [[DNA sequence|sequence]], confirmed the four "subspecies groups"<ref>Not defined by the [[International Code of Zoological Nomenclature|ICZN]]</ref> of the fox sparrow that were outlined by the initial limited mtDNA [[haplotype]] comparison (Zink 1994).<ref name="Zink 1994" /> These should probably be recognized as separate species, but this was deferred for further analysis of hybridization. Particularly the contact zones between the slate-colored and thick-billed fox sparrows which are only weakly distinct [[Morphology (biology)|morphologically]] were of interest; the other groups were found to be distinct far earlier.<ref name="Swarth 1920" /> A further study of the nuclear genome, using microsatellites, showed similar separation between the four groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zink|year=2008|title=Microsatellite and mitochondrial dna differentiation in the fox sparrow|journal=The Condor|volume=110|issue=3|pages=482–492|doi=10.1525/cond.2008.8496|s2cid=86360069 |doi-access=free}}</ref>


The combined molecular data is unable to resolve the interrelationship of the subspecies group and of subspecies in these, but aids in confirming the distinctness of the thick-billed group.<ref name="Zink Weckstein 2003" /> [[Biogeography]] indicates that the coastal populations were probably isolated during an epoch of [[glaciation]] of the [[Rocky Mountains]] range, but this is also not very helpful in resolving the remaining problems of within-group diversity, and inter-group relationships.
The combined molecular data is unable to resolve the interrelationship of the subspecies groups and of the subspecies in these, but aids in confirming the distinctness of the thick-billed group.<ref name="Zink Weckstein 2003" /> [[Biogeography]] indicates that the coastal populations were probably isolated during an epoch of [[glaciation]] of the [[Rocky Mountains]] range, but this is also not very helpful in resolving the remaining problems of within-group diversity, and inter-group relationships.


Major taxonomic authorities currently differ in their treatment of the fox sparrow complex. The [[IOC World Bird List]] and [[HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World]] treat each of the four subspecies groups as a separate species, while the [[eBird/Clements checklist of birds of the world]] and [[Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World]] currently treat the complex as a single species.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=3A7B1F59DE8F597D|title=Passerella [iliaca, unalaschensis, schistacea or megarhyncha]|last=Lepage|first=Denis|website=Avibase - the world bird database|access-date=2017-06-04}}</ref>
Major taxonomic authorities currently differ in their treatment of the fox sparrow complex. The IOC World Bird List/''[[Birds of the World: Recommended English Names]]'' and the ''[[HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World]]'' treat each of the four subspecies groups as a separate species, while [[eBird]]/''[[The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World]]'' and ''The [[Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World]]'' currently treat the complex as a single species.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=3A7B1F59DE8F597D|title=Passerella [iliaca, unalaschensis, schistacea or megarhyncha]|last=Lepage|first=Denis|website=Avibase - the world bird database|access-date=2017-06-04}}</ref>


==References==
==References==
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<ref name="Zink 1994">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.2307/2410006 |pmid=28567786 |last=Zink |first=Robert M. |year=1994 |title=The Geography of Mitochondrial DNA Variation, Population Structure, hybridization, and Species Limits in the Fox Sparrow (''Passerella iliaca'') |journal=Evolution |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=96–111|jstor=2410006 }}</ref>
<ref name="Zink 1994">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.2307/2410006 |pmid=28567786 |last=Zink |first=Robert M. |year=1994 |title=The Geography of Mitochondrial DNA Variation, Population Structure, hybridization, and Species Limits in the Fox Sparrow (''Passerella iliaca'') |journal=Evolution |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=96–111|jstor=2410006 }}</ref>


<ref name="Zink Weckstein 2003">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1642/0004-8038(2003)120[0522:REHOTF]2.0.CO;2 |last1=Zink |first1=Robert M. |last2=Weckstein |first2=Jason D. |year=2003 |title=Recent evolutionary history of the Fox Sparrows (Genus: ''Passerella'') |journal=Auk |volume=48 |issue=120(2) |pages=522–527}}</ref>
<ref name="Zink Weckstein 2003">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1642/0004-8038(2003)120[0522:REHOTF]2.0.CO;2 |last1=Zink |first1=Robert M. |last2=Weckstein |first2=Jason D. |year=2003 |title=Recent evolutionary history of the Fox Sparrows (Genus: ''Passerella'') |journal=Auk |volume=48 |issue=120(2) |pages=522–527|s2cid=85871498 }}</ref>


}}
}}
* {{cite journal |editor1-last=Gill |editor1-first=Frank |editor2-last=Donsker |editor2-first=David |year=2014 |title=IOC World Bird List (v 4.4): Bananaquit, buntings, sparrows & bush tanagers |url = http://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/buntings/ |doi=10.14344/IOC.ML.4.4 | publisher = [[International Ornithologists’ Union]] | accessdate = 16 December 2014|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite report |editor1-last=Gill |editor1-first=Frank |editor2-last=Donsker |editor2-first=David |year=2014 |title=IOC World Bird List (v 4.4): Bananaquit, buntings, sparrows & bush tanagers |url = http://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/buntings/ |doi=10.14344/IOC.ML.4.4 | publisher = [[International Ornithologists’ Union]] | access-date = 16 December 2014|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book | last1 = Beadle | first1 = D. | last2 = Rising |first2= J. D. | title = Sparrows of the United States and Canada | publisher = Academic Press | year = 2002| location = San Diego | isbn = 0-691-11747-0 }}
* {{cite book | last1 = Beadle | first1 = D. | last2 = Rising |first2= J. D. | title = Sparrows of the United States and Canada | publisher = Academic Press | year = 2002| location = San Diego | isbn = 0-691-11747-0 }}
* {{cite book | last1 = Sibley | first1 = David Allen | authorlink = David Allen Sibley | title = The Sibley Guide to Birds | publisher = Alfred A. Knopf | year = 2000 | location = New York | isbn = 0-679-45122-6 | url = https://archive.org/details/sibleyguidetobir00sibl_0 }}
* {{cite book | last1 = Sibley | first1 = David Allen | author-link = David Allen Sibley | title = The Sibley Guide to Birds | publisher = Alfred A. Knopf | year = 2000 | location = New York | isbn = 0-679-45122-6 | url = https://archive.org/details/sibleyguidetobir00sibl_0 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Zink | first1 = Robert M. | last2 = Kessen |first2= A. E. | title = Species Limits in the Fox Sparrow | journal = Birding | year = 1999 | volume = 31 | pages=508–517 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Zink | first1 = Robert M. | last2 = Kessen |first2= A. E. | title = Species Limits in the Fox Sparrow | journal = Birding | year = 1999 | volume = 31 | pages=508–517 }}


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===Articles===
===Articles===
<div style="font-size:87%;">
<div style="font-size:87%;">
* {{cite journal | last1 = Anon | year = 1968 | title = Fox Sparrow Very Rare Summer Resident 10-11-65 Swamp Sparrow Rare Winter Visitor 9-11-67 10-29-67 Lykins Gulch Colorado USA | url = | journal = Colorado Field Ornithologist | volume = 4 | issue = | pages = 13–14 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Anon | year = 1968 | title = Fox Sparrow Very Rare Summer Resident 10-11-65 Swamp Sparrow Rare Winter Visitor 9-11-67 10-29-67 Lykins Gulch Colorado USA | journal = Colorado Field Ornithologist | volume = 4 | pages = 13–14 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Banks | first1 = RC | year = 1970 | title = The Fox Sparrow on the West Slope of the Oregon Cascades | url = | journal = Condor | volume = 72 | issue = 3| pages = 369–370 | doi=10.2307/1366023| jstor = 1366023 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Banks | first1 = RC | year = 1970 | title = The Fox Sparrow on the West Slope of the Oregon Cascades | journal = Condor | volume = 72 | issue = 3| pages = 369–370 | doi=10.2307/1366023| jstor = 1366023 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Bell | first1 = CP | year = 1997 | title = Leap-frog migration in the fox sparrow:: Minimizing the cost of spring migration | url = | journal = Condor | volume = 99 | issue = 2| pages = 470–477 | doi=10.2307/1369953| jstor = 1369953 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Bell | first1 = CP | year = 1997 | title = Leap-frog migration in the fox sparrow:: Minimizing the cost of spring migration | journal = Condor | volume = 99 | issue = 2| pages = 470–477 | doi=10.2307/1369953| jstor = 1369953 | doi-access = free }}
* Blankson ENT & McKernan RL. (1995). ''Evolutionary and ecological considerations of seven subspecies of the fox sparrow (Passerella iliaca) wintering in California''. Strauss, M. vol '''S''', p. Unity in Diversity.
* Blankson ENT & McKernan RL. (1995). ''Evolutionary and ecological considerations of seven subspecies of the fox sparrow (Passerella iliaca) wintering in California''. Strauss, M. vol '''S''', p. Unity in Diversity.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burns | first1 = KJ | s2cid = 53062826 | year = 1993 | title = Geographic variation in ontogeny of the fox sparrow | journal = Condor | volume = 95 | issue = 3| pages = 652–661 | doi=10.2307/1369608| jstor = 1369608 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burns | first1 = KJ | s2cid = 53062826 | year = 1993 | title = Geographic variation in ontogeny of the fox sparrow | journal = Condor | volume = 95 | issue = 3| pages = 652–661 | doi=10.2307/1369608| jstor = 1369608 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burns | first1 = KJ | last2 = Hackett | first2 = SJ | s2cid = 53055485 | year = 1993 | title = Nest and nest-site characteristics of a western population of fox sparrow (Passerella iliaca) | journal = Southwestern Naturalist | volume = 38 | issue = 3| pages = 277–279 | doi=10.2307/3671433| jstor = 3671433 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burns | first1 = KJ | last2 = Hackett | first2 = SJ | s2cid = 53055485 | year = 1993 | title = Nest and nest-site characteristics of a western population of fox sparrow (Passerella iliaca) | journal = Southwestern Naturalist | volume = 38 | issue = 3| pages = 277–279 | doi=10.2307/3671433| jstor = 3671433 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burns | first1 = KJ | last2 = Zink | first2 = RM | year = 1990 | title = Temporal and Geographic Homogeneity of Gene Frequencies in the Fox Sparrow Passerella-Iliaca | url = | journal = Auk | volume = 107 | issue = 2| pages = 421–425 | doi=10.2307/4087632| jstor = 4087632 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burns | first1 = KJ | last2 = Zink | first2 = RM | year = 1990 | title = Temporal and Geographic Homogeneity of Gene Frequencies in the Fox Sparrow Passerella-Iliaca | journal = Auk | volume = 107 | issue = 2| pages = 421–425 | doi=10.2307/4087632| jstor = 4087632 | doi-access = free }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Christie | first1 = DS | year = 1968 | title = Summer Occurrence of the Fox Sparrow in New-Brunswick Canada Passerella-Iliaca | url = | journal = Canadian Field-Naturalist | volume = 82 | issue = 1 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Christie | first1 = DS | year = 1968 | title = Summer Occurrence of the Fox Sparrow in New-Brunswick Canada Passerella-Iliaca | journal = Canadian Field-Naturalist | volume = 82 | issue = 1 | doi = 10.5962/p.342843 | doi-access = free }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Hubert | first1 = P | last2 = Smith | first2 = A | year = 1974 | title = Possible Fox Sparrow Nesting in Minnesota | url = | journal = Loon | volume = 46 | issue = 1 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Hubert | first1 = P | last2 = Smith | first2 = A | year = 1974 | title = Possible Fox Sparrow Nesting in Minnesota | journal = Loon | volume = 46 | issue = 1 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Jewer | first1 = OD | last2 = Threlfall | first2 = W | year = 1978 | title = Parasites of the Fox Sparrow Passerella-Iliaca and Northern Waterthrush Seiurus-Noveboracensis in Newfoundland Canada | url = | journal = Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington | volume = 45 | issue = 2| pages = 270–272 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Jewer | first1 = OD | last2 = Threlfall | first2 = W | year = 1978 | title = Parasites of the Fox Sparrow Passerella-Iliaca and Northern Waterthrush Seiurus-Noveboracensis in Newfoundland Canada | journal = Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington | volume = 45 | issue = 2| pages = 270–272 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Johnson | first1 = JW | last2 = Johnson | first2 = L | year = 1972 | title = Fox Sparrow Observations in the Huron Area | url = | journal = South Dakota Bird Notes | volume = 24 | issue = | page = 4 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Johnson | first1 = JW | last2 = Johnson | first2 = L | year = 1972 | title = Fox Sparrow Observations in the Huron Area | journal = South Dakota Bird Notes | volume = 24 | page = 4 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Martin | first1 = DJ | year = 1977 | title = Songs of the Fox Sparrow Part 1 Structure of Song and Its Comparison with Song in Other Emberizidae | url = | journal = Condor | volume = 79 | issue = 2| pages = 209–221 | doi=10.2307/1367164| jstor = 1367164 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Martin | first1 = DJ | year = 1977 | title = Songs of the Fox Sparrow Part 1 Structure of Song and Its Comparison with Song in Other Emberizidae | journal = Condor | volume = 79 | issue = 2| pages = 209–221 | doi=10.2307/1367164| jstor = 1367164 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Martin | first1 = DJ | year = 1979 | title = Songs of the Fox Sparrow Passerella-Iliaca 2. Intra Population and Inter Population Variation | url = | journal = Condor | volume = 81 | issue = 2| pages = 173–184 | doi=10.2307/1367286| jstor = 1367286 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Martin | first1 = DJ | year = 1979 | title = Songs of the Fox Sparrow Passerella-Iliaca 2. Intra Population and Inter Population Variation | journal = Condor | volume = 81 | issue = 2| pages = 173–184 | doi=10.2307/1367286| jstor = 1367286 | doi-access = free }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Martin | first1 = DJ | year = 1980 | title = Response by Male Fox Sparrows Passerella-Iliaca to Broadcast of Particular Con Specific Songs | url = | journal = Wilson Bulletin | volume = 92 | issue = 1| pages = 21–32 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Martin | first1 = DJ | year = 1980 | title = Response by Male Fox Sparrows Passerella-Iliaca to Broadcast of Particular Con Specific Songs | journal = Wilson Bulletin | volume = 92 | issue = 1| pages = 21–32 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Martin | first1 = DJ | year = 1990 | title = Songs of the Fox Sparrow 3. Ordering of song | url = | journal = Wilson Bulletin | volume = 102 | issue = 4| pages = 655–671 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Martin | first1 = DJ | year = 1990 | title = Songs of the Fox Sparrow 3. Ordering of song | journal = Wilson Bulletin | volume = 102 | issue = 4| pages = 655–671 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Martin | first1 = DJ | last2 = Naugler | first2 = CT | last3 = Smith | first3 = PC | year = 1993 | title = Song similarity in populations of fox sparrows: A rejection of Naugler's and Smith's conclusions—Comment/reply | url = | journal = The Condor | volume = 95 | issue = 4| page = 1057 | doi=10.2307/1369448| jstor = 1369448 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Martin | first1 = DJ | last2 = Naugler | first2 = CT | last3 = Smith | first3 = PC | year = 1993 | title = Song similarity in populations of fox sparrows: A rejection of Naugler's and Smith's conclusions—Comment/reply | journal = The Condor | volume = 95 | issue = 4| page = 1057 | doi=10.2307/1369448| jstor = 1369448 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Naugler | first1 = CT | last2 = Smith | first2 = PC | year = 1991 | title = Song Similarity in an Isolated Population of Fox Sparrows Passerella-Iliaca | url = | journal = Condor | volume = 93 | issue = 4| pages = 1001–1003 | doi=10.2307/3247734| jstor = 3247734 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Naugler | first1 = CT | last2 = Smith | first2 = PC | year = 1991 | title = Song Similarity in an Isolated Population of Fox Sparrows Passerella-Iliaca | journal = Condor | volume = 93 | issue = 4| pages = 1001–1003 | doi=10.2307/3247734| jstor = 3247734 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Peyton | first1 = LJ | year = 1971 | title = Geographical Variation of Fox Sparrow Songs in Alaska | url = | journal = Proceedings of the Alaska Science Conference | volume = 22 | issue = 39 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Peyton | first1 = LJ | year = 1971 | title = Geographical Variation of Fox Sparrow Songs in Alaska | journal = Proceedings of the Alaska Science Conference | volume = 22 | issue = 39 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Robert | first1 = MZ | last2 = Jason | first2 = DW | year = 2003 | title = Recent evolutionary history of the Fox Sparrows (Genus: Passerella) | url = | journal = The Auk | volume = 120 | issue = 2| page = 522 | doi = 10.1642/0004-8038(2003)120[0522:REHOTF]2.0.CO;2 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Robert | first1 = MZ | last2 = Jason | first2 = DW | year = 2003 | title = Recent evolutionary history of the Fox Sparrows (Genus: Passerella) | journal = The Auk | volume = 120 | issue = 2| page = 522 | doi = 10.1642/0004-8038(2003)120[0522:REHOTF]2.0.CO;2 | s2cid = 85871498 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Ryan | first1 = AG | year = 1974 | title = An Incubation Period and a Nestling Period for the Fox Sparrow | url = | journal = Canadian Field-Naturalist | volume = 88 | issue = 2| pages = 230–231 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Ryan | first1 = AG | year = 1974 | title = An Incubation Period and a Nestling Period for the Fox Sparrow | journal = Canadian Field-Naturalist | volume = 88 | issue = 2| pages = 230–231 | doi = 10.5962/p.344381 | doi-access = free }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Schmid | first1 = U | year = 1979 | title = 2 Rare Guest Birds on North Sea Island of Scharhoern West Germany Fox Sparrow Passerella-Iliaca and Scarlet Grosbeak Carpodacus-Erythrinus | url = | journal = Vogelkundliche Berichte aus Niedersachsen | volume = 11 | issue = 2| pages = 45–46 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Schmid | first1 = U | year = 1979 | title = 2 Rare Guest Birds on North Sea Island of Scharhoern West Germany Fox Sparrow Passerella-Iliaca and Scarlet Grosbeak Carpodacus-Erythrinus | journal = Vogelkundliche Berichte aus Niedersachsen | volume = 11 | issue = 2| pages = 45–46 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Threlfall | first1 = W | last2 = Blacquiere | first2 = JR | year = 1982 | title = Breeding Biology of the Fox Sparrow Passerella-Iliaca in Newfoundland Canada | url = | journal = Journal of Field Ornithology | volume = 53 | issue = 3| pages = 235–239 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Threlfall | first1 = W | last2 = Blacquiere | first2 = JR | year = 1982 | title = Breeding Biology of the Fox Sparrow Passerella-Iliaca in Newfoundland Canada | journal = Journal of Field Ornithology | volume = 53 | issue = 3| pages = 235–239 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Webster | first1 = JD | year = 1975 | title = The Fox Sparrow in Southwestern Yukon and Adjacent Areas | url = | journal = Condor | volume = 77 | issue = 2| pages = 215–216 | doi=10.2307/1365798| jstor = 1365798 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Webster | first1 = JD | year = 1975 | title = The Fox Sparrow in Southwestern Yukon and Adjacent Areas | journal = Condor | volume = 77 | issue = 2| pages = 215–216 | doi=10.2307/1365798| jstor = 1365798 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Webster | first1 = JD | year = 1983 | title = Passerella-Iliaca-Chilcatensis New-Subspecies a Fox Sparrow from Alaska USA | url = | journal = Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington | volume = 96 | issue = 4| pages = 664–668 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Webster | first1 = JD | year = 1983 | title = Passerella-Iliaca-Chilcatensis New-Subspecies a Fox Sparrow from Alaska USA | journal = Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington | volume = 96 | issue = 4| pages = 664–668 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Zink | first1 = RM | year = 1983 | title = Evolutionary and Systematic Significance of Temporal Variation in the Fox Sparrow Passerella-Iliaca | url = | journal = Systematic Zoology | volume = 32 | issue = 3| pages = 223–238 | doi=10.2307/2413443| jstor = 2413443 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Zink | first1 = RM | year = 1983 | title = Evolutionary and Systematic Significance of Temporal Variation in the Fox Sparrow Passerella-Iliaca | journal = Systematic Zoology | volume = 32 | issue = 3| pages = 223–238 | doi=10.2307/2413443| jstor = 2413443 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Zink | first1 = RM | year = 2008 | title = Microsatellite and Mitochondrial DNA Differentiation in the Fox Sparrow | url = | journal = The Condor | volume = 110 | issue = 3| pages = 482–492 | doi=10.1525/cond.2008.8496}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Zink | first1 = RM | year = 2008 | title = Microsatellite and Mitochondrial DNA Differentiation in the Fox Sparrow | journal = The Condor | volume = 110 | issue = 3| pages = 482–492 | doi=10.1525/cond.2008.8496| s2cid = 86360069 | doi-access = free }}
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* {{VIREO|fox+sparrow|Fox sparrow}}


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{{Taxonbar|from=Q422873}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:sparrow, fox}}
[[Category:Passerella|fox sparrow]]
[[Category:Passerella|fox sparrow]]
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[[Category:American sparrows|fox sparrow]]
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[[Category:Native birds of the Western United States]]
[[Category:Native birds of the Western United States]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1786|fox sparrow]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1786|fox sparrow]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Blasius Merrem|fox sparrow]]

Latest revision as of 16:29, 26 June 2024

Fox sparrow
Red fox sparrow (P. i. iliaca), Whitby, Ontario
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Passerellidae
Genus: Passerella
Swainson, 1837
Species:
P. iliaca
Binomial name
Passerella iliaca
(Merrem, 1786)
Breeding ranges of the four fox sparrow groups

The fox sparrow (Passerella iliaca) is a large New World sparrow. It is the only member of the genus Passerella, although some authors split the species into four (see below).

Taxonomy

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Sooty Fox Sparrow
Sooty fox sparrow, Sacramento, California

More specific information regarding plumage is available in the accounts for the various taxa.

  • Red fox sparrow, P. i. iliaca (Merrem, 1786) – this taxon breeds in the taiga of Canada and Alaska and winters in central and eastern North America. This is the brightest colored group.
  • Sooty fox sparrow, P. i. unalaschcensis (Gmelin, JF, 1789) – this taxon breeds along the Pacific coast of North America from the Aleutian Islands south to northwestern Washington, and winters from southeastern Alaska south to northern Baja California. It is browner and darker than the red fox sparrow.
  • Slate-colored fox sparrow, P. i. schistacea Baird, SF, 1858 – this taxon breeds in interior western North America and winters to the south and west. It has a gray head and mantle, brown wings, brown breast streaks, and a russet tail.
  • Thick-billed fox sparrow, P. i. megarhyncha Baird, SF, 1858 – this taxon is mostly restricted to California and Oregon. This group is similar in coloration to the slate-colored fox sparrow, but features a particularly thick bill, as its name suggests.

Description

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Passerella iliaca call
Call
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Adults are among the largest sparrows, heavily spotted and streaked underneath. All feature a messy central breast spot though it is less noticeable on the thick billed and slate-colored varieties. Plumage varies markedly from one group to another.

Measurements[2]:

  • Length: 5.9-7.5 in (15–19 cm)
  • Weight: 0.9-1.6 oz (26-44 g)
  • Wingspan: 10.5-11.4 in (26.7–29 cm)

Behavior

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Fox sparrows are a generally common bird within their range. They forage by scratching the ground which makes them vulnerable to cats and other predators. Most populations of Fox sparrows migrate north for breeding, however some stable populations exist along the west coast of North America.[3][4]

Diet

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They mainly eat seeds and insects, as well as some berries. Coastal fox sparrows may also eat crustaceans.

Reproduction

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Fox sparrows nest in wooded areas across northern Canada and western North America from Alaska to California. They nest either in a sheltered location on the ground or low in trees or shrubs. A nest typically contains two to five pale green to greenish white eggs speckled with reddish brown.[5]

Systematics

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The review by Zink & Weckstein (2003),[6] which added mtDNA cytochrome b, NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 and 3, and D-loop sequence, confirmed the four "subspecies groups"[7] of the fox sparrow that were outlined by the initial limited mtDNA haplotype comparison (Zink 1994).[8] These should probably be recognized as separate species, but this was deferred for further analysis of hybridization. Particularly the contact zones between the slate-colored and thick-billed fox sparrows which are only weakly distinct morphologically were of interest; the other groups were found to be distinct far earlier.[9] A further study of the nuclear genome, using microsatellites, showed similar separation between the four groups.[10]

The combined molecular data is unable to resolve the interrelationship of the subspecies groups and of the subspecies in these, but aids in confirming the distinctness of the thick-billed group.[6] Biogeography indicates that the coastal populations were probably isolated during an epoch of glaciation of the Rocky Mountains range, but this is also not very helpful in resolving the remaining problems of within-group diversity, and inter-group relationships.

Major taxonomic authorities currently differ in their treatment of the fox sparrow complex. The IOC World Bird List/Birds of the World: Recommended English Names and the HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World treat each of the four subspecies groups as a separate species, while eBird/The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World and The Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World currently treat the complex as a single species.[11]

References

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  1. ^ BirdLife International. (2016). "Passerella iliaca". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T103779110A94696453. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T103779110A94696453.en. Retrieved 8 April 2021.
  2. ^ "Fox Sparrow Identification, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology". www.allaboutbirds.org. Retrieved 2020-09-29.
  3. ^ Swarth, H. W. (1920). "Revision of the avian genus Passerella with specia reference to the distribution and migration of the races in California". University of California Publications in Zoology. 21: 75–224.
  4. ^ Bell, C. P. (1997). "Leap-frog migration in the Fox Sparrow: minimizing the cost of spring migration". Condor. 99 (2): 470–477. doi:10.2307/1369953. JSTOR 1369953.
  5. ^ Ehrlich, Paul R.; Dobkin, David S.; Wheye, Darryl (1988). The Birder's Handbook: A Field Guide to the Natural History of North American Birds. New York: Simon and Schuster, Fireside. p. 596. ISBN 0-671-65989-8.
  6. ^ a b Zink, Robert M.; Weckstein, Jason D. (2003). "Recent evolutionary history of the Fox Sparrows (Genus: Passerella)". Auk. 48 (120(2)): 522–527. doi:10.1642/0004-8038(2003)120[0522:REHOTF]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 85871498.
  7. ^ Not defined by the ICZN
  8. ^ Zink, Robert M. (1994). "The Geography of Mitochondrial DNA Variation, Population Structure, hybridization, and Species Limits in the Fox Sparrow (Passerella iliaca)". Evolution. 48 (1): 96–111. doi:10.2307/2410006. JSTOR 2410006. PMID 28567786.
  9. ^ Swarth, H. W. (1920). "Revision of the avian genus Passerella with special reference to the distribution and migration of the races in California". University of California Publications in Zoology. 21: 75–224.
  10. ^ Zink (2008). "Microsatellite and mitochondrial dna differentiation in the fox sparrow". The Condor. 110 (3): 482–492. doi:10.1525/cond.2008.8496. S2CID 86360069.
  11. ^ Lepage, Denis. "Passerella [iliaca, unalaschensis, schistacea or megarhyncha]". Avibase - the world bird database. Retrieved 2017-06-04.

Further reading

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Book

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  • Weckstein, J. D., D. E. Kroodsma, and R. C. Faucett. (2002). Fox Sparrow (Passerella iliaca). The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology; Retrieved from The Birds of North American Online database

Theses

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  • Blacquiere JR. M.Sc. (1980). Some aspects of the breeding biology and vocalizations of the fox sparrow, Passerella iliaca, Merrem, in Newfoundland. Memorial University of Newfoundland (Canada), Canada.
  • Kessen AE. Ph.D. (2004). Population structure in the fox sparrow: An investigation using microsatellites. University of Minnesota, United States—Minnesota.
  • Martin DJ. Ph.D. (1976). STRUCTURE OF SONGS AND ORGANIZATION OF SINGING IN FOX SPARROWS BREEDING IN NORTHERN UTAH AND SOUTHERN IDAHO. Utah State University, United States—Utah.
  • Zink RM. Ph.D. (1983). PATTERNS AND EVOLUTIONARY SIGNIFICANCE OF GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION IN THE SCHISTACEA GROUP OF THE FOX SPARROW (PASSERELLA ILIACA) (OREGON, NEVADA, CALIFORNIA). University of California, Berkeley, United States—California.

Articles

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