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Microalgae or microscopic algae grow in either marine or freshwater systems. They are primary producers in the oceans that convert water and carbon dioxide to biomass and oxygen in the presence of sunlight.^[2]

The oldest documented use of microalgae was 2000 years ago, when the Chinese used the cyanobacteria Nostoc as a food source during a famine.^[3] Another type of microalgae, the cyanobacteria Arthrospira (Spirulina), was a common food source among populations in Chad and Aztecs in Mexico as far back as the 16th century.^[4]

Today cultured microalgae is used as direct feed for humans and land-based farm animals, and as feed for cultured aquatic species such as molluscs and the early larval stages of fish and crustaceans.^[5] It is a potential candidate for biofuel production.^[6] Microalgae can grow 20 or 30 times faster than traditional food crops, and has no need to compete for arable land.^[6]^[7] Since microalgal production is central to so many commercial applications, there is a need for production techniques which increase productivity and are economically profitable.

Commonly cultivated microalgae species

Species	Application
Chaetoceros sp.^[8]	Aquaculture^[8]
Chlorella vulgaris^[9]	Source of natural antioxidants, ^[9]high protein content
Dunaliella salina^[10]	Produce carotenoids (β-carotene)^[10]
Haematococcus sp.^[11]	Produce carotenoids (β-carotene), astaxanthin, canthaxanthin^[11]
Phaeodactylum tricornutum^[9]	Source of antioxidants^[9]
Porphyridium cruentum^[9]	Source of antioxidants^[9]
Rhodella sp.^[8]	Colourant for cosmetics^[8]
Skeletonema sp^[8]	Aquaculture^[8]
Arthrospira maxima^[12]	High protein content – Nutritional supplement^[12]
Arthrospira platensis^[12]	High protein content – Nutritional supplement^[12]

Hatchery production techniques

A range of microalgae species are produced in hatcheries and are used in a variety of ways for commercial purposes. Studies have estimated main factors in the success of a microalgae hatchery system as the dimensions of the container/bioreactor where microalgae is cultured, exposure to light/irradiation and concentration of cells within the reactor.^[13]

Open pond system

This method has been employed since the 1950s across the CONUS.^[14] There are two main advantages of culturing microalgae using the open pond system.^[15] Firstly, an open pond system is easier to build and operate.^[15] Secondly, open ponds are cheaper than closed bioreactors because closed bioreactors require a cooling system.^[15] However, a downside to using open pond systems is decreased productivity of certain commercially important strains such as Arthrospira sp., where optimal growth is limited by temperature.^[13] That said, it is possible to use waste heat and CO₂ from industrial sources to compensate this.^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19]

Air-lift method

This method is used in outdoor cultivation and production of microalgae; where air is moved within a system in order to circulate water where microalgae is growing.^[15] The culture is grown in transparent tubes that lie horizontally on the ground and are connected by a network of pipes.^[15] Air is passed through the tube such that air escapes from the end that rests inside the reactor that contains the culture and creates an effect like stirring.^[15]

Closed reactors

The biggest advantage of culturing microalgae within a closed system provides control over the physical, chemical and biological environment of the culture.^[13] This means factors that are difficult to control in open pond systems such as evaporation, temperature gradients and protection from ambient contamination make closed reactors favoured over open systems.^[13] Photobioreactors are the primary example of a closed system where abiotic factors can be controlled for. Several closed systems have been tested to date for the purposes of culturing microalgae, few important ones are mentioned below:

Horizontal photobioreactors

This system includes tubes laid on the ground to form a network of loops. Mixing of microalgal suspended culture occurs through a pump that raises the culture vertically at timed intervals into a photobioreactor. Studies have found pulsed mixing at intervals produces better results than the use of continuous mixing. Photobioreactors have also been associated with better production than open pond systems as they can maintain better temperature gradients.^[13] An example noted in higher production of Arthrospira sp. used as a dietary supplement was attributed to higher productivity because of a better suited temperature range and an extended cultivation period over summer months.^[13]

Vertical systems

These reactors use vertical polyethylene sleeves hung from an iron frame. Glass tubes can also be used alternatively. Microalgae are also cultured in vertical alveolar panels (VAP) that are a type of photobioreactor.^[13] This photobioreactor is characterised by low productivity. However, this problem can be overcome by modifying the surface area to volume ratio; where a higher ratio can increase productivity.^[13] Mixing and deoxygenation are drawbacks of this system and can be addressed by bubbling air continuously at a mean flow rate. The two main types of vertical photobioreactors are the Flow-through VAP and the Bubble Column VAP.^[13]

In darkness

By using an electrocatalytic process to produce acetate from water, electricity and carbon dioxide, which is then used by the algae as food source, sunlight and photosynthesis is no longer required. The method is still at an early stage, but experiments with algae like Chlamydomonas reinhardtii have turned out to be promising.^[20]^[21]

Flat plate reactors

Flat plate reactors(FPR) are built using narrow panels and are placed horizontally to maximise sunlight input to the system.^[22] The concept behind FPR is to increase the surface area to volume ratio such that sunlight is efficiently used.^[15]^[22] This system of microalgae culture was originally thought to be expensive and incapable of circulating the culture.^[22] Therefore, FPRs were considered to be unfeasible overall for the commercial production of microalgae. However, an experimental FPR system in the 1980s used circulation within the culture from a gas exchange unit across horizontal panels.^[22] This overcomes issues of circulation and provides an advantage of an open gas transfer unit that reduces oxygen build up.^[22] Examples of successful use of FPRs can be seen in the production of Nannochloropsis sp. used for its high levels of astaxanthin.^[23]

Fermentor-type reactors

Fermentor-type reactors (FTR) are bioreactors where fermentation is carried out. FTRs have not developed hugely in the cultivation of microalgae and pose a disadvantage in the surface area to volume ratio and a decreased efficiency in utilizing sunlight.^[15]^[22] FTR have been developed using a combination of sun and artificial light have led to lowering production costs.^[22] However, information available on large scale counterparts to the laboratory-scale systems being developed is very limited.^[22] The main advantage is that extrinsic factors i.e. light can be controlled for and productivity can be enhanced so that FTR can become an alternative for products for the pharmaceutical industry.^[22]

Commercial applications

Use in aquaculture

Microalgae is used to culture brine shrimp, which produce dormant eggs (pictured). The eggs can then be hatched on demand and feed to cultured fish larvae and crustaceans.

Microalgae is an important source of nutrition and is used widely in the aquaculture of other organisms, either directly or as an added source of basic nutrients. Aquaculture farms rearing larvae of molluscs, echinoderms, crustaceans and fish use microalgae as a source of nutrition. Low bacteria and high microalgal biomass is a crucial food source for shellfish aquaculture.^[24]

Microalgae can form the start of a chain of further aquaculture processes. For example, microalgae is an important food source in the aquaculture of brine shrimp. Brine shrimp produce dormant eggs, called cysts, which can be stored for long periods and then hatched on demand to provide a convenient form of live feed for the aquaculture of larval fish and crustaceans.^[25]^[26]

Other applications of microalgae within aquaculture include increasing the aesthetic appeal of finfish bred in captivity.^[24] One such example can be noted in the aquaculture of salmon, where microalgae is used to make salmon flesh pinker.^[24] This is achieved by the addition of natural pigments containing carotenoids such as astaxanthin produced from the microalgae Haematococcus to the diet of farmed animals.^[27] Two microalgae species, I. galbana and C. calcitrans are mostly composed of proteins, which are used to brighten the color of salmon and related species.^[28]

Human nutrition

The main species of microalgae grown as health foods are Chlorella and Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis). The main forms of production occur in small scale ponds with artificial mixers.^[10] Arthrospira platensis is a blue-green microalga with a long history as a food source in East Africa and pre-colonial Mexico. Spirulina is high in protein and other nutrients, finding use as a food supplement and for malnutrition. It thrives in open systems and commercial growers have found it well-suited to cultivation. One of the largest production sites is Lake Texcoco in central Mexico.^[29] The plants produce a variety of nutrients and high amounts of protein, and is often used commercially as a nutritional supplement.^[30]^[31] Chlorella has similar nutrition to spirulina, and is very popular in Japan. It is also used as a nutritional supplement, with possible effects on metabolic rate.^[32]

Production of long chain omega-3 fatty acids important for human diet can also be cultured through microalgal hatchery systems.^[33]

Australian scientists at Flinders University in Adelaide have been experimenting with using marine microalgae to produce proteins for human consumption, creating products like "caviar", vegan burgers, fake meat, jams and other food spreads. By manipulating microalgae in a laboratory, the protein and other nutrient contents could be increased, and flavours changed to make them more palatable. These foods leave a much lighter carbon footprint than other forms of protein, as the microalgae absorb rather than produce carbon dioxide, which contributes to the greenhouse gases.^[34]

Biofuel production

In order to meet the demands of fossil fuels, alternative means of fuels are being investigated. Biodiesel and bioethanol are renewable biofuels with much potential that are important in current research. However, agriculture based renewable fuels may not be completely sustainable and thus may not be able to replace fossil fuels. Microalgae can be remarkably rich in oils (up to 80% dry weight of biomass) suitable for conversion to fuel. Furthermore, microalgae are more productive than land based agricultural crops and could therefore be more sustainable in the long run. Microalgae for biofuel production is mainly produced using tubular photobioreactors.^[2]

Pharmaceuticals and cosmetics

Novel bioactive chemical compounds can be isolated from microalgae like sulphated polysaccharides. These compounds include fucoidans, carrageenans and ulvans that are used for their beneficial properties. These properties are anticoagulants, antioxidants, anticancer agents that are being tested medical research.^[35]

Red microalgae are characterised by pigments called phycobiliproteins that contain natural colourants used in pharmaceuticals and/or cosmetics.^[36]

Biofertilizer

Blue green alga was first used as a means of fixing nitrogen by allowing cyanobacteria to multiply in the soil, acting as a biofertilizer. Nitrogen fixation is important as a means of allowing inorganic compounds such as nitrogen to be converted to organic forms which can then be used by plants.^[37] The use of cyanobacteria is an economically sound and environmentally friendly method of increasing productivity.^[38] This method has been use for rice production in India and Iran, using the nitrogen fixing properties of free living cyanobacteria to supplement nitrogen content in soils.^[37]^[38]

Other uses

Microalgae are a source of valuable molecules such as isotopes i.e. chemical variants of an element that contain different neutrons. Microalgae can effectively incorporate isotopes of carbon (¹³C), nitrogen (¹⁵N) and hydrogen (²H) into their biomass.^[39] ¹³C and ¹⁵N are used to track the flow of carbon between different trophic levels/food webs.^[40] Carbon, nitrogen and sulphur isotopes can also be used to determine disturbances to bottom dwelling communities that are otherwise difficult to study.^[40]

Issues

Cell fragility is the biggest issue that limits the productivity from closed photobioreactors.^[41] Damage to cells can be attributed to the turbulent flow within the bioreactor which is required to create mixing so light is available to all cells.^[41]

References

^ Khawam, George; Waller, Peter; Gao, Song; Edmundson, Scott J.; Wigmosta, Mark S.; Ogden, Kimberly (May 2019). "Model of temperature, evaporation, and productivity in elevated experimental algae raceways and comparison with commercial raceways". Algal Research. 39: 101448. Bibcode:2019AlgRe..3901448K. doi:10.1016/j.algal.2019.101448. ISSN 2211-9264. OSTI 1581776. S2CID 92558441.
^ ^a ^b Yusuf Chisti (2008). "Biodiesel from microalgae beats bioethanol" (PDF). Trends in Biotechnology. 26 (3): 126–131. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2007.12.002. PMID 18221809. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-05-13. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
^ Pauline Spolaore; Claire Joannis-Cassan; Elie Duran; Arsène Isambert (2006). "Commercial applications of microalgae" (PDF). Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering. 101 (2): 87–96. doi:10.1263/jbb.101.87. PMID 16569602. S2CID 16896655. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-03. Retrieved 2011-10-13.
^ Whitton, B., and M. Potts. 2000. The ecology of Cyanobacteria: their diversity in time and space p. 506, Kluwer Academic. ISBN 978-0-7923-4735-4.
^ Barnabé, Gilbert (1994) Aquaculture: biology and ecology of cultured species p. 53, Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-13-482316-4.
^ ^a ^b Greenwell, HC; Laurens, LML; Shields, RJ; Lovitt, RW; Flynn, KJ (2010). "Placing microalgae on the biofuels priority list: a review of the technological challenges". J. R. Soc. Interface. 7 (46): 703–726. doi:10.1098/rsif.2009.0322. PMC 2874236. PMID 20031983.
^ McDill, Stuart (2009-02-10). "Can algae save the world – again?". Reuters. Retrieved 2009-02-10.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f John Milledge (2011). "Commercial application of microalgae other than as biofuels: a brief review". Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology. 10 (1): 31–41. Bibcode:2011RESBT..10...31M. doi:10.1007/s11157-010-9214-7. S2CID 85366788.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Ignacio Rodriguez-Garcia; Jose Luis Guil-Guerrero (2008). "Evaluation of the antioxidant activity of three microalgal species for use as dietary supplements and in the preservation of foods". Food Chemistry. 108 (3): 1023–1026. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.11.059. PMID 26065767.
^ ^a ^b ^c Michael A. Borowitzka (1999). "Commercial production of microalgae: ponds, tanks, tubes and fermenters". Journal of Biotechnology. 70 (1–3): 313–321. doi:10.1016/S0168-1656(99)00083-8.
^ ^a ^b Laurent Dufossé; Patrick Galaup; Anina Yaron; Shoshana Malis Arad; Philippe Blanc; Kotamballi N. Chidambara Murthy; Gokare A. Ravishankar (2005). "Microorganisms and microalgae as sources of pigments for food use: a scientific oddity or an industrial reality?". Trends in Food Science and Technology. 16 (9): 389–406. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2005.02.006.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Avigad Vonshak; Luisa Tomaselli (2000). "Arthrospira (Spirulina): systematics and ecophysiology". In Brian A. Whitton; Malcolm Potts (eds.). The Ecology of Cyanobacteria: their Diversity in Time and Space. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 505–522. ISBN 978-0-7923-4735-4.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ M. Tredici; R. Materassi (1992). "From open ponds to vertical alveolar panels: the Italian experience in the development of reactors for the mass cultivation of phototrophic microorganisms". Journal of Applied Phycology. 4 (3): 221–231. Bibcode:1992JAPco...4..221T. doi:10.1007/BF02161208. S2CID 20554506.
^ Sun, Ning; Skaggs, Richard L.; Wigmosta, Mark S.; Coleman, André M.; Huesemann, Michael H.; Edmundson, Scott J. (July 2020). "Growth modeling to evaluate alternative cultivation strategies to enhance national microalgal biomass production". Algal Research. 49: 101939. Bibcode:2020AlgRe..4901939S. doi:10.1016/j.algal.2020.101939. ISSN 2211-9264. S2CID 219431866.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Amos Richmond (1986). Handbook of Microalgal Mass Culture. Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-3240-1.
^ Costa, Jorge Alberto Vieira; Freitas, Bárbara Catarina Bastos de; Lisboa, Cristiane Reinaldo; Santos, Thaisa Duarte; Brusch, Lucio Renato de Fraga; De Morais, Michele Greque (2019). "Microalgal biorefinery from CO2 and the effects under the Blue Economy". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 99: 58–65. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2018.08.009. S2CID 115448212.
^ Culture of microalga Spirulina platensis in alternative sources of nutrients
^ Costa, Jorge Alberto Vieira; Freitas, Bárbara Catarina Bastos; Santos, Thaisa Duarte; Mitchell, Bryan Gregory; Morais, Michele Greque (2019). "Open pond systems for microalgal culture". Biofuels from Algae. pp. 199–223. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-64192-2.00009-3. ISBN 9780444641922. S2CID 146179919.
^ De Morais, Michele Greque; De Freitas, Bárbara Catarina Bastos; Moraes, Luiza; Pereira, Aline Massia; Costa, Jorge Alberto Vieira (2019). "Liquid Biofuels from Microalgae: Recent Trends". Advanced Bioprocessing for Alternative Fuels, Biobased Chemicals, and Bioproducts. pp. 351–372. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-817941-3.00018-8. ISBN 9780128179413. S2CID 134527132.
^ Cultivating Crops, No Sun Required - Modern Farmer
^ Hann, Elizabeth C.; Overa, Sean; Harland-Dunaway, Marcus; Narvaez, Andrés F.; Le, Dang N.; Orozco-Cárdenas, Martha L.; Jiao, Feng; Jinkerson, Robert E. (2022). "A hybrid inorganic–biological artificial photosynthesis system for energy-efficient food production". Nature Food. 3 (6): 461–471. doi:10.1038/s43016-022-00530-x. PMID 37118051. S2CID 250004816.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Ana P. Carvalho; Luís A. Meireles; F. Xavier Malcata (2006). "Microalgal reactors: a review of enclosed system designs and performances". Biotechnology Progress. 22 (6): 1490–1506. doi:10.1021/bp060065r. hdl:10400.14/6717. PMID 17137294. S2CID 10362553.
^ Amos Richmond; Zhang Cheng-Wu (2001). "Optimization of a flat plate glass reactor for mass production of Nannochloropsis sp. outdoors". Journal of Biotechnology. 85 (3): 259–269. doi:10.1016/S0168-1656(00)00353-9. PMID 11173093.
^ ^a ^b ^c Arnaud Muller-Feuga (2000). "The role of microalgae in aquaculture: situation and trends" (PDF). Journal of Applied Phycology. 12 (3): 527–534. doi:10.1023/A:1008106304417. S2CID 8495961.
^ Martin Daintith (1996). Rotifers and Artemia for Marine Aquaculture: a Training Guide. University of Tasmania. OCLC 222006176.
^ Odi Zmora; Muki Shpigel (2006). "Intensive mass production of Artemia in a recirculated system". Aquaculture. 255 (1–4): 488–494. Bibcode:2006Aquac.255..488Z. doi:10.1016/j.aquaculture.2006.01.018.
^ R. Todd Lorenz; Gerald R. Cysewski (2000). "Commercial potential for Haematococcus microalgae as a natural source of astaxanthin" (PDF). Trends in Biotechnology. 18 (4): 160–167. doi:10.1016/S0167-7799(00)01433-5. PMID 10740262.
^ Natrah, F. M. I.; Yusoff, F. M.; Shariff, M.; Abas, F.; Mariana, N. S. (December 2007). "Screening of Malaysian indigenous microalgae for antioxidant properties and nutritional value". Journal of Applied Phycology. 19 (6): 711–718. Bibcode:2007JAPco..19..711N. doi:10.1007/s10811-007-9192-5. ISSN 0921-8971. S2CID 42873936.
^ Yenni Kwok. "The Imp With a Mighty Kick". Asia Week. CNN.tv.
^ "Aphanizomenon Flos-Aquae Blue Green Algae". Energy For Life Wellness Center. Archived from the original on 2006-04-26. Retrieved 2006-08-29.
^ "Nutritional value of micro-algae". United States Fisheries Department. Archived from the original on 26 August 2006. Retrieved 2006-08-29.
^ "Chlorella Growth Factor, nutritional supplement".
^ W. Barclay; K. Meager; J. Abril (1994). "Heterotrophic production of long chain omega-3 fatty acids utilizing algae and algae-like microorganisms". Journal of Applied Phycology. 6 (2): 123–129. Bibcode:1994JAPco...6..123B. doi:10.1007/BF02186066. S2CID 8634817.
^ Leckie, Evelyn (14 Jan 2021). "Adelaide scientists turn marine microalgae into 'superfoods' to substitute animal proteins". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 17 Jan 2021.
^ Isuru Wijesekara; Ratih Pangestuti; Se-Kwon Kim (2010). "Biological activities and potential health benefits of sulfated polysaccharides derived from marine algae". Carbohydrate Polymers. 84 (1): 14–21. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.10.062.
^ S. Arad; A. Yaron (1992). "Natural pigments from red microalgae for use in foods and cosmetics". Trends in Food Science & Technology. 3: 92–97. doi:10.1016/0924-2244(92)90145-M.
^ ^a ^b H. Saadatnia; H. Riahi (2009). "Cyanobacteria from paddy fields in Iran as a biofertilizer in rice plants". Plant, Soil and Environment. 55 (5): 207–212. doi:10.17221/384-PSE.
^ ^a ^b Upasana Mishra; Sunil Pabbi (2004). "Cyanobacteria: a potential biofertilizer for rice" (PDF). Resonance. 9 (6): 6–10. doi:10.1007/BF02839213. S2CID 121561783.
^ Richard Radmer; Bruce Parker (1994). "Commercial applications of algae: opportunities and constraints". Journal of Applied Phycology. 6 (2): 93–98. Bibcode:1994JAPco...6...93R. doi:10.1007/BF02186062. S2CID 9060288.
^ ^a ^b B. J. Peterson (1999). "Stable isotopes as tracers of organic matter input and transfer in benthic food webs: a review". Acta Oecologica. 20 (4): 479–487. Bibcode:1999AcO....20..479P. doi:10.1016/S1146-609X(99)00120-4.
^ ^a ^b Claude Gudin; Daniel Chaumont (1991). "Cell fragility — the key problem of microalgae mass production in closed photobioreactors". Bioresource Technology. 38 (2–3): 145–151. Bibcode:1991BiTec..38..145G. doi:10.1016/0960-8524(91)90146-B.

[:0-1] Khawam, George; Waller, Peter; Gao, Song; Edmundson, Scott J.; Wigmosta, Mark S.; Ogden, Kimberly (May 2019). "Model of temperature, evaporation, and productivity in elevated experimental algae raceways and comparison with commercial raceways". Algal Research. 39: 101448. Bibcode:2019AlgRe..3901448K. doi:10.1016/j.algal.2019.101448. ISSN 2211-9264. OSTI 1581776. S2CID 92558441.

[Chisti_2008-2] Yusuf Chisti (2008). "Biodiesel from microalgae beats bioethanol" (PDF). Trends in Biotechnology. 26 (3): 126–131. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2007.12.002. PMID 18221809. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-05-13. Retrieved 2011-09-30.

[Spolaore-3] Pauline Spolaore; Claire Joannis-Cassan; Elie Duran; Arsène Isambert (2006). "Commercial applications of microalgae" (PDF). Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering. 101 (2): 87–96. doi:10.1263/jbb.101.87. PMID 16569602. S2CID 16896655. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-03. Retrieved 2011-10-13.

[Whitton_&_Potts,_2000-4] Whitton, B., and M. Potts. 2000. The ecology of Cyanobacteria: their diversity in time and space p. 506, Kluwer Academic. ISBN 978-0-7923-4735-4.

[5] Barnabé, Gilbert (1994) Aquaculture: biology and ecology of cultured species p. 53, Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-13-482316-4.

[Greenwell2010-6] Greenwell, HC; Laurens, LML; Shields, RJ; Lovitt, RW; Flynn, KJ (2010). "Placing microalgae on the biofuels priority list: a review of the technological challenges". J. R. Soc. Interface. 7 (46): 703–726. doi:10.1098/rsif.2009.0322. PMC 2874236. PMID 20031983.

[Reuters-7] McDill, Stuart (2009-02-10). "Can algae save the world – again?". Reuters. Retrieved 2009-02-10.

[Milledge_2011-8] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f John Milledge (2011). "Commercial application of microalgae other than as biofuels: a brief review". Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology. 10 (1): 31–41. Bibcode:2011RESBT..10...31M. doi:10.1007/s11157-010-9214-7. S2CID 85366788.

[Rodriguez-Garcia_2007-9] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Ignacio Rodriguez-Garcia; Jose Luis Guil-Guerrero (2008). "Evaluation of the antioxidant activity of three microalgal species for use as dietary supplements and in the preservation of foods". Food Chemistry. 108 (3): 1023–1026. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.11.059. PMID 26065767.

[Borowitzka_1999-10] Michael A. Borowitzka (1999). "Commercial production of microalgae: ponds, tanks, tubes and fermenters". Journal of Biotechnology. 70 (1–3): 313–321. doi:10.1016/S0168-1656(99)00083-8.

[Dufossé-11] Laurent Dufossé; Patrick Galaup; Anina Yaron; Shoshana Malis Arad; Philippe Blanc; Kotamballi N. Chidambara Murthy; Gokare A. Ravishankar (2005). "Microorganisms and microalgae as sources of pigments for food use: a scientific oddity or an industrial reality?". Trends in Food Science and Technology. 16 (9): 389–406. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2005.02.006.

[Vonshank_&_Tomaselli_2002-12] Avigad Vonshak; Luisa Tomaselli (2000). "Arthrospira (Spirulina): systematics and ecophysiology". In Brian A. Whitton; Malcolm Potts (eds.). The Ecology of Cyanobacteria: their Diversity in Time and Space. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 505–522. ISBN 978-0-7923-4735-4.

[Tredici_&_Materassi_1992-13] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ M. Tredici; R. Materassi (1992). "From open ponds to vertical alveolar panels: the Italian experience in the development of reactors for the mass cultivation of phototrophic microorganisms". Journal of Applied Phycology. 4 (3): 221–231. Bibcode:1992JAPco...4..221T. doi:10.1007/BF02161208. S2CID 20554506.

[14] Sun, Ning; Skaggs, Richard L.; Wigmosta, Mark S.; Coleman, André M.; Huesemann, Michael H.; Edmundson, Scott J. (July 2020). "Growth modeling to evaluate alternative cultivation strategies to enhance national microalgal biomass production". Algal Research. 49: 101939. Bibcode:2020AlgRe..4901939S. doi:10.1016/j.algal.2020.101939. ISSN 2211-9264. S2CID 219431866.

[Richmond_1986-15] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Amos Richmond (1986). Handbook of Microalgal Mass Culture. Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-3240-1.

[16] Costa, Jorge Alberto Vieira; Freitas, Bárbara Catarina Bastos de; Lisboa, Cristiane Reinaldo; Santos, Thaisa Duarte; Brusch, Lucio Renato de Fraga; De Morais, Michele Greque (2019). "Microalgal biorefinery from CO2 and the effects under the Blue Economy". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 99: 58–65. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2018.08.009. S2CID 115448212.

[17] Culture of microalga Spirulina platensis in alternative sources of nutrients

[18] Costa, Jorge Alberto Vieira; Freitas, Bárbara Catarina Bastos; Santos, Thaisa Duarte; Mitchell, Bryan Gregory; Morais, Michele Greque (2019). "Open pond systems for microalgal culture". Biofuels from Algae. pp. 199–223. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-64192-2.00009-3. ISBN 9780444641922. S2CID 146179919.

[19] De Morais, Michele Greque; De Freitas, Bárbara Catarina Bastos; Moraes, Luiza; Pereira, Aline Massia; Costa, Jorge Alberto Vieira (2019). "Liquid Biofuels from Microalgae: Recent Trends". Advanced Bioprocessing for Alternative Fuels, Biobased Chemicals, and Bioproducts. pp. 351–372. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-817941-3.00018-8. ISBN 9780128179413. S2CID 134527132.

[20] Cultivating Crops, No Sun Required - Modern Farmer

[21] Hann, Elizabeth C.; Overa, Sean; Harland-Dunaway, Marcus; Narvaez, Andrés F.; Le, Dang N.; Orozco-Cárdenas, Martha L.; Jiao, Feng; Jinkerson, Robert E. (2022). "A hybrid inorganic–biological artificial photosynthesis system for energy-efficient food production". Nature Food. 3 (6): 461–471. doi:10.1038/s43016-022-00530-x. PMID 37118051. S2CID 250004816.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+[[File:Microalgenkwekerij te Heure bij Borculo.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Raceway pond]] used to cultivate microalgae.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Khawam |first1=George |last2=Waller |first2=Peter |last3=Gao |first3=Song |last4=Edmundson |first4=Scott J. |last5=Wigmosta |first5=Mark S. |last6=Ogden |first6=Kimberly |date=May 2019 |title=Model of temperature, evaporation, and productivity in elevated experimental algae raceways and comparison with commercial raceways |journal=Algal Research |volume=39 |pages=101448 |doi=10.1016/j.algal.2019.101448 |osti=1581776 |s2cid=92558441 |issn=2211-9264|doi-access=free |bibcode=2019AlgRe..3901448K }}</ref> The water is kept in constant motion with a powered [[Paddlewheel aerator|paddle wheel]].]]
-[[Microalgae]] or microscopic algae grow in either marine or freshwater systems. They are primary producers in the oceans that convert water and carbon dioxide to biomass and oxygen in the presence of sunlight <ref name="Chisti 2008">Chisti 2008</ref> Through this process of [[photosynthesis]], microalgae contribute approximately 70% of oxygen to the Earth’s atmosphere. Some species of microalgae can also fix nitrogen to a form which makes it easily accessible for cells <ref name="Cooper 1996">Cooper 1996</ref>. Further, being [[primary producers]], microalgae are a food source for higher [[trophic levels]] in marine [[food webs]] such as small bottom dwelling organisms and organisms in the water column <ref name="Cooper 1996"/>.
+[[Microalgae]] or microscopic algae grow in either marine or freshwater systems. They are [[primary producer]]s in the oceans that convert water and carbon dioxide to [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] and oxygen in the presence of sunlight.<ref name="Chisti 2008">{{cite journal |author=Yusuf Chisti |year=2008 |title=Biodiesel from microalgae beats bioethanol |journal=[[Trends in Biotechnology]] |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=126–131 |pmid=18221809 |doi=10.1016/j.tibtech.2007.12.002 |url=http://www.massey.ac.nz/~ychisti/Trends08.pdf |access-date=2011-09-30 |archive-date=2022-05-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220513183958/https://www.massey.ac.nz/~ychisti/Trends08.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
-Classification of microalgae is complicated because certain forms have animal as well as plant-like characteristics; similarly, some colourful strains have colourless counterparts <ref name="Cooper 1996"/>. Some of the main types of microalgae are cyanobacteria or ([[blue-green algae]]) which are [[unicellular]] [[microorganisms]], [[rhodophytes]] (red algae), [[chlorophytes]] (green algae), xanthophytes (yellow-green algae), [[chrysophytes]] (yellow-brown algae) and phaeophytes (brown algae) <ref name="Cooper 1996"/>. However, basing microalgal classification on colour alone can create problems since there are several variations between certain strains <ref name="Cooper 1996"/>.
-The oldest documented use of microalgae was 2000 years ago, when the Chinese used the [[cyanobacteria]] ''[[Nostoc]]'' as a food source during a famine <ref name=” Spolaore, P. et al. 2006”> Spolaore, P et al. Commercial applications of microalgae. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 101(2), 87-96.</ref>. Another type of microalgae was the cyanobacteria ''Arthospira'', was a common food source among populations in Chad and Aztecs in Mexico as far back as the 16th century <ref name=”Whitton & Potts, 2000”> Whitton, B., and M. Potts. 2000. The ecology of Cyanobacteria: their diversity in time and space. Kluwer Academic.</ref>.
+The oldest documented use of microalgae was 2000 years ago, when the Chinese used the [[cyanobacteria]] ''[[Nostoc]]'' as a food source during a famine.<ref name="Spolaore">{{cite journal |author1=Pauline Spolaore |author2=Claire Joannis-Cassan |author3=Elie Duran |author4=Arsène Isambert |year=2006 |title=Commercial applications of microalgae |journal=Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=87–96 |pmid=16569602 |url=https://wiki.umn.edu/pub/Biodiesel/WebHome/Commercial_Applications_of_Microalgae.pdf |doi=10.1263/jbb.101.87 |s2cid=16896655 |access-date=2011-10-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403093559/https://wiki.umn.edu/pub/Biodiesel/WebHome/Commercial_Applications_of_Microalgae.pdf |archive-date=2012-04-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Another type of microalgae, the cyanobacteria ''[[Arthrospira]]'' ([[Spirulina (dietary supplement)|Spirulina]]), was a common food source among populations in Chad and Aztecs in Mexico as far back as the 16th century.<ref name="Whitton & Potts, 2000">Whitton, B., and M. Potts. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=OKkTQaZZ_DQC&q=%22The+ecology+of+Cyanobacteria:+their+diversity+in+time+and+space%22 ''The ecology of Cyanobacteria: their diversity in time and space''] p. 506, Kluwer Academic. {{ISBN|978-0-7923-4735-4}}.</ref>
-Today microalgal production is central to a range of commercial applications, highlighting the need for production techniques to enhance productivity along with being economically feasible.
+Today cultured microalgae is used as direct feed for humans and land-based farm animals, and as feed for cultured aquatic species  such as molluscs and the early larval stages of fish and crustaceans.<ref>Barnabé, Gilbert (1994) [https://books.google.com/books?id=EQy09PHP70gC&dq=%22culture+of+microalgae%22&pg=PA53 ''Aquaculture: biology and ecology of cultured species''] p. 53, Taylor & Francis. {{ISBN|978-0-13-482316-4}}.</ref> It is a potential candidate for [[biofuel]] production.<ref name=Greenwell2010 /> Microalgae can grow 20 or 30 times faster than traditional food crops, and has no need to compete for arable land.<ref name=Greenwell2010>{{cite journal | last1 = Greenwell | first1 = HC | last2 = Laurens | first2 = LML | last3 = Shields | first3 = RJ | last4 = Lovitt | first4 = RW |last5 = Flynn |first5 = KJ | year = 2010 | title = Placing microalgae on the biofuels priority list: a review of the technological challenges | url = http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/7/46/703.full | journal = J. R. Soc. Interface | volume = 7 | issue = 46| pages = 703–726 | doi = 10.1098/rsif.2009.0322 | pmid = 20031983 | pmc = 2874236 }}</ref><ref name="Reuters">{{cite news | url= https://www.reuters.com/article/environmentNews/idUSTRE5196HB20090210?pageNumber=2&virtualBrandChannel=0  | title= Can algae save the world – again? | last= McDill | first= Stuart | date= 2009-02-10 | publisher= [[Reuters]] | access-date= 2009-02-10 }}</ref> Since microalgal production is central to so many commercial applications, there is a need for production techniques which increase productivity and are economically profitable.
+==Commonly cultivated microalgae species==
+[[File:Gephyrocapsa oceanica color.jpg|thumb|right|Microalgae are microscopic forms of [[algae]], like this [[coccolithophore]] which are between 5 and 100 micrometres across]]
-==Commonly Cultivated Microalgae Species==
 {| class="wikitable"
 |-
 ! Species !! Application
 |-
-| ''Chaetoceros sp.''<ref name="Milledge 2011">Milledge 2011</ref> || [[Aquaculture]]<ref name="Milledge 2011"/>
+| ''Chaetoceros sp.''<ref name="Milledge 2011">{{cite journal |author=John Milledge |year=2011 |title=Commercial application of microalgae other than as biofuels: a brief review |journal=Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=31–41 |doi=10.1007/s11157-010-9214-7|bibcode=2011RESBT..10...31M |s2cid=85366788 }}</ref> || [[Aquaculture]]<ref name="Milledge 2011"/>
 |-
-| ''[[Chlorella]] vulgaris''<ref name="Rodriguez-Garcia 2007">Rodriguez-Garcia 2007</ref> || Source of natural [[antioxidants]]<ref name="Rodriguez-Garcia 2007"/>
+| ''[[Chlorella]] vulgaris''<ref name="Rodriguez-Garcia 2007">{{cite journal |author1=Ignacio Rodriguez-Garcia |author2=Jose Luis Guil-Guerrero |year=2008 |title=Evaluation of the antioxidant activity of three microalgal species for use as dietary supplements and in the preservation of foods |journal=[[Food Chemistry (journal)|Food Chemistry]] |volume=108 |issue=3 |pages=1023–1026 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.11.059|pmid=26065767 }}</ref> || Source of natural [[antioxidants]], <ref name="Rodriguez-Garcia 2007"/>high protein content
 |-
-| ''[[Dunaliella salina]]''<ref name="Borowitzka 1990">Borowitzka 1990</ref> || Produce [[carotenoids]] ([[β-carotene]])<ref name="Borowitzka 1990"/>
+| ''[[Dunaliella salina]]''<ref name="Borowitzka_1999"/> || Produce [[carotenoids]] ([[β-carotene]])<ref name="Borowitzka_1999"/>
 |-
-| ''[[Haematococcus]] sp.''<ref name="Dufossé ''et al.'' 2005">Dufossé ''et al.'' 2005</ref> || Produce [[carotenoids]] ([[β-carotene]]), [[astaxanthin]], [[canthaxanthin]]<ref name="Dufossé ''et al.'' 2005"/>
+| ''[[Haematococcus]] sp.''<ref name="Dufossé">{{cite journal |author1=Laurent Dufossé |author2=Patrick Galaup |author3=Anina Yaron |author4=Shoshana Malis Arad |author5=Philippe Blanc |author6=Kotamballi N. Chidambara Murthy |author7=Gokare A. Ravishankar |year=2005 |title=Microorganisms and microalgae as sources of pigments for food use: a scientific oddity or an industrial reality? |journal=[[Trends in Food Science and Technology]] |volume=16 |issue=9 |pages=389–406 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2005.02.006}}</ref> || Produce [[carotenoids]] ([[β-carotene]]), [[astaxanthin]], [[canthaxanthin]]<ref name="Dufossé"/>
 |-
 | ''Phaeodactylum tricornutum''<ref name="Rodriguez-Garcia 2007"/> || Source of antioxidants<ref name="Rodriguez-Garcia 2007"/>
 |-
-| ''Porphyridium cruentum''<ref name="Rodriguez-Garcia 2007"/> || Source of [[antioxidants]]<ref name="Rodriguez-Garcia 2007"/>
+| ''[[Porphyridium cruentum]]''<ref name="Rodriguez-Garcia 2007"/> || Source of [[antioxidants]]<ref name="Rodriguez-Garcia 2007"/>
 |-
 | ''[[Rhodella]] sp.''<ref name="Milledge 2011"/> || Colourant for [[cosmetics]]<ref name="Milledge 2011"/>
 |-
 | ''Skeletonema sp''<ref name="Milledge 2011"/> || [[Aquaculture]]<ref name="Milledge 2011"/>
 |-
-| ''[[Spirulina]] maxima''<ref name="Vonshank & Tomaselli 2002">Vonshank & Tomaselli 2002</ref> || High [[protein]] content - [[Nutrition]]al supplement<ref name="Vonshank & Tomaselli 2002"/>
+| ''[[Arthrospira]] maxima''<ref name="Vonshank & Tomaselli 2002">{{cite book |editor1=Brian A. Whitton |editor2=Malcolm Potts |year=2000 |title=The Ecology of Cyanobacteria: their Diversity in Time and Space |author1=Avigad Vonshak |author2=Luisa Tomaselli |chapter=''Arthrospira'' (''Spirulina''): systematics and ecophysiology |pages=505–522 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OKkTQaZZ_DQC&q=%22The+ecology+of+Cyanobacteria:+their+diversity+in+time+and+space%22 |location=Boston |publisher=[[Kluwer Academic Publishers]] |isbn=978-0-7923-4735-4}}</ref> || High [[protein]] content – [[Nutrition]]al supplement<ref name="Vonshank & Tomaselli 2002"/>
 |-
-| ''[[Spirulina]] platensis''<ref name="Vonshank & Tomaselli 2002"/> || High protein content - [[Nutrition]]al supplement<ref name="Vonshank & Tomaselli 2002"/>
+| ''[[Arthrospira]] platensis''<ref name="Vonshank & Tomaselli 2002"/> || High protein content – [[Nutrition]]al supplement<ref name="Vonshank & Tomaselli 2002"/>
 |}
+{{clear}}
-==Hatchery Production Techniques==
-A range of microalgae species are produced in hatcheries and are used in a variety of ways for commercial purposes. Studies have estimated main factors in the success of a microalgae hatchery system as the dimensions of the container/[http://goldbook.iupac.org/B00662.html/ bioreactor] where microalgae is cultured, exposure to light/[[irradiation]]  and concentration of cells within the reactor <ref name=" Tredici & Materassi 1992"> Tredici & Materassi 1992</ref>.
+==Hatchery production techniques==
-==='''Open Pond System'''===
+A range of microalgae species are produced in hatcheries and are used in a variety of ways for commercial purposes. Studies have estimated main factors in the success of a microalgae hatchery system as the dimensions of the container/bioreactor where microalgae is cultured, exposure to light/[[irradiation]]  and concentration of cells within the reactor.<ref name=" Tredici & Materassi 1992">{{cite journal |author1=M. Tredici |author2=R. Materassi |year=1992 |title=From open ponds to vertical alveolar panels: the Italian experience in the development of reactors for the mass cultivation of phototrophic microorganisms |journal=Journal of Applied Phycology |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=221–231 |doi=10.1007/BF02161208|bibcode=1992JAPco...4..221T |s2cid=20554506 }}</ref>
-This method has been employed since the 1950s. There are two main advantages of culturing microalgae using the open [[pond]] system <ref name="Richmond 1986">Richmond 1986</ref>. Firstly, an open pond system is easier to build and operate <ref name="Richmond 1986"/>. Secondly, open ponds are cheaper than closed bioreactors because closed [[bioreactors]] require a cooling system <ref name="Richmond 1986"/>. However, a downside to using open pond systems is decreased productivity of certain commercially important strains such as ''Spirulina sp.'', where optimal growth is limited by temperature <ref name=" Tredici & Materassi 1992"/>. Although cheaper and easy to build/operate, open pond systems are not widely used because factors such as evaporation, optimal growth temperature and protection from the environment are difficult to maintain.
-==='''Air-lift Method'''===
+===Open pond system===
+This method has been employed since the 1950s across the CONUS.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sun |first1=Ning |last2=Skaggs |first2=Richard L. |last3=Wigmosta |first3=Mark S. |last4=Coleman |first4=André M. |last5=Huesemann |first5=Michael H. |last6=Edmundson |first6=Scott J. |date=July 2020 |title=Growth modeling to evaluate alternative cultivation strategies to enhance national microalgal biomass production |journal=Algal Research |volume=49 |pages=101939 |doi=10.1016/j.algal.2020.101939 |s2cid=219431866 |issn=2211-9264|doi-access=free |bibcode=2020AlgRe..4901939S }}</ref> There are two main advantages of culturing microalgae using the [[Raceway pond|open pond]] system.<ref name="Richmond 1986">{{cite book |author=Amos Richmond |year=1986 |title=Handbook of Microalgal Mass Culture |location=Florida |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=978-0-8493-3240-1}}</ref> Firstly, an open pond system is easier to build and operate.<ref name="Richmond 1986"/> Secondly, open ponds are cheaper than closed bioreactors because closed [[bioreactors]] require a cooling system.<ref name="Richmond 1986"/> However, a downside to using open pond systems is decreased productivity of certain commercially important strains such as ''Arthrospira sp.'', where optimal growth is limited by temperature.<ref name=" Tredici & Materassi 1992"/> That said, it is possible to use waste heat and {{CO2}} from industrial sources to compensate this.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Costa |first1=Jorge Alberto Vieira |last2=Freitas |first2=Bárbara Catarina Bastos de |last3=Lisboa |first3=Cristiane Reinaldo |last4=Santos |first4=Thaisa Duarte |last5=Brusch |first5=Lucio Renato de Fraga |last6=De Morais |first6=Michele Greque |year=2019 |title=Microalgal biorefinery from CO2 and the effects under the Blue Economy |url=https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/rensus/v99y2019icp58-65.html |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |volume=99 |pages=58–65 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2018.08.009 |s2cid=115448212}}</ref><ref>[http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1413-70542008000500029 Culture of microalga Spirulina platensis in alternative sources of nutrients]</ref><ref>{{cite book | chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444641922000093 | doi=10.1016/B978-0-444-64192-2.00009-3 | chapter=Open pond systems for microalgal culture | title=Biofuels from Algae | year=2019 | last1=Costa | first1=Jorge Alberto Vieira | last2=Freitas | first2=Bárbara Catarina Bastos | last3=Santos | first3=Thaisa Duarte | last4=Mitchell | first4=Bryan Gregory | last5=Morais | first5=Michele Greque | pages=199–223 | isbn=9780444641922 | s2cid=146179919 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128179413000188 | doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-817941-3.00018-8 | chapter=Liquid Biofuels from Microalgae: Recent Trends | title=Advanced Bioprocessing for Alternative Fuels, Biobased Chemicals, and Bioproducts | year=2019 | last1=De Morais | first1=Michele Greque | last2=De Freitas | first2=Bárbara Catarina Bastos | last3=Moraes | first3=Luiza | last4=Pereira | first4=Aline Massia | last5=Costa | first5=Jorge Alberto Vieira | pages=351–372 | isbn=9780128179413 | s2cid=134527132 }}</ref>
-This method is used in outdoor cultivation and production of microalgae; where air is moved within a system in order to circulate water where microalgae is growing <ref name="Richmond 1986"/>. The culture is grown in transparent tubes that lie horizontally on the ground and are connected by a network of pipes <ref name="Richmond 1986"/>. Air is passed through the tube such that air escapes from the end that rests inside the reactor that contains the culture and creates an effect like stirring <ref name="Richmond 1986"/>.
-==='''Closed Reactors'''===
+===Air-lift method===
+This method is used in outdoor cultivation and production of microalgae; where air is moved within a system in order to circulate water where microalgae is growing.<ref name="Richmond 1986"/> The culture is grown in transparent tubes that lie horizontally on the ground and are connected by a network of pipes.<ref name="Richmond 1986"/> Air is passed through the tube such that air escapes from the end that rests inside the reactor that contains the culture and creates an effect like stirring.<ref name="Richmond 1986"/>
-The biggest advantage of culturing microalgae within a closed system provides control over the physical, chemical and biological environment of the culture<ref name=" Tredici & Materassi 1992"/>. This means factors that are difficult to control in open pond systems such as evaporation, temperature [[gradients]] and protection from ambient contamination make closed reactors favoured over open systems <ref name=" Tredici & Materassi 1992"/>. Photobioreactos are the primary example of a closed system where abiotic factors can be controlled for. Several closed systems have been tested to date for the purposes of culturing microalgae, few important ones are mentioned below:
-===='''Horizontal Photobioreactors'''====
+===Closed reactors===
-This system includes tubes laid on the ground to form a network of loops. Mixing of microalgal suspended culture occurs through a pump that raises the culture vertically at timed intervals into a [[photobioreactor]]. Studies have found pulsed mixing at intervals produces better results than the use of continuous mixing. Photobioreactors have also been associated with better production than open pond systems as they can maintain better temperature gradients <ref name=" Tredici & Materassi 1992"/>. An example noted in higher production of ''Spirulina sp.'' used as a dietary supplement was attributed to higher productivity because of a better suited temperature range and an extended cultivation period over summer months <ref name=" Tredici & Materassi 1992"/>.
+The biggest advantage of culturing microalgae within a closed system provides control over the physical, chemical and biological environment of the culture.<ref name=" Tredici & Materassi 1992"/> This means factors that are difficult to control in open pond systems such as evaporation, temperature [[gradients]] and protection from ambient contamination make closed reactors favoured over open systems.<ref name=" Tredici & Materassi 1992"/> Photobioreactors are the primary example of a closed system where abiotic factors can be controlled for. Several closed systems have been tested to date for the purposes of culturing microalgae, few important ones are mentioned below:
-===='''Vertical Systems'''====
+====Horizontal photobioreactors====
+This system includes tubes laid on the ground to form a network of loops. Mixing of microalgal suspended culture occurs through a pump that raises the culture vertically at timed intervals into a [[photobioreactor]]. Studies have found pulsed mixing at intervals produces better results than the use of continuous mixing. Photobioreactors have also been associated with better production than open pond systems as they can maintain better temperature gradients.<ref name=" Tredici & Materassi 1992"/> An example noted in higher production of ''Arthrospira sp.'' used as a dietary supplement was attributed to higher productivity because of a better suited temperature range and an extended cultivation period over summer months.<ref name=" Tredici & Materassi 1992"/>
+====Vertical systems====
 These reactors use vertical [[polyethylene]] sleeves hung from an iron frame. Glass tubes can also be used alternatively.
-Microalgae are also cultured in vertical alveolar panels (VAP) that are a type of [[photobioreactor]] <ref name=" Tredici & Materassi 1992"/>. This photobioreactor is characterised by low productivity. However, this problem can be overcome by modifying the [[surface area]] to [[volume]] ratio; where a higher ratio can increase productivity <ref name=" Tredici & Materassi 1992"/>. Mixing and [[deoxygenation]] are drawbacks of this system and can be addressed by bubbling air continuously at a mean flow rate. The two main types of vertical photobioreactors are the Flow-through VAP and the Bubble Column VAP <ref name=" Tredici & Materassi 1992"/>.
+Microalgae are also cultured in vertical alveolar panels (VAP) that are a type of [[photobioreactor]].<ref name=" Tredici & Materassi 1992"/> This photobioreactor is characterised by low productivity. However, this problem can be overcome by modifying the [[surface area]] to [[volume]] ratio; where a higher ratio can increase productivity.<ref name=" Tredici & Materassi 1992"/> Mixing and [[deoxygenation]] are drawbacks of this system and can be addressed by bubbling air continuously at a mean flow rate. The two main types of vertical photobioreactors are the Flow-through VAP and the Bubble Column VAP.<ref name=" Tredici & Materassi 1992"/>
+====In darkness====
+By using an electrocatalytic process to produce [[acetate]] from water, electricity and carbon dioxide, which is then used by the algae as food source, sunlight and photosynthesis is no longer required. The method is still at an early stage, but experiments with algae like [[Chlamydomonas reinhardtii]] have turned out to be promising.<ref>[https://modernfarmer.com/2022/07/artificial-photosynthesis/ Cultivating Crops, No Sun Required - Modern Farmer]</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1038/s43016-022-00530-x | title=A hybrid inorganic–biological artificial photosynthesis system for energy-efficient food production | year=2022 | last1=Hann | first1=Elizabeth C. | last2=Overa | first2=Sean | last3=Harland-Dunaway | first3=Marcus | last4=Narvaez | first4=Andrés F. | last5=Le | first5=Dang N. | last6=Orozco-Cárdenas | first6=Martha L. | last7=Jiao | first7=Feng | last8=Jinkerson | first8=Robert E. | journal=Nature Food | volume=3 | issue=6 | pages=461–471 | pmid=37118051 | s2cid=250004816 | doi-access=free }}</ref>
+===Flat plate reactors===
+Flat plate reactors(FPR) are built using narrow panels and are placed horizontally to maximise sunlight input to the system.<ref name="Carvalho">{{cite journal |author1=Ana P. Carvalho |author2=Luís A. Meireles |author3=F. Xavier Malcata |year=2006 |title=Microalgal reactors: a review of enclosed system designs and performances |journal=Biotechnology Progress |volume=22 |issue=6 |pages=1490–1506 |pmid=17137294 |doi=10.1021/bp060065r|hdl=10400.14/6717 |s2cid=10362553 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The concept behind FPR is to increase the surface area to volume ratio such that sunlight is efficiently used.<ref name="Richmond 1986"/><ref name="Carvalho"/> This system of microalgae culture was originally thought to be expensive and incapable of circulating the culture.<ref name="Carvalho"/> Therefore, FPRs were considered to be unfeasible overall for the commercial production of microalgae. However, an experimental FPR system in the 1980s used [[circulation (fluid dynamics)|circulation]] within the culture from a gas exchange unit across horizontal panels.<ref name="Carvalho"/> This overcomes issues of circulation and provides an advantage of an open gas transfer unit that reduces oxygen build up.<ref name="Carvalho"/> Examples of successful use of FPRs can be seen in the production of ''Nannochloropsis sp.'' used for its high levels of [[astaxanthin]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Amos Richmond |author2=Zhang Cheng-Wu |year=2001 |title=Optimization of a flat plate glass reactor for mass production of ''Nannochloropsis'' sp. outdoors |journal=Journal of Biotechnology |volume=85 |issue=3 |pages=259–269 |pmid=11173093 |doi=10.1016/S0168-1656(00)00353-9}}</ref>
+===Fermentor-type reactors===
+Fermentor-type reactors (FTR) are bioreactors where [[Fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] is carried out. FTRs have not developed hugely in the cultivation of microalgae and pose a disadvantage in the surface area to volume ratio and a decreased efficiency in utilizing sunlight.<ref name="Richmond 1986"/><ref name="Carvalho"/> FTR have been developed using a combination of sun and artificial light have led to lowering production costs.<ref name="Carvalho"/> However, information available on large scale counterparts to the laboratory-scale systems being developed is very limited.<ref name="Carvalho"/> The main advantage is that extrinsic factors i.e. light can be controlled for and productivity can be enhanced so that FTR can become an alternative for products for the [[pharmaceutical]] industry.<ref name="Carvalho"/>
+==Commercial applications==
+===Use in aquaculture===
+[[File:Brine shrimp cyst.jpg|frame|Microalgae is used to culture [[brine shrimp]], which produce dormant eggs (pictured). The eggs can then be hatched on demand and feed to cultured fish larvae and crustaceans.]]
+Microalgae is an important source of nutrition and is used widely in the [[aquaculture]] of other organisms, either directly or as an added source of basic nutrients. Aquaculture farms rearing larvae of [[Mollusca|molluscs]], [[echinoderm]]s, [[crustacean]]s and [[fish]] use microalgae as a source of nutrition. Low bacteria and high microalgal biomass is a crucial food source for shellfish aquaculture.<ref name=" Muller-Feuga, 2000">{{cite journal |author=Arnaud Muller-Feuga |year=2000 |title=The role of microalgae in aquaculture: situation and trends |journal=Journal of Applied Phycology |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=527–534 |doi=10.1023/A:1008106304417 |s2cid=8495961 |url=http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/2000/publication-497.pdf }}</ref>
+Microalgae can form the start of a chain of further aquaculture processes. For example, microalgae is an important food source in the [[aquaculture of brine shrimp]]. Brine shrimp produce dormant eggs, called [[cyst]]s, which can be stored for long periods and then hatched on demand to provide a convenient form of live feed for the aquaculture of [[fish larva|larval fish]] and crustaceans.<ref name=R3>{{cite book |author=Martin Daintith |year=1996 |title=Rotifers and ''Artemia'' for Marine Aquaculture: a Training Guide |oclc=222006176 |publisher=[[University of Tasmania]]}}</ref><ref name="Zmora">{{cite journal |author1=Odi Zmora |author2=Muki Shpigel |year=2006 |title=Intensive mass production of ''Artemia'' in a recirculated system |journal=[[Aquaculture (journal)|Aquaculture]] |volume=255 |issue=1–4 |pages=488–494 |doi=10.1016/j.aquaculture.2006.01.018|bibcode=2006Aquac.255..488Z }}</ref>
+Other applications of microalgae within aquaculture include increasing the [[aesthetic]] appeal of finfish bred in captivity.<ref name=" Muller-Feuga, 2000"/> One such example can be noted in the [[aquaculture of salmon]], where microalgae is used to make salmon flesh pinker.<ref name=" Muller-Feuga, 2000"/> This is achieved by the addition of natural pigments containing [[carotenoids]] such as [[astaxanthin]] produced from the microalgae ''Haematococcus'' to the diet of farmed animals.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=R. Todd Lorenz |author2=Gerald R. Cysewski |year=2000 |title=Commercial potential for ''Haematococcus'' microalgae as a natural source of astaxanthin |journal=[[Trends in Biotechnology]] |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=160–167 |pmid=10740262 |doi=10.1016/S0167-7799(00)01433-5 |url=http://www.ruscom.com/cyan/web02/pdfs/naturose/nrtl02.pdf }}</ref>
+Two microalgae species, ''I. galbana'' and ''C. calcitrans'' are mostly composed of proteins, which are used to brighten the color of salmon and related species.<ref>{{Cite journal| last1=Natrah|first1=F. M. I.|last2=Yusoff|first2=F. M. |last3=Shariff| first3=M.| last4=Abas |first4=F.| last5=Mariana|first5=N. S.|date=December 2007|title=Screening of Malaysian indigenous microalgae for antioxidant properties and nutritional value|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10811-007-9192-5|journal=Journal of Applied Phycology |volume=19| issue=6| pages=711–718| doi=10.1007/s10811-007-9192-5|bibcode=2007JAPco..19..711N |s2cid=42873936| issn=0921-8971}}</ref>
+===Human nutrition===
+The main species of microalgae grown as health foods are ''[[Chlorella]]'' and [[Spirulina (dietary supplement)|Spirulina]] (''[[Arthrospira platensis]]''). The main forms of production occur in small scale ponds with artificial mixers.<ref name="Borowitzka_1999">{{cite journal |author=Michael A. Borowitzka |year=1999 |title=Commercial production of microalgae: ponds, tanks, tubes and fermenters |journal=Journal of Biotechnology |volume=70 |issue=1–3 |pages=313–321 |doi=10.1016/S0168-1656(99)00083-8}}</ref> ''Arthrospira platensis'' is a blue-green microalga with a long history as a food source in East Africa and pre-colonial Mexico. Spirulina is high in protein and other nutrients, finding use as a [[food supplement]] and for malnutrition. It thrives in open systems and commercial growers have found it well-suited to cultivation. One of the largest production sites is [[Lake Texcoco]] in central Mexico.<ref name="KickingImp">{{cite web | url = http://www.cnn.tv/ASIANOW/asiaweek/98/0731/feat_2.html |title = The Imp With a Mighty Kick | website =Asia Week |publisher = CNN.tv|author = Yenni Kwok}}</ref> The plants produce a variety of nutrients and high amounts of [[protein]], and is often used commercially as a nutritional supplement.<ref name="sbalgae">{{cite web|url=http://www.sbgalgae.com/afa.htm |title=Aphanizomenon Flos-Aquae Blue Green Algae |publisher=Energy For Life Wellness Center |access-date=2006-08-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060426144221/http://www.sbgalgae.com/afa.htm |archive-date=2006-04-26 }}</ref><ref name="microalgaenutrition">{{cite web | url = http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/W3732E/w3732e07.htm |title = Nutritional value of micro-algae |publisher = United States Fisheries Department| access-date = 2006-08-29| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060826055621/http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/W3732E/w3732e07.htm| archive-date= 26 August 2006 <!--DASHBot-->| url-status= live}}</ref> ''Chlorella'' has similar nutrition to spirulina, and is very popular in [[Japan]]. It is also used as a [[nutritional supplement]], with possible effects on [[metabolic rate]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.naturalways.com/chlorella-growth-factor.htm|title=Chlorella Growth Factor, nutritional supplement.}}</ref>
+Production of [[long chain fatty acids|long chain omega-3 fatty acids]] important for human diet can also be cultured through microalgal [[hatchery]] systems.<ref name="Barclay">{{cite journal |author1=W. Barclay |author2=K. Meager |author3=J. Abril |year=1994 |title=Heterotrophic production of long chain omega-3 fatty acids utilizing algae and algae-like microorganisms |journal=Journal of Applied Phycology |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=123–129 |doi=10.1007/BF02186066|bibcode=1994JAPco...6..123B |s2cid=8634817 }}</ref>
-==='''Flat Plate Reactors'''===
-Flat plate reactors(FPR) are built using narrow panels and are placed horizontally to maximise sunlight input to the system <ref name="Carvalho ''et al.'' 2006">Carvalho ''et al.'' 2006</ref>. The concept behind FPR is to increase the surface area to volume ratio such that sunlight is efficiently used <ref name="Richmond 1986">Richmond 1986</ref><ref name="Carvalho ''et al.'' 2006">Carvalho ''et al.'' 2006"</ref>. This system of microalgae culture was originally thought to be expensive and incapable of circulating the culture <ref name="Carvalho ''et al.'' 2006"/>. Therefore, FPRs were considered to be unfeasible overall for the commercial production of microalgae. However, an experimental FPR system in the 1980s used [[circulation]] within the culture from a gas exchange unit across horizontal panels <ref name="Carvalho ''et al.'' 2006"/>. This overcomes issues of circulation and provides an advantage of an open gas transfer unit that reduces oxygen build up <ref name="Carvalho ''et al.'' 2006"/>. Examples of successful use of FPRs can be seen in the production of ''Nannochloropsis sp.'' used for its high levels of [[astaxanthin]] <ref name=”Richmond & Cheng-Wu, 2001”> Richmond, A. and Z. Cheng-Wu. 2001. Optimization of a flat plate glass reactor for mass production of Nannochloropsis sp. outdoors. Journal of Biotechnology, 85(3), 259-269.</ref>.
+Australian scientists at [[Flinders University]] in [[Adelaide]] have been experimenting with using marine microalgae to produce proteins for human consumption, creating products like "[[caviar]]", [[vegan]] burgers, [[fake meat]], [[jam]]s and other [[food spread]]s. By manipulating microalgae in a [[laboratory]], the [[protein]] and other [[nutrient]] contents could be increased, and flavours changed to make them more palatable. These foods leave a much lighter [[carbon footprint]] than other forms of protein, as the microalgae absorb rather than produce [[carbon dioxide]], which contributes to the [[greenhouse gases]].<ref>{{cite web | last=Leckie | first=Evelyn | title=Adelaide scientists turn marine microalgae into 'superfoods' to substitute animal proteins | website=ABC News |publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] | date=14 Jan 2021 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-01-14/marine-microalgae-could-be-the-solution-to-protein-shortage/13054084 | access-date=17 Jan 2021}}</ref>
-==='''Fermentor-type Reactors'''===
-Fermentor-type reactors (FTR) are bioreactors where [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fermenter fermentation] is carried out. FTRs have not developed hugely in the cultivation of microalgae and pose a disadvantage in the surface area to volume ratio and a decreased efficiency in utilizing sunlight <ref name="Richmond 1986">Richmond 1986</ref><ref name="Carvalho ''et al.'' 2006">Carvalho ''et al.'' 2006"</ref>. FTR have been developed using a combination of sun and artificial light have lead to lowering production costs <ref name="Carvalho ''et al.'' 2006"/>. However, information available on large scale counterparts to the laboratory-scale systems being developed is very limited <ref name=" Carvalho ''et al.'' 2006"/>. The main advantage is that extrinsic factors i.e. light can be controlled for and productivity can be enhanced so that FTR can become an alternative for products for the [[pharmaceutical]] industry <ref name="Carvalho ''et al.'' 2006"/>.
+===Biofuel production===
-==Commercial Applications==
+In order to meet the demands of [[fossil fuels]], alternative means of fuels are being investigated. [[Biodiesel]] and [[bioethanol]] are renewable [[biofuel]]s with much potential that are important in current research. However, [[agriculture]] based [[renewable fuels]] may not be completely sustainable and thus may not be able to replace fossil fuels. Microalgae can be remarkably rich in oils (up to 80% dry weight of [[biomass]]) suitable for conversion to fuel. Furthermore, microalgae are more productive than land based agricultural crops and could therefore be more sustainable in the long run. Microalgae for [[biofuel]] production is mainly produced using tubular [[photobioreactors]].<ref name="Chisti 2008"/>
-==='''Aquaculture'''===
-Microalgae is an important source of nutrition and is used widely in [[aquaculture]], either directly or as an added source of basic nutrients <ref name=" Muller-Feuga, 2000"> Muller-Feuga, 2000</ref>. Aquaculture farms rearing larvae of [[molluscs]], [[echinoderms]], [[crustaceans]] and [[fish]] use microalgae as a source of nutrition <ref name=" Muller-Feuga, 2000"> Muller-Feuga, 2000</ref>. Low bacteria and high microalgal biomass is a crucial food source for shellfish aquaculture <ref name=" Muller-Feuga, 2000"> Muller-Feuga, 2000</ref>.
-Indirect application of microalgae culture can be seen through [[brine shrimp]] (''Artemia sp.'') production in hatcheries. Microalgae is an important food source for growth of Artemia, which in turn can be used as a food supply for [[finfish]], [[shrimp]] or [[crab]] [[hatcheries]] <ref name=”Zmora & Shpigel, 2006”> Zmora, O. & M. Shpigel 2006. Intensive mass production of Artemia in a recirculated system. Aquaculture 255(1-4), 488-494.</ref>.
-Other applications of microalgae within aquaculture are associated with increasing the [[aesthetic]] appeal of finfish bred in captivity <ref name=" Muller-Feuga, 2000"> Muller-Feuga, 2000</ref>. One such example can be noted in the [[aquaculture of salmon]], where microalgae is used to make salmon flesh pinker <ref name=" Muller-Feuga, 2000"> Muller-Feuga, 2000</ref>. This is achieved by the addition of natural pigments containing [[carotenoids]] such as [[Astaxanthin]] produced from the microalgae ''Haematococcus'' to the diet of farmed animals <ref name=”Lorenz & Cysewski, 1999”> Lorenz, R.T. & G.R. Cysewski. 1999. Commercial potential for Haematococcus microalgae as a natural source of astaxanthin. Trends in Biotechnology, 18(4), 160-167.</ref>.
+===Pharmaceuticals and cosmetics===
-==='''Biofuel Production'''===
+Novel [[Bioactive compound|bioactive]] chemical compounds can be isolated from microalgae like sulphated [[polysaccharide]]s. These compounds include [[fucoidan]]s, [[carrageenan]]s and [[ulvan]]s that are used for their beneficial properties. These properties are [[anticoagulants]], [[antioxidants]], [[anticancer]] agents that are being tested medical research.<ref name=" Wijesekara et al. 2010">{{cite journal |author1=Isuru Wijesekara |author2=Ratih Pangestuti |author3=Se-Kwon Kim |year=2010 |title=Biological activities and potential health benefits of sulfated polysaccharides derived from marine algae |journal=Carbohydrate Polymers |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=14–21 |doi=10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.10.062}}</ref>
-In order to meet the demands of [[fossil fuels]], alternate means of fuels are being investigated. [[Biodiesel]] and [[bioethanol]] are two potential renewable fuels that have come to the forefront of research. However, [[agriculture]] based [[renewable fuels]] may not be completely sustainable and thus may not be able to replace fossil fuels <ref name="Chisti 2008"/>. Microalgae are exceedingly rich in oils(upto 80% dry weight of [[biomass]]), which can be converted to fuel <ref name="Chisti 2008"/>. Furthermore, microalgae are more productive than land based agricultural crops and could therefore be more sustainable in the long run <ref name="Chisti 2008"/>. Microalgae for [[biofuel]] production is mainly produced using tubular [[photobioreactors]] <ref name="Chisti 2008"/>.
+Red microalgae are characterised by pigments called [[phycobiliprotein]]s that contain natural colourants used in [[pharmaceuticals]] and/or [[cosmetics]].<ref name="Arad">{{cite journal |author1=S. Arad |author2=A. Yaron |year=1992 |title=Natural pigments from red microalgae for use in foods and cosmetics |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |volume=3 |pages=92–97 |doi=10.1016/0924-2244(92)90145-M}}</ref>
-==='''Cosmetic and Health Benefits'''===
-The main species of microalgae grown as health foods are ''Chlorella sp.'' and ''Spirulina sp.'' The main forms of production occur in small scale ponds with artificial mixers <ref name=”Borowitzka,1999”> Borowitzka, M.A. Commercial production of microalgae: ponds, tanks, tubes and fermenters. Journal of Biotechnology 70(1-3), 313-321.</ref>. Novel [[bioactive]] chemical compounds can be isolated from microalgae like sulphated [[polysaccharides]] <ref name=" Wijesekara et al. 2010"> Wijesekara et al. 2010</ref>. These compounds include [[fucoidan]]s, [[carrageenan]]s and [[ulvan]]s that are used for their beneficial properties. These properties are [[anticoagulants]], [[antioxidants]], [[anticancer]] agents that are being tested in research <ref name=" Wijesekara et al. 2010"/>. Red microalgae are characterised by pigments called [[phycobiliprotein]]s that contain natural colourants used in pharmaceuticals and/or cosmetics <ref name=”Arad & Yaron, 1992”> Arad, S. & A. Yaron. 1992. Natural pigments from red microalgae for use in foods and cosmetics. Trends in Food Science & Technology 3(0) 92-97.</ref>. Production of long chain [[omega-3]] [[polyunsaturated fatty acids]] important for human diet can also be cultured through microalgal [[hatchery]] systems <ref name="Barclay, ''et al.'' 1994">Barclay, ''et al.'' 1994</ref>.
-==='''Biofertilizer'''===
+===Biofertilizer===
-Blue green alga was first used as a means of fixing nitrogen by allowing cyanobacteria to multiply in the soil. [[Nitrogen fixation]] is important as a means of allowing [[inorganic compounds]] such as [[nitrogen]] to be converted to [[organic]] forms which can then be used by plants <ref name="Saadatnia and Riahi 2009">Saadatnia and Riahi 2009</ref>. The use of cyanobacteria has been identified as an economically sound and environmentally friendly method of increasing productivity <ref name="Mishra and Pabbi 2004">Mishra and Pabbi 2004</ref>. Rice production in India and Iran have employed this method of using the nitrogen fixing properties of free living cyanobacteria to supplement nitrogen content in soils <ref name="Saadatnia and Riahi 2009">Saadatnia and Riahi 2009</ref><ref name="Mishra and Pabbi 2004">Mishra and Pabbi 2004</ref>.
+Blue green alga was first used as a means of fixing nitrogen by allowing [[cyanobacteria]] to multiply in the soil, acting as a [[biofertilizer]]. [[Nitrogen fixation]] is important as a means of allowing [[inorganic compounds]] such as [[nitrogen]] to be converted to [[organic compounds|organic]] forms which can then be used by plants.<ref name="Saadatnia and Riahi 2009">{{cite journal |author1=H. Saadatnia |author2=H. Riahi |year=2009 |title=Cyanobacteria from paddy fields in Iran as a biofertilizer in rice plants |journal= Plant, Soil and Environment|volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=207–212 |doi=10.17221/384-PSE |doi-access=free }}</ref> The use of cyanobacteria is an economically sound and environmentally friendly method of increasing productivity.<ref name="Mishra and Pabbi 2004">{{cite journal |author1=Upasana Mishra |author2=Sunil Pabbi |year=2004 |title=Cyanobacteria: a potential biofertilizer for rice |journal=Resonance |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=6–10 |doi=10.1007/BF02839213 |s2cid=121561783 |url=http://www.ias.ac.in/resonance/June2004/pdf/June2004p6-10.pdf }}</ref> This method has been use for [[rice]] production in India and Iran, using the nitrogen fixing properties of free living cyanobacteria to supplement nitrogen content in soils.<ref name="Saadatnia and Riahi 2009"/><ref name="Mishra and Pabbi 2004"/>
-==='''Other uses'''===
+===Other uses===
-Microalgae are a source of valuable molecules such as [[isotopes]] i.e. chemical variants of an element that contain different neutrons. Microalgae can effectively incorporate isotopes of [[carbon]] (¹³C), [[nitrogen]] (¹⁵N) and [[hydrogen]] (²H) into their biomass <ref name=”Radmer & Parker, 1994”> Radmer, R. & B. Parker. 1994. Commercial applications of algae: opportunities and constraints. Journal of Applied Phycology 6(2), 93-98.</ref>. ¹³C and ¹⁵N are used to track the flow of carbon between different trophic levels/food webs <ref name=" Peterson 1999"> Peterson 1999</ref>. Carbon, nitrogen and [[sulphur]] isotopes can also be used to determine disturbances to bottom dwelling communities that are otherwise difficult to study <ref name=" Peterson 1999"/>.
+Microalgae are a source of valuable molecules such as [[isotopes]] i.e. chemical variants of an element that contain different neutrons. Microalgae can effectively incorporate isotopes of [[carbon]] (<sup>13</sup>C), [[nitrogen]] (<sup>15</sup>N) and [[hydrogen]] (<sup>2</sup>H) into their biomass.<ref name="Radmer">{{cite journal |author1=Richard Radmer |author2=Bruce Parker |year=1994 |title=Commercial applications of algae: opportunities and constraints |journal=Journal of Applied Phycology |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=93–98 |doi=10.1007/BF02186062|bibcode=1994JAPco...6...93R |s2cid=9060288 }}</ref> <sup>13</sup>C and <sup>15</sup>N are used to track the flow of carbon between different trophic levels/food webs.<ref name=" Peterson 1999">{{cite journal |author=B. J. Peterson |year=1999 |title=Stable isotopes as tracers of organic matter input and transfer in benthic food webs: a review |journal=Acta Oecologica |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=479–487 |bibcode=1999AcO....20..479P |doi=10.1016/S1146-609X(99)00120-4}}</ref> Carbon, nitrogen and [[sulphur]] isotopes can also be used to determine disturbances to bottom dwelling communities that are otherwise difficult to study.<ref name=" Peterson 1999"/>
 == Issues ==
-Cell frailty is the biggest issue that limits the productivity from closed [[photobioreactors]] <ref name="Gudin & Chaumont 1991">Gudin & Chaumont 1991</ref>. Damage to cells can be attributed to the turbulent flow within the [[bioreactor]] which is required to create mixing so light is available to all cells <ref name="Gudin & Chaumont 1991"/>.
+Cell fragility is the biggest issue that limits the productivity from closed [[photobioreactors]].<ref name="Gudin & Chaumont 1991">{{cite journal |author1=Claude Gudin |author2=Daniel Chaumont |year=1991 |title=Cell fragility — the key problem of microalgae mass production in closed photobioreactors |journal=[[Bioresource Technology]] |volume=38 |issue=2–3 |pages=145–151 |doi=10.1016/0960-8524(91)90146-B|bibcode=1991BiTec..38..145G }}</ref> Damage to cells can be attributed to the turbulent flow within the [[bioreactor]] which is required to create mixing so light is available to all cells.<ref name="Gudin & Chaumont 1991"/>
-== Notes ==
+==See also==
+* [[Algae fuel]]
-<!--- See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes on how to create references using <ref></ref> tags which will then appear here automatically -->
+* [[Microbiofuels]]
-{{Reflist}}
-== References ==
+==References==
+{{Reflist|32em}}
-*Arad, S., and A. Yaron. 1992. Natural pigments from red microalgae for use in foods and cosmetics. Trends in Food Science &amp; Technology 3 (0):92-97.
-*Barclay, W., K. Meager, and J. Abril. 1994. Heterotrophic production of long chain omega-3 fatty acids utilizing algae and algae-like microorganisms. Journal of Applied Phycology 6 (2):123-129.
-*Borowitzka, M. A. 1999. Commercial production of microalgae: ponds, tanks, tubes and fermenters. Journal of Biotechnology 70 (1-3):313-321.
-*Carvalho, Ana P., Luís A. Meireles, and F. Xavier Malcata. 2006. Microalgal Reactors: A Review of Enclosed System Designs and Performances. Biotechnology Progress 22 (6):1490-1506.
-*Chisti, Y. 2008. Biodiesel from microalgae beats bioethanol. Trends in Biotechnology 26 (3):126-131.
-*Cooper, Vivienne. 1996. Microalgae: Microscopic Marvels. Hamilton: Riverside Books. ISBN 0-473-03642-8
-*Dufossé, Laurent, Patrick Galaup, Anina Yaron, Shoshana Malis Arad, Philippe Blanc, Kotamballi N. Chidambara Murthy, and Gokare A. Ravishankar. 2005. Microorganisms and microalgae as sources of pigments for food use: a scientific oddity or an industrial reality? Trends in Food Science &amp; Technology 16 (9):389-406.
-*Gudin, Claude, and Daniel Chaumont. 1991. Cell fragility — The key problem of microalgae mass production in closed photobioreactors. Bioresource Technology 38 (2-3):145-151.
-*Lorenz, R. Todd, and Gerald R. Cysewski. 2000. Commercial potential for Haematococcus microalgae as a natural source of astaxanthin. Trends in Biotechnology 18 (4):160-167.
-*Milledge, John. 2011. Commercial application of microalgae other than as biofuels: a brief review. Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology 10 (1):31-41.
-*Mishra, Upasana, and Sunil Pabbi. 2004. Cyanobacteria: A potential biofertilizer for rice. Resonance 9 (6):6-10.
-*Muller-Feuga, Arnaud. 2000. The role of microalgae in aquaculture: situation and trends. Journal of Applied Phycology 12 (3):527-534.
-*Peterson, B. J. 1999. Stable isotopes as tracers of organic matter input and transfer in benthic food webs: A review. Acta Oecologica 20 (4):479-487.
-*Radmer, Richard, and Bruce Parker. 1994. Commercial applications of algae: opportunities and constraints. Journal of Applied Phycology 6 (2):93-98.
-*Richmond, Amos. 1986. Handbook of Microalagl Mass Culture. Florida: CRC Press Inc. ISBN 0-8493-3240-0
-*Richmond, Amos, and Zhang Cheng-Wu. 2001. Optimization of a flat plate glass reactor for mass production of Nannochloropsis sp. outdoors. Journal of Biotechnology 85 (3):259-269.
-*Rodriguez-Garcia, Ignacio, and Jose Luis Guil-Guerrero. 2008. Evaluation of the antioxidant activity of three microalgal species for use as dietary supplements and in the preservation of foods. Food Chemistry 108 (3):1023-1026.
-*Saadatnia, H., Riahi, H. 2009. Cyanobacteria from paddy fields in Iran as a biofertilizer in rice plants. Plant Soil Environment 55 (5):207-212.
-*Spolaore, P., C. Joannis-Cassan, E. Duran, and A. Isambert. 2006. Commercial applications of microalgae. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering 101 (2):87-96.
-*Tredici, M., and R. Materassi. 1992. From open ponds to vertical alveolar panels: the Italian experience in the development of reactors for the mass cultivation of phototrophic microorganisms. Journal of Applied Phycology 4 (3):221-231.
-*Vonshak, Avigad, and Luisa Tomaselli. 2002. &lt;i&gt;Arthrospira (Spirulina)&lt;/i&gt; : Systematics and EcophysioIogy
-*Whitton, B., Potts, M. 2000. The Ecology of Cyanobacteria: their diversity in time and space. Edited by A. T. Vonshak, Luisa, Arthrospira (Spirulina): Systematics and Ecophysiology. Boston: Kluwer Academic
-*Wijesekara, I., Pangestuti, R., Kim, S. 2010. Biological activities and potential health benefits of sulfated polysaccharides derived from marine algae. Carbohydrate Polymers 84 (1):14-21.
-*Zmora, O., and M. Shpigel. 2006. Intensive mass production of Artemia in a recirculated system. Aquaculture 255 (1-4):488-494.
+{{fishing industry topics|expanded=aquaculture}}
-== External links ==
-*
-[http://goldbook.iupac.org/B00662.html]
-*
-[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fermenter]
+[[Category:Algaculture]]
-<!--- Categories --->
-[[Category:Articles created via the Article Wizard]]