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Ghost sickness is a culture-bound syndrome among some indigenous peoples in North America and Polynesian peoples in which people are preoccupied with the deceased or consumed by pathological grief. Reported symptoms can include general weakness, loss of appetite, suffocation feelings, recurring nightmares, and a pervasive feeling of terror. The sickness is attributed to ghosts or, occasionally, to witches or witchcraft.^[1]

Cultural background

North American people associated with ghost sickness include the Navajo and some Muscogee and Plains cultures. In the Muscogee (Creek) culture, it is believed that everyone is a part of an energy called Ibofanga. This energy supposedly results from the flow between mind, body, and spirit. Illness can result from this flow being disrupted. Therefore, their "medicine is used to prevent or treat an obstruction and restore the peaceful flow of energy within a person".^[2] Purification rituals for mourning "focus on preventing unnatural or prolonged emotional and physical drain."^[2]

The traditional Native American grief resolution process is qualitatively different from those usually seen in mainstream Western cultures. In 1881, there was a federal ban on some of the traditional mourning rituals practised by the Lakota and other tribes. Lakota expert Maria Yellow Horse Brave Heart proposes that the loss of these rituals may have caused the Lakota to be "further predisposed to the development of pathological grief". Some manifestations of unresolved grief include seeking visions of the spirits of deceased relatives, obsessive reminiscing about the deceased, longing for and believing in a reunion with the deceased, fantasies of reappearance of the deceased, and belief in one's ability to project oneself to the past or to the future.^[3]

Cause

There are a variety of mainstream psychological theories about Ghost Sickness. Putsch states that "Spirits or 'ghosts' may be viewed as being directly or indirectly linked to the cause of an event, accident, or illness".^[4] Both Erikson and Macgregor report substantiating evidence of psychological trauma response in ghost sickness, with features including withdrawal and psychic numbing, anxiety and hypervigilance, guilt, identification with ancestral pain and death, and chronic sadness and depression.^[5]^[6]^[7]

Treatment

Religious leaders within the Navajo tribe repeatedly perform ceremonies to eliminate the all-consuming thoughts of the dead.^[8]

References

^ Hall, Lena. "Conceptions of Mental Illness: Cultural Perspectives and Treatment Implications". Nova Southeastern University. Archived from the original on August 16, 2013. Retrieved April 1, 2013.
^ ^a ^b Walker, Andrea C.; Balk, David E. (2007). "Bereavement Rituals in the Muscogee Creek Tribe". Death Studies. 31 (7): 633–52. doi:10.1080/07481180701405188. PMID 17849603. S2CID 41156151.
^ Brave Heart, Maria Yellow Horse (1998). "The return to the sacred path: Healing the historical trauma and historical unresolved grief response among the Lakota through a psychoeducational group intervention". Smith College Studies in Social Work. 68 (3): 287–305. doi:10.1080/00377319809517532.
^ Putsch, R.W. (2006-2007) Drumlummon Views Archived 2009-09-20 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved on May 22, 2008
^ Erikson, E. (1959). Identity and the life cycle. Psychological Issues, 7(1). New York: International Universities Press.
^ Macgregor, G. (1975). Warriors without weapons. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1946)^{[page needed]}
^ Macgregor, G.(1970). Changing Society: The Teton Dakotas. InE. Nurge (Ed.),The modern Sioux: Social systems and reservation culture 92-106. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
^ Opler, Morris E.; Bittle, William E. (Winter 1961). "The Death Practices and Eschatology of the Kiowa Apache". Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. 17 (4): 383–94. doi:10.1086/soutjanth.17.4.3628949. JSTOR 3628949. S2CID 164093581.

[1] Hall, Lena. "Conceptions of Mental Illness: Cultural Perspectives and Treatment Implications". Nova Southeastern University. Archived from the original on August 16, 2013. Retrieved April 1, 2013.

[brintmcr-2] Walker, Andrea C.; Balk, David E. (2007). "Bereavement Rituals in the Muscogee Creek Tribe". Death Studies. 31 (7): 633–52. doi:10.1080/07481180701405188. PMID 17849603. S2CID 41156151.

[3] Brave Heart, Maria Yellow Horse (1998). "The return to the sacred path: Healing the historical trauma and historical unresolved grief response among the Lakota through a psychoeducational group intervention". Smith College Studies in Social Work. 68 (3): 287–305. doi:10.1080/00377319809517532.

[4] Putsch, R.W. (2006-2007) Drumlummon Views Archived 2009-09-20 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved on May 22, 2008

[5] Erikson, E. (1959). Identity and the life cycle. Psychological Issues, 7(1). New York: International Universities Press.

[6] Macgregor, G. (1975). Warriors without weapons. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1946)^{[page needed]}

[7] Macgregor, G.(1970). Changing Society: The Teton Dakotas. InE. Nurge (Ed.),The modern Sioux: Social systems and reservation culture 92-106. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

[8] Opler, Morris E.; Bittle, William E. (Winter 1961). "The Death Practices and Eschatology of the Kiowa Apache". Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. 17 (4): 383–94. doi:10.1086/soutjanth.17.4.3628949. JSTOR 3628949. S2CID 164093581.

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+{{short description|Cultural belief}}
-'''Ghost sickness''' is a [[culture-bound syndrome]] which some [[American Indian]] tribes believe to be caused by association with the dead or dying and is sometimes associated with witchcraft. It is considered to be a [[Psychosis|psychotic disorder]] of [[Navajo Nation|Navajo]] origin. Its [[symptom]]s include general weakness, loss of [[appetite]], a feeling of [[Asphyxia|suffocation]], recurring [[nightmare]]s, and a pervasive feeling of [[Fear#terror|terror]]. The sickness is attributed to [[ghost]]s (''[[chindi]]'') or, occasionally, to [[witch]]es.
+'''Ghost sickness''' is a culture-bound syndrome among some [[indigenous peoples in North America]] and [[Polynesian peoples]] in which people are preoccupied with the deceased or consumed by pathological [[grief]]. Reported [[symptom]]s can include general weakness, loss of [[appetite]], [[Asphyxia|suffocation]] feelings, recurring [[nightmare]]s, and a pervasive feeling of terror. The sickness is attributed to [[ghost]]s or, occasionally, to [[witch]]es or [[witchcraft]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Hall |first=Lena |title=Conceptions of Mental Illness: Cultural Perspectives and Treatment Implications |url=http://www.fcas.nova.edu/faculty/publications/quadrivium/issue1/mental_illness/index.cfm |publisher=Nova Southeastern University |access-date=April 1, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816042819/http://www.fcas.nova.edu/faculty/publications/quadrivium/issue1/mental_illness/index.cfm |archive-date=August 16, 2013 }}</ref>
-==Features==
-The sufferer may be mildly [[obsession|obsessed]] with death or a deceased person whom they believe to be the source of their affliction. Physical symptoms can include weakness and fatigue, diminished appetite, or other digestion problems. There may be dizziness or fainting and sometimes even loss of consciousness. At times the sufferer might experience a sense of suffocation or inability to breath. [[Psychology|Psychological]] symptoms may include nightmares or other sleep disturbances, [[anxiety]], or a sense of being in danger. He or she may experience [[hallucination]]s or confusion. At some point there can be feelings of pointlessness or depression.<ref>[[American Psychiatric Association]]. (2000). ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' (4th ed., rev.). Washington, DC: Author.</ref>
 ==Cultural background==
+North American people associated with ghost sickness include the [[Navajo Nation|Navajo]] and some [[Muscogee]] and [[Plains Indians|Plains]] cultures. In the [[Muscogee (Creek)]] culture, it is believed that everyone is a part of an energy called ''Ibofanga''. This energy supposedly results from the flow between mind, body, and spirit. Illness can result from this flow being disrupted. Therefore, their "medicine is used to prevent or treat an obstruction and restore the peaceful flow of energy within a person".<ref name=brintmcr>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/07481180701405188 |title=Bereavement Rituals in the Muscogee Creek Tribe |year=2007 |last1=Walker |first1=Andrea C. |last2=Balk |first2=David E. |journal=Death Studies |volume=31 |issue=7 |pages=633–52 |pmid=17849603|s2cid=41156151 }}</ref> Purification rituals for mourning "focus on preventing unnatural or prolonged emotional and physical drain."<ref name=brintmcr />
+The traditional Native American grief resolution process is qualitatively different from those usually seen in mainstream Western cultures. In 1881, there was a federal ban on some of the traditional mourning rituals practised by the [[Lakota people|Lakota]] and other tribes. Lakota expert [[Maria Yellow Horse Brave Heart]] proposes that the loss of these rituals may have caused the Lakota to be "further predisposed to the development of pathological grief". Some manifestations of unresolved grief include seeking visions of the spirits of deceased relatives, obsessive reminiscing about the deceased, longing for and believing in a reunion with the deceased, fantasies of reappearance of the deceased, and belief in one's ability to project oneself to the past or to the future.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00377319809517532 |title=The return to the sacred path: Healing the historical trauma and historical unresolved grief response among the Lakota through a psychoeducational group intervention |year=1998 |last1=Brave Heart |first1=Maria Yellow Horse |journal=Smith College Studies in Social Work |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=287–305}}</ref>
-The Native American worldview (the way in which a culture interprets the world) is more cyclical in nature than the more linear worldview of most of the U.S. For mainstream America there is cause and effect. Events happen in a linear order, one after the other. But, American Indians have what the National Indian Child Welfare Association (NICWA) calls a relational worldview that is more cyclical in nature. It is not oriented in time but ebbs and flows in a manner that all events affect each other regardless of when the event takes place - past, present or future. With this world view in mind, ghost sickness can be more understood. If certain burial and mourning rituals are not practiced the deceased cannot be at peace on their new spiritual plane. The deceased then causes physical and mental problems for the living who in turn, by not practicing the rituals and suffering ghost sickness, cause the inability for the deceased to be at peace.<ref>Cross, T.L. (date unknown)''Relational Worldview Model'' Retrieved May 18, 2008 from http://www.nicwa.org/Relational_Worldview/</ref>
-In the Creek culture, it is believed that everyone is a part of an energy called ''Ibofanga''. This energy supposedly results from the flow between mind, body and spirit. Illness can result from this flow being disrupted. Therefore "Indian medicine is used to prevent or treat an obstruction and restore the peaceful flow of energy within a person." Purification rituals for mourning "focus on preventing unnatural or prolonged emotional and physical drain."<ref> Walker, A. C., & Balk, D. E. (2007). Bereavement rituals in the Muscogee Creek tribe. ''Death Studies, 31'', 633-652. </ref>
-In 1881 there was a federal ban on some of the traditional mourning rituals practiced by the [[Lakota]] and other tribes. The grief resolution process is qualitatively different for Native Americans than for [[Europe]]an-based cultures. Maria Yellow Horse Brave Heart, PhD, proposes that the loss of these rituals may have caused the Lakota to be "further predisposed to the development of pathological grief." Some manifestations of unresolved grief include: seeking visions of the spirits of deceased relatives, obsessive reminiscing about the deceased, longing for and believing in a reunion with the deceased, fantasies of reappearance of the deceased,and belief in one's ability to project oneself to the past or to the future.<ref>Yellow Horse Brave Heart, Maria, (1998) The return to the sacred path: Healing the historical trauma and historical unresolved grief response among the Lakota through a psychoeducational group intervention. ''Smith College Studies in Social Work 68(3),'' 288-305</ref>
 ==Cause==
+There are a variety of mainstream psychological theories about Ghost Sickness. Putsch states that "Spirits or 'ghosts' may be viewed as being directly or indirectly linked to the cause of an event, accident, or illness".<ref>Putsch, R.W. (2006-2007) ''[http://www.drumlummon.org/images/DV_vol1-no3_PDFs/DV_vol1-no3_Putsch.pdf Drumlummon Views] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090920121953/http://www.drumlummon.org/images/DV_vol1-no3_PDFs/DV_vol1-no3_Putsch.pdf |date=2009-09-20 }}'', retrieved on May 22, 2008</ref> Both Erikson and Macgregor report substantiating evidence of [[psychological trauma]] response in ghost sickness, with features including [[Social withdrawal|withdrawal]] and psychic numbing, anxiety and [[hypervigilance]], [[guilt (emotion)|guilt]], identification with ancestral pain and death, and chronic sadness and depression.<ref>Erikson, E. (1959). ''Identity and the life cycle''. Psychological Issues, 7(1). New York: International Universities Press.</ref><ref>Macgregor, G. (1975). ''Warriors without weapons''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1946){{page needed|date=November 2013}}</ref><ref>Macgregor, G.(1970). Changing Society: The Teton Dakotas. InE. Nurge (Ed.),''The modern Sioux: Social systems and reservation culture'' 92-106. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.</ref>
+==Treatment==
-Ghost sickness may be brought about from the belief that the dead may try to take someone with them. "Spirits or “ghosts” may be viewed as being directly or indirectly linked to the cause of an event, accident, or illness."<ref>Putsch, R.W. (2006-2007) ''Drumlummon Views'' retrieved on May 22, 2008 from http://www.drumlummon.org/images/DV_vol1-no3_PDFs/DV_vol1-no3_Putsch.pdf</ref> Both Erikson (1963) and Macgregor
+Religious leaders within the Navajo tribe repeatedly perform [[Navajo song ceremonial complex|ceremonies]] to eliminate the all-consuming thoughts of the dead.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Morris E. |last1=Opler |first2=William E. |last2=Bittle |date=Winter 1961 |title=The Death Practices and Eschatology of the Kiowa Apache |journal=Southwestern Journal of Anthropology |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=383–94 |doi=10.1086/soutjanth.17.4.3628949 |jstor=3628949|s2cid=164093581 }}</ref>
-(1946/1975; 1970) report substantiating evidence of trauma response
-features including: (a) withdrawal and psychic numbing, (b) anxiety and hypervigilance, (c) guilt, (d) identification with ancestral pain and death, and (e) chronic sadness and depression.<ref>
-Erikson, E. (1959). ''Identity and the life cycle''. Psychological Issues, 7(1). New York: International Universities Press.</ref> <ref>
-Macgregor, G. (1975). ''Warriors without weapons''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1946)</ref> <ref> Macgregor,G.(1970). Changing society: The Teton Dakotas. InE.Nurge(Ed.),''The modern Sioux: Social systems and reservation culture'' 92-106. Lincoln: University
-of Nebraska Press.</ref>
+== See also ==
-==Additional manifestations==
+* [[Complicated grief disorder]]
-[[Somatization]] is another manifestation of unresolved grief for Native Americans.<ref>Indian Health Service. (1995). ''Regional differences in Indian health.'' Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.</ref> Somatization, also known as Briquet's syndrome, is a chronic condition with numerous physical complaints most commonly involving the digestive system, the nervous system and chronic pain. Physicians are unable to find an underlying physical cause for the patients symptoms which can persists for years and can be severe enough to interfere with employment and personal relationships.<ref> MedlinePlusMedical Encylopedia (date unknown) ''Somatization disorder'' Retrieved May 27,2008 from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000955.htm </ref>
+* [[Vengeful ghost]]
+==References==
-Another possible manifestation of unresolved grief for Native Americans is the high rate of suicide among some tribes. This can be seen in self-destructive behaviors brought about by the inability to process grief through traditional rituals.<ref>Jacobs, S. (1993). Pathologic grief: Maladaptation to loss. Washington, DC/London: American Psychiatric Press </ref> High suicide rates can also be a manifestation of a obsession with the dead in which the sufferer may have an unconcious wish to join their deceased loved one.<ref> Lifton, R. J. (1988). Understanding the traumatized self: Imagery, symbolization, and transformation. ''In J. P. Wilson,Z. Harei & B. Kahana (Eds.),Human adaptation to extreme stress: From the Holocaust to Vietnam'' 7-31. New York: Plenum Press.</ref> <ref>Pollock, G. H. (1989a). Mouming and adaptation. In G. H. Pollock (Ed.), ''The mourning-liberation process, Vol I'' 3-45. Madison, CT: Intemational Universities Press. (Original work published 1961)</ref> <ref> Pollock, G. H. (1989b). On mouming and anniversaries: The relationship of culturally constituted defensive systems to intrapsychic adaptive processes. In G. H. Pollock (Ed.), ''The mourning-liberation process, Vol I'' (pp. 251-287). Madison, CT: International Universities Press. (Original work published 1972)</ref>
+{{Reflist|2}}
+{{Ghosts}}
-==References==
-{{Reflist}}
-[[Category:Culture-specific syndromes]]
+[[Category:Ghosts|Sickness]]
 [[Category:Native American religion]]
-[[Category:Navajo tribe]]
+[[Category:Navajo mythology]]
 [[Category:Psychosis]]
+[[Category:American witchcraft]]
+[[Category:Native American health]]
+[[Category:Grief]]
+[[Category:Culture-bound syndromes]]
+[[Category:Polynesian mythology]]