Pekin Formation: Difference between revisions

Pekin Formation
Pekin Formation
Stratigraphic range: Late Carnian,; ~231 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N ↓
	Weathered claystones from the Pekin Formation
Type	Geological formation
Unit of	Chatham Group
Underlies	Cumnock Formation
Thickness	542–1,240 metres (1,778–4,068 ft)
Lithology
Primary	Sandstone
Other	Siltstone, shale, conglomerate
Location
Region	North Carolina
Country	United States
Extent	Sanford Sub-basin, Deep River Basin
Type section
Named for	The village of Pekin, Montgomery County
Named by	Campbell & Kimball
Year defined	1923
	Pekin Formation (North Carolina)

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The Pekin Formation is a Late Triassic (Carnian) geological formation in North Carolina. The Pekin Formation is specific to the Sanford Sub-Basin of the Deep River Basin of North Carolina, although it may be equivalent to the Stockton Formation of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York. The Pekin Formation was deposited in a rift basin along the Atlantic margin of North America during the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea during the Late Triassic. The most common rocks in the Pekin Formation are red to brown sandstones, representing a terrestrial fluvial (riverine) and floodplain environment in a hot, humid climate. It has yielded both abundant plant and animal fossils, including some of the oldest potential dinosaur footprints in the world and the large predatory crocodylomorph Carnufex carolinensis.

Description and history

On the surface, the Pekin Formation is exposed only as a long, narrow strip along the western edge of the Sanford Sub-basin. It is both the oldest and stratigraphically lowest formation in the sub-basin. As such, it unconformably overlies the much older eroded and metamorphosed Proterozoic to Cambrian aged metasediments and metavolcanic rocks of the Piedmont. The upper boundary grades into the overlying Cumnock Formation, distinguished by its fine-grained grey lacustrine sediments. The Pekin Formation was deposited in a half-graben that formed as part of a series of rift basins that make up the Newark Supergroup during the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea and subsequent opening of the Atlantic Ocean.^[1]^[2]

As originally defined by Marius R. Campbell and Kent W. Kimball in 1923, the Pekin Formation spanned the entirety of the lower Deep River Basin, encompassing the lowest sedimentary units of the neighbouring Durham and the Wadesboro sub-basins. In fact, the Pekin Formation was named after the village of Pekin located in the Wadesboro Sub-basin, as this was where Campbell and Kimball (1923) considered it to be best exposed.^[3] However, although the three sub-basins share a broadly similar three-part stratigraphy, geologists have not been able to accurately correlate those of the Sanford Sub-basin with the other sub-basins due to variations in stratigraphy, lithology and biostratigraphy. Furthermore, the Pekin has a very similar lithology to the Sandford Formation, and are only distinguishable by the presence of the Cumnock Formation between them.^[1] As such, the Pekin, Cumnock and Sanford formations have been restricted to just the Sanford Sub-basin where they can be recognised.^[2]

In 2016, Robert E. Weems, Lawrence H. Tanner, and Spencer G. Lucas proposed that the Pekin Formation should be subsumed into the Stockton Formation. Rather than dividing the Newark Supergroup into numerous distinct formations localised in single basins, they proposed a system where the disparate formations of local basins were merged into fewer regional-scale formations, based upon overall similar lithologies, biostratigraphy and chronology. Under this scheme, the Pekin Formation is equivalent to and is synonymous with the Stockton Formation. The Pekin Formation could then be considered an informal name for the Stockton Formation exposed in the Sanford Sub-basin.^[4]

Geology

The base of the formation is composed of a roughly 10 metres (33 ft) thick layer of grey conglomerate, historically referred to as "millstone grit". This unit has been interpreted as alluvial fan deposits made up of material derived from the Piedmont to the west flowing down in a southeasterly direction. The remainder of the Pekin Formation is made up of red to brown and purple sandstones, siltstones and mudstones, along with deposits of conglomerate and shale that altogether support a fluvial and floodplain deposition environment. Unlike the lowest layers, sedimentation for the rest of the Pekin Formation had switched to a source in the highlands to the southeast, with rivers and streams in the upper Pekin flowing towards the north and northwest. The overall climate is interpreted as being warm and humid with highly seasonal rainfall.^[3]^[5]

Clays from the Pekin Formation have been used extensively for the production of pottery, bricks and tiles, namely the Boren and Pomona pits. These two quarries have historically been the site of fossil discoveries, preserving both plants and animals, as well as trace fossils, although these quarries are now disused and some have filled with water.^[6] However, excavations by palaeontologists have been continued in a new brick quarry (Merry Oaks Quarry) by the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences (NCMNS) at a site labelled NCPALEO 1902. These excavations have uncovered various new vertebrate fossil discoveries, including the relatively complete remains of new Triassic archosaurs.^[7]^[8]

The age of the Pekin Formation has been estimated based on biostratigraphy and magnetostratigraphy to the Late Carnian (or Tuvalian), supported by correlations with faunas in western North America.^[9]^[8]^[10]

Paleobiota

A variety of plant and vertebrate fossils have been recovered from the Pekin Formation, the including partial skeletons of large vertebrates. The Boren pits preserves abundant plant megafossils, most commonly cycads and bennettitales, as well as horsetails, various ferns and conifers. Some of the most notable finds include an intact specimen of the early palm-like cycad Leptocycas gracilis, as well as a new species of the bennettitale Williamsonia, W. carolinensis, that preserves rare reproductive organs and suggests that it and the leaf Eoginkgoites belong to the same plant.^[6]^[11]

Invertebrate fossils from the Boren pits include conchostracans (clam shrimps) and clams, as well as numerous Scoyenia burrow trace fossils likely made by a crayfish-like decapod. Vertebrate remains are more common in the Pomona pit, which has preserved the fragmentary remains of archosaurs, phytosaurs, and synapsids, as well as fish bones and scales. Fossil footprints and trackways of tetrapods have also been recorded from the Pomona pit (with a single print from the Boren pit), including bipedal three-toed footprints that may have been made by early dinosaurs.^[2]^[9]

Only vertebrate fossils are known from the upper Pekin NCPALEO 1902 locality, and include a variety of archosaurs and synapsids typical of Late Triassic North America. The vertebrate fauna of the Pekin Formation has been used to correlate it with strata in western North America, such as the Chinle Formation, with some genera (e.g. Placerias, Coahomasuchus) being shared between eastern and western North America.^[8]^[9]

Color key

Taxon	Reclassified taxon	Taxon falsely reported as present	Dubious taxon or junior synonym	Ichnotaxon	Ootaxon	Morphotaxon

Notes
Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; ~~crossed out~~ taxa are discredited.

Archosauromorphs

Other archosauromorphs

The online collections of the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences list tooth fragments of "Archosaurus" sp. and Uatchitodon kroehleri, as well as a humerus fragment of "Rhynchosaurus" sp.^[12] Archosaurus and Rhynchosaurus are likely only provisional labels.

Phytosaurs

Phytosaurs of the Pekin Formation
Genus	Species	Location	Material	Notes	Images
Apatopus	A. lineatus	Pomona pit	Trackways and isolated prints.^[9]	Phytosaur footprints.	Rutiodon
Phytosauria indet.	Indeterminate	NCPALEO1902		Currently undescribed.^[8]
?Rutiodon	?R. carolinensis		Rostrum fragment	Originally misidentified as the sacrum of a large fossil bird and named "Palaeonornis struthionoides".^[13]

Pseudosuchians

Pseudosuchians of the Pekin Formation
Genus	Species	Location	Material	Notes	Images
cf. Brachychirotherium	cf. Brachychirotherium isp.	Pomona pit	Numerous isolated tracks.^[9]	Tracks similar to Brachychirotherium, but differ in having a functionally tridactyl foot with reduced first digit and fifth digit positioned further back. Lack unequivocal hand impressions.^[9]	Carnufex Longosuchus Revueltosaurus
Crocodylomorpha indet.^[7]	Indeterminate	NCPALEO 1902	A nearly complete articulated skeleton.^[14]	A small-bodied basal crocodylomorph, currently undescribed.
Carnufex	C. carolinensis	NCPALEO 1902	A partial skull and fragmentary postcranial skeleton.^[7]^[10]	A large, possibly bipedal predatory crocodylomorph.
Coahomasuchus	C. chathamensis	NCPALEO 1902	"Largely articulated, anterior portion of a skeleton".^[8]	A typothoracisine aetosaur.
Gorgetosuchus	G. pekinensis	NCPALEO 1902	10 articulated rows of osteoderms from the front half of the animal.^[15]	A desmatosuchine aetosaur. Unique among aetosaurs for having spines on both its dorsal and lateral osteoderms around the neck.
Longosuchus	Longosuchus sp.	Pomona pit	Osteoderms^[15]	A desmatosuchine aetosaur. Material referred to it may actually belong to Lucasuchus.
Lucasuchus	L. hunti	Pomona pit	Osteoderms^[15]	A desmatosuchine aetosaur.
~~Pekinosaurus~~	~~P. olseni~~			Possibly a herbivorous aetosauriform related to Revueltosaurus. Initially reported from the Pekin Formation, but actually from the overlying Cumnock Formation.^[16]
Revueltosaurus sp.		Teeth	Unpublished, listed in the online collections of the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences.^[12]

Synapsids

Synapsids of the Pekin Formation
Genus	Species	Location	Material	Notes	Images
Boreogomphodon	B. jeffersoni	NCPALEO 1902	Numerous skulls and postcranial skeletons.^[17]^[18]	A herbivorous traversodontid cynodont, also known from Virginia.	Placerias
Placerias	P. hesternus	Pomona pit	Fragmentary cranial and postcranial bones.	Originally identified only on the assumption that Placerias was the only dicynodont from Late Triassic North America, later examination confirmed this assignment.^[19]
Stahleckeriidae indet.	Indeterminate	NCPALEO 1902	A partial complete skeleton preserving the back half of the animal just ahead of the sacrum.^[20]	A stahleckeriid dicynodont distinct from Placerias, currently undescribed and so its affinities are unclear.^[19]

Fishes

Ray-finned fishes of the Pekin Formation
Genus	Species	Location	Material	Notes	Images
Redfieldiiformes indet.	Indeterminate		Undetermined scales and bones.^[21]	An indeterminate freshwater redfieldiid fish.

Crustaceans

Crustaceans of the Pekin Formation
Genus	Species	Location	Material	Notes	Images
Cyzicus	C. sp.			A clam shrimp.	Cyzicus
Scoyenia	S. sp.			Traces of possible decapod burrows.^[21]	Cyzicus

Plants

A diverse flora is known from the formation:^[21]^[22]^[23]

Plants of the Pekin Formation
Genus	Species	Notes	Images
Cladophlebis	C. microphylla	Fronds of an indeterminate leptosporangiate fern.	Neocalamites
Compsostrobus	C. neotericus	Male & female cones and foliage of a compsostrobacean conifer.^[24]
Clathopteris	C. sp.	Fronds of a dipterid fern.
Cynepteris	C. sp.	Fronds of a cynepterid fern.
Danaeopsis	D. sp.	Fronds of a marattiid fern.
Eoginkgoites	E. sp.	Leaves of a williamsonacean bennettitale, superficially similar to those of ginkgos. Possibly the foliage of Williamsonia carolinensis.
Ischnophyton	I. iconicum	A bennettitale stem.^[25]
Leptocycas	L. gracilis	Leaves, stems, and cones of a cycad, including intact specimens.^[6]^[26] Possibly a member of the Zamiaceae.^[27]
Lonchopteris	L. virginiensis	Fern fronds. The species has sometimes been considered referable to another fern genus, Cynepteris.
Matridiostrobus	M. sp.	Female conifer cones.
Neocalamites	N. virginiensis	Leaves and stems of a large neocalamitaceous equisetale (horsetail relative).
Neocalamites	N. knowltoni
Otozamites	O. powelli	Leaves of a williamsonacean bennettitale.
Otozamites	O. hespera	Leaves of a williamsonacean bennettitale.
Pekinopteris	P. auriculata	Fronds of a schizaealean fern.^[28]
Pelourdea	P. sp.	Conifer (possibly gnetophyte) leaves.
Phlebopteris	P. smithii	Fronds of a matoniaceous fern.
Phoenicopsis	P. sp.	Leaves of a czekanowskialean gymnosperm, distantly related to ginkgos.
Pseudoctenis	P. sp.	Cycad leaves.
Pterophyllum	P. sp.	Leaves of a williamsonacean bennettitale.
Voltzia	V. andrewsii	Seed cones of a voltzian conifer.^[29]
Williamsonia	W. carolinensis	Female reproductive structure of a williamsonacean bennettitale, possibly belonging to the same plant as Eoginkgoites.
Wingatea	W. sp.	Fronds of a gleicheniaceous fern.

References

^ ^a ^b Clark, T. W.; Gore, P. J. W.; Watson, M. E. (2001). "Depositional and structural framework of the Deep River Triassic basin, North Carolina". Field Trip Guidebook for the 50th Annual Meeting of the Southeastern Section (PDF). Raleigh, NC, USA: North Carolina Geological Survey. pp. 1–14. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |agency= ignored (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c Olsen, P. E.; Froelich, A. J.; Daniels, D. M.; Smoot, J. P.; Gore, P. J. W. (1991). "Rift basins of early mesozoic age, the geology of the Carolinas". In Horton, W. (ed.). Geology of the Carolinas (PDF). Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. pp. 142–170. ISBN 9780870496622.
^ ^a ^b Campbell, Marius R.; Kimball, Kent W. (1923). "The Deep River coal field of North Carolina" (PDF). North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey Bulletin. 33: 1–95.
^ Weems, Robert E.; Tanner, Lawrence H.; Lucas, Spencer G. (2016). "Synthesis and revision of the lithostratigraphic groups and formations in the Upper Permian?–Lower Jurassic Newark Supergroup of eastern North America". Stratigraphy. 13 (2): 111–153. doi:10.29041/strat.13.2.03.
^ Reinemund, J. A. (1955). "Geology of the Deep River coal field, North Carolina" (PDF). Geological Survey Professional Paper. Professional Paper (246). US Government Printing Office. doi:10.3133/pp246.
^ ^a ^b ^c Clark, T. W.; Gore, P. J. W.; Watson, M. E. (2001). Field Trip Guidebook for the 50th Annual Meeting of the Southeastern Section (PDF). Raleigh, NC, USA: North Carolina Geological Survey. pp. 29–30. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |agency= ignored (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c Zanno, L. E.; Drymala, S.; Nesbitt, S. J.; Schneider, V. P. (2015). "Early crocodylomorph increases top tier predator diversity during rise of dinosaurs". Scientific Reports. 5: 9276. Bibcode:2015NatSR...5E9276Z. doi:10.1038/srep09276. PMC 4365386. PMID 25787306.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Heckert, A. B.; Fraser, N. C.; Schneider, V. P. (2017). "A new species of Coahomasuchus (Archosauria, Aetosauria) from the Upper Triassic Pekin Formation, Deep River Basin, North Carolina". Journal of Paleontology. 91 (1): 162–178. Bibcode:2017JPal...91..162H. doi:10.1017/jpa.2016.130.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Olsen, P. E.; Huber, P. (1998). "The oldest Late Triassic footprint assemblage from North America (Pekin Formation, Deep River Basin, North Carolina, USA)" (PDF). Southeastern Geology. 38 (2): 77–90.
^ ^a ^b Drymala, S. M.; Zanno, L. E. (2016). "Osteology of Carnufex carolinensis (Archosauria: Psuedosuchia) from the Pekin Formation of North Carolina and Its Implications for Early Crocodylomorph Evolution". PLOS ONE. 11 (6): e0157528. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1157528D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0157528. PMC 4909254. PMID 27304665.
^ Pot, C.; Axsmith, B. J. (2015). Herendeen, P. S. (ed.). "Williamsonia carolinensis sp. nov. and Associated Eoginkgoites Foliage from the Upper Triassic Pekin Formation, North Carolina: Implications for Early Evolution in the Williamsoniaceae (Bennettitales)". International Journal of Plant Sciences. 176 (2): 174–185. doi:10.1086/679471. S2CID 44559347.
^ ^a ^b "Online Collections | North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences". collections.naturalsciences.org. Retrieved 2021-08-18.
^ Baird, D. (1986). "Some upper Triassic reptiles, footprints, and amphibian from New Jersey". Mosasaur. 3: 125–153.
^ Nesbitt, S.; Schneider, V.; Irmis, R.; Zanno, L.; Clarke, J. A.; Brinkman, P. (2014). "A New, Nearly-Complete Skeleton of an Early-Diverging Crocodylomorph from the Late Triassic (Late Carnian) of North America and High Rates of Morphological Change prior to the End-Triassic Extinction" (PDF). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology (Program and Abstracts, 2014): 195A.
^ ^a ^b ^c Heckert, A. B.; Schneider, V. P.; Fraser, N. C.; Webb, R. A. (2015). "A new aetosaur (Archosauria, Suchia) from the Upper Triassic Pekin Formation, Deep River Basin, North Carolina, U.S.A., and its implications for early aetosaur evolution". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 35 (1): e881831. Bibcode:2015JVPal..35E1831H. doi:10.1080/02724634.2014.881831. S2CID 140176110.
^ Heckert, A. B.; Mitchell, J. S.; Schneider, V. P.; Olsen, P. E. (2012). "Diverse new microvertebrate assemblage from the Upper Triassic Cumnock Formation, Sanford Subbasin, North Carolina, USA". Journal of Paleontology. 86 (2): 368–390. Bibcode:2012JPal...86..368H. doi:10.1666/11-098.1. S2CID 18239160.
^ Liu, J.; Sues, H.-D. (2010). "Dentition and tooth replacement of Boreogomphodon (Cynodontia: Traversodontidae) from the Upper Triassic of North Carolina, U.S.A." (PDF). Vertebrata PalAsiatica. 48 (3): 169–184.
^ Liu, J.; Schneider, V. P.; Olsen, P. E. (2017). "The postcranial skeleton of Boreogomphodon (Cynodontia: Traversodontidae) from the Upper Triassic of North Carolina, USA and the comparison with other traversodontids". PeerJ. 5: e3521. doi:10.7717/peerj.3521. PMC 5601084. PMID 28929007.
^ ^a ^b Kammerer, C. F.; Fröbisch, J. R.; Angielczyk, K. D. (2013). Farke, Andrew A (ed.). "On the Validity and Phylogenetic Position of Eubrachiosaurus browni, a Kannemeyeriiform Dicynodont (Anomodontia) from Triassic North America". PLOS ONE. 8 (5): e64203. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...864203K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064203. PMC 3669350. PMID 23741307.
^ Green, J. L. (2011). "Bone and Dental Histology of Late Triassic Dicynodonts from North America". In Chinsamy-Turan, A. (ed.). Forerunners of Mammals: Radiation Histology Biology. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 178–196. ISBN 978-0253005335.
^ ^a ^b ^c Olsen, Paul E.; Schlische, Roy W.; Gore, Pamela J. W., eds. (1989). Tectonic, Depositional, and Pleoecological History of Early Mesozoic Rift Basins, Eastern North America. Washington, D. C.: American Geophysical Union. doi:10.1029/ft351. ISBN 978-0-87590-658-4.
^ "PBDB". paleobiodb.org. Retrieved 2024-03-15.
^ Hope, R. C.; Patterson III, O. F. (1969). "Triassic Flora from the Deep River Basin, North Carolina". North Carolina Department of Conservation and Development. 2.
^ Delevoryas, T.; Hope, R. C. (1973). "Fertile Coniferophyte Remains from the Late Triassic Deep River Basin, North Carolina". American Journal of Botany. 60 (8): 810–818. doi:10.2307/2441174. ISSN 0002-9122. JSTOR 2441174.
^ Delevoryas, T.; Hope, R. C. (1976-01-01). "More evidence for a slender growth habit in Mesozoic cycadophytes". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. Patterns in Gymnosperm Evolution. 21 (1): 93–100. Bibcode:1976RPaPa..21...93D. doi:10.1016/0034-6667(76)90023-3. ISSN 0034-6667.
^ Delevoryas, T.; Hope, R. (1971-01-22). "A new Triassic cycad and its phyletic implications". Postilla (150).
^ Zhang, Jian-Wei; Yao, Jian-Xin; Chen, Jia-Rui; Li, Cheng-Sen (2010-05-25). "A new species of Leptocycas (Zamiaceae) from the Upper Triassic sediments of Liaoning Province, China". Journal of Systematics and Evolution. 48 (4): 286–301. doi:10.1111/j.1759-6831.2010.00079.x.
^ Axsmith, Brian; Skog, Judith; Pott, Christian (2018-01-01), Krings, Michael; Harper, Carla J.; Cúneo, Néstor Rubén; Rothwell, Gar W. (eds.), "Chapter 10 - A Triassic Mystery Solved: Fertile Pekinopteris From the Triassic of North Carolina, United States", Transformative Paleobotany, Academic Press, pp. 179–186, ISBN 978-0-12-813012-4, retrieved 2024-03-15
^ Delevoryas, T.; Hope, R. C. (1975-08-01). "Voltzia andrewsii, n. sp., an Upper Triassic seed cone from North Carolina, U.S.A." Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 20 (1): 67–74. Bibcode:1975RPaPa..20...67D. doi:10.1016/0034-6667(75)90007-X. ISSN 0034-6667.

[Clark01-1-1] Clark, T. W.; Gore, P. J. W.; Watson, M. E. (2001). "Depositional and structural framework of the Deep River Triassic basin, North Carolina". Field Trip Guidebook for the 50th Annual Meeting of the Southeastern Section (PDF). Raleigh, NC, USA: North Carolina Geological Survey. pp. 1–14. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |agency= ignored (help)

[Olsen91-2] Olsen, P. E.; Froelich, A. J.; Daniels, D. M.; Smoot, J. P.; Gore, P. J. W. (1991). "Rift basins of early mesozoic age, the geology of the Carolinas". In Horton, W. (ed.). Geology of the Carolinas (PDF). Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. pp. 142–170. ISBN 9780870496622.

[C&K-3] Campbell, Marius R.; Kimball, Kent W. (1923). "The Deep River coal field of North Carolina" (PDF). North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey Bulletin. 33: 1–95.

[:2-4] Weems, Robert E.; Tanner, Lawrence H.; Lucas, Spencer G. (2016). "Synthesis and revision of the lithostratigraphic groups and formations in the Upper Permian?–Lower Jurassic Newark Supergroup of eastern North America". Stratigraphy. 13 (2): 111–153. doi:10.29041/strat.13.2.03.

[5] Reinemund, J. A. (1955). "Geology of the Deep River coal field, North Carolina" (PDF). Geological Survey Professional Paper. Professional Paper (246). US Government Printing Office. doi:10.3133/pp246.

[Clark01-2-6] Clark, T. W.; Gore, P. J. W.; Watson, M. E. (2001). Field Trip Guidebook for the 50th Annual Meeting of the Southeastern Section (PDF). Raleigh, NC, USA: North Carolina Geological Survey. pp. 29–30. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |agency= ignored (help)

[zannoetal15-7] Zanno, L. E.; Drymala, S.; Nesbitt, S. J.; Schneider, V. P. (2015). "Early crocodylomorph increases top tier predator diversity during rise of dinosaurs". Scientific Reports. 5: 9276. Bibcode:2015NatSR...5E9276Z. doi:10.1038/srep09276. PMC 4365386. PMID 25787306.

[Cchathamensis-8] Heckert, A. B.; Fraser, N. C.; Schneider, V. P. (2017). "A new species of Coahomasuchus (Archosauria, Aetosauria) from the Upper Triassic Pekin Formation, Deep River Basin, North Carolina". Journal of Paleontology. 91 (1): 162–178. Bibcode:2017JPal...91..162H. doi:10.1017/jpa.2016.130.

[OlsHub-9] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Olsen, P. E.; Huber, P. (1998). "The oldest Late Triassic footprint assemblage from North America (Pekin Formation, Deep River Basin, North Carolina, USA)" (PDF). Southeastern Geology. 38 (2): 77–90.

[Drymala16-10] Drymala, S. M.; Zanno, L. E. (2016). "Osteology of Carnufex carolinensis (Archosauria: Psuedosuchia) from the Pekin Formation of North Carolina and Its Implications for Early Crocodylomorph Evolution". PLOS ONE. 11 (6): e0157528. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1157528D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0157528. PMC 4909254. PMID 27304665.

[11] Pot, C.; Axsmith, B. J. (2015). Herendeen, P. S. (ed.). "Williamsonia carolinensis sp. nov. and Associated Eoginkgoites Foliage from the Upper Triassic Pekin Formation, North Carolina: Implications for Early Evolution in the Williamsoniaceae (Bennettitales)". International Journal of Plant Sciences. 176 (2): 174–185. doi:10.1086/679471. S2CID 44559347.

[NCSMcollections-12] "Online Collections | North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences". collections.naturalsciences.org. Retrieved 2021-08-18.

[13] Baird, D. (1986). "Some upper Triassic reptiles, footprints, and amphibian from New Jersey". Mosasaur. 3: 125–153.

[14] Nesbitt, S.; Schneider, V.; Irmis, R.; Zanno, L.; Clarke, J. A.; Brinkman, P. (2014). "A New, Nearly-Complete Skeleton of an Early-Diverging Crocodylomorph from the Late Triassic (Late Carnian) of North America and High Rates of Morphological Change prior to the End-Triassic Extinction" (PDF). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology (Program and Abstracts, 2014): 195A.

[Heckert15-15] Heckert, A. B.; Schneider, V. P.; Fraser, N. C.; Webb, R. A. (2015). "A new aetosaur (Archosauria, Suchia) from the Upper Triassic Pekin Formation, Deep River Basin, North Carolina, U.S.A., and its implications for early aetosaur evolution". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 35 (1): e881831. Bibcode:2015JVPal..35E1831H. doi:10.1080/02724634.2014.881831. S2CID 140176110.

[Heckertetal12-16] Heckert, A. B.; Mitchell, J. S.; Schneider, V. P.; Olsen, P. E. (2012). "Diverse new microvertebrate assemblage from the Upper Triassic Cumnock Formation, Sanford Subbasin, North Carolina, USA". Journal of Paleontology. 86 (2): 368–390. Bibcode:2012JPal...86..368H. doi:10.1666/11-098.1. S2CID 18239160.

[17] Liu, J.; Sues, H.-D. (2010). "Dentition and tooth replacement of Boreogomphodon (Cynodontia: Traversodontidae) from the Upper Triassic of North Carolina, U.S.A." (PDF). Vertebrata PalAsiatica. 48 (3): 169–184.

[18] Liu, J.; Schneider, V. P.; Olsen, P. E. (2017). "The postcranial skeleton of Boreogomphodon (Cynodontia: Traversodontidae) from the Upper Triassic of North Carolina, USA and the comparison with other traversodontids". PeerJ. 5: e3521. doi:10.7717/peerj.3521. PMC 5601084. PMID 28929007.

[Eubrach-19] Kammerer, C. F.; Fröbisch, J. R.; Angielczyk, K. D. (2013). Farke, Andrew A (ed.). "On the Validity and Phylogenetic Position of Eubrachiosaurus browni, a Kannemeyeriiform Dicynodont (Anomodontia) from Triassic North America". PLOS ONE. 8 (5): e64203. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...864203K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064203. PMC 3669350. PMID 23741307.

[20] Green, J. L. (2011). "Bone and Dental Histology of Late Triassic Dicynodonts from North America". In Chinsamy-Turan, A. (ed.). Forerunners of Mammals: Radiation Histology Biology. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 178–196. ISBN 978-0253005335.

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