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{{Short description|Bleeding in pregnancy that occurs before, during, or after childbirth}}
'''Obstetrical bleeding''' also known as '''obstetrical hemorrhage''' and '''maternal hemorrhage''', refers to heavy bleeding during [[pregnancy]], [[Labor (childbirth)|labor]], or the [[Postpartum bleeding|postpartum]] <nowiki/>period. Bleeding may be vaginal or less commonly but more dangerously, internal, into the abdominal cavity. Typically bleeding is related to the pregnancy itself, but some forms of bleeding are caused by other events.
{{Infobox medical condition (new)

The most frequent cause of maternal mortality worldwide is severe hemorrhage with 8.7 million cases occurring in 2015<ref>GBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence, Collaborators. (8 October 2016). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5055577 "Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015."]. ''Lancet''. '''388''' (10053): 1545–1602. [[PubMed Central|PMC]] [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5055577 5055577] . [[PubMed Identifier|PMID]] [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27733282 27733282]. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:[https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2816%2931678-6 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6].</ref> and 83,000 of those events resulting in maternal death.<ref>GBD 2015 Mortality and Causes of Death, Collaborators. (8 October 2016). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5388903 "Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015."]. ''Lancet''. '''388'''(10053): 1459–1544. [[PubMed Central|PMC]] [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5388903 5388903] . [[PubMed Identifier|PMID]] [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27733281 27733281]. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:[https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0140-6736%2816%2931012-1 10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31012-1]</ref> Between 2003 and 2009, hemorrhage accounted for 27.1% of all maternal deaths globally<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Say, Lale et al.|first=|date=June 2014|title=Global causes of maternal death: a WHO systematic analysis|url=http://www.thelancet.com/journals/langlo/article/PIIS2214-109X(14)70227-X/abstract|journal=The Lancet Global Health|volume=2|pages=e323 - e333|via=}}</ref>{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| name = Obstetrical bleeding
| name = Obstetrical bleeding
| synonyms = Maternal bleeding, obstetrical hemorrhage, obstetric haemorrhage,<ref name="ICD-11 JA4">{{cite web | title=ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics | url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3A%2F%2Fid.who.int%2Ficd%2Fentity%2F903303141 |website= World Health Organization | access-date=2023-12-05}}</ref> maternal hemorrhage
| synonyms = Obstetrical hemorrhage, maternal hemorrhage
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| field = [[Obstetrics]]
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| frequency = 8.7 million (2015)<!-- incidence table --><ref name=GBD2016Inc/>
| frequency = 8.7 million (2015)<!-- incidence table --><ref name=GBD2015Pre>{{cite journal|last1=GBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence|first1=Collaborators.|title=Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015.|journal=Lancet|date=8 October 2016|volume=388|issue=10053|pages=1545–1602|pmid=27733282|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6|pmc=5055577}}</ref>
| deaths = 83,000 (2015)<ref name=GBD2016De/>
| deaths = 83,000 (2015)<ref name=GBD2015De>{{cite journal|last1=GBD 2015 Mortality and Causes of Death|first1=Collaborators.|title=Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015.|journal=Lancet|date=8 October 2016|volume=388|issue=10053|pages=1459–1544|pmid=27733281|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31012-1|pmc=5388903}}</ref>
}}
}}
<!-- Definition and symptoms -->
'''Obstetrical bleeding''' is [[bleeding]] in [[pregnancy]] that occurs [[Antepartum bleeding|before]], during, or [[Postpartum bleeding|after childbirth]].<ref name=Wal2009>{{cite journal |last1=Walfish |first1=M. |last2=Neuman |first2=A. |last3=Wlody |first3=D. |title=Maternal haemorrhage |journal=British Journal of Anaesthesia |date=December 2009 |volume=103 |pages=i47–i56 |doi=10.1093/bja/aep303|pmid=20007990 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Bleeding before childbirth is that which occurs after 24 weeks of pregnancy.<ref name=Wal2009/> Bleeding may be vaginal or less commonly into the abdominal cavity. Bleeding which occurs before 24 weeks is known as [[early pregnancy bleeding]].


<!-- Cause -->
== Early pregnancy ==
Causes of bleeding before and during childbirth include [[cervicitis]], [[placenta previa]], [[placental abruption]] and [[uterine rupture]].<ref name=Wal2009/><ref name="St2010Ant">{{cite book |last1=Stables |first1=Dorothy |last2=Rankin |first2=Jean |title=Physiology in Childbearing: With Anatomy and Related Biosciences |date=2010 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-0702044113 |page=429 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=54_pNDdevZ8C&pg=PA429 |language=en}}</ref> Causes of bleeding after childbirth include [[poor uterine tone|poor contraction of the uterus]], [[retained products of conception]], and [[coagulopathy|bleeding disorders]].<ref name=Wal2009/>
In [[ICD-10]], early pregnancy bleeding (code O20.9) refers to obstetrical hemorrhage before 20 completed weeks of [[gestational age]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=JdZDfYl5x5EC&pg=PA436 page 436] in: 2013 ICD-10-CM Draft Edition, by Carol J. Buck, Elsevier Health Sciences, 2013. {{ISBN|9781455774883}}</ref><ref>[http://www.icd10data.com/ICD10CM/Codes/O00-O9A/O20-O29/O20-/O20.9 2014 ICD-10-CM Diagnosis Code O20.9] from 2014 ICD-10-CM/PCS Medical Coding Reference].</ref>


<!-- Epidemiology -->
First trimester bleeding, is obstetrical hemorrhage in the [[first trimester]] (0 weeks-12 weeks of [[gestational age]]). First trimester bleeding is a common occurrence and estimated to occur in approximately 25% of all (clinically recognized) pregnancies.<ref>Pregnancy, Bleeding. eMedicineHealth. URL: http://www.emedicinehealth.com/pregnancy_bleeding/article_em.htm. Accessed on: April 12, 2009</ref><ref>''[http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/266110-overview Elective Abortion]'' at [[eMedicine]]</ref>
About 8.7 million cases of severe maternal bleeding occurred in 2015<ref name=GBD2016Inc>{{cite journal | title = Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015 | journal = Lancet | volume = 388 | issue = 10053 | pages = 1545–1602 | date = October 2016 | pmid = 27733282 | pmc = 5055577 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6 | last1 = Vos | first1 = Theo | last2 = Allen | first2 = Christine | last3 = Arora | first3 = Megha | last4 = Barber | first4 = Ryan M. | last5 = Bhutta | first5 = Zulfiqar A. | last6 = Brown | first6 = Alexandria | last7 = Carter | first7 = Austin | last8 = Casey | first8 = Daniel C. | last9 = Charlson | first9 = Fiona J. | last10 = Chen | first10 = Alan Z. | last11 = Coggeshall | first11 = Megan | last12 = Cornaby | first12 = Leslie | last13 = Dandona | first13 = Lalit | last14 = Dicker | first14 = Daniel J. | last15 = Dilegge | first15 = Tina | last16 = Erskine | first16 = Holly E. | last17 = Ferrari | first17 = Alize J. | last18 = Fitzmaurice | first18 = Christina | last19 = Fleming | first19 = Tom | last20 = Forouzanfar | first20 = Mohammad H. | last21 = Fullman | first21 = Nancy | last22 = Gething | first22 = Peter W. | last23 = Goldberg | first23 = Ellen M. | last24 = Graetz | first24 = Nicholas | last25 = Haagsma | first25 = Juanita A. | last26 = Hay | first26 = Simon I. | last27 = Johnson | first27 = Catherine O. | last28 = Kassebaum | first28 = Nicholas J. | last29 = Kawashima | first29 = Toana | last30 = Kemmer | first30 = Laura | display-authors = 29 }}</ref> resulting in 83,000 deaths.<ref name=GBD2016De>{{cite journal | title = Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015 | journal = Lancet | volume = 388 | issue = 10053 | pages = 1459–1544 | date = October 2016 | pmid = 27733281 | pmc = 5388903 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31012-1 | last1 = Wang | first1 = Haidong | last2 = Naghavi | first2 = Mohsen | last3 = Allen | first3 = Christine | last4 = Barber | first4 = Ryan M. | last5 = Bhutta | first5 = Zulfiqar A. | last6 = Carter | first6 = Austin | last7 = Casey | first7 = Daniel C. | last8 = Charlson | first8 = Fiona J. | last9 = Chen | first9 = Alan Zian | last10 = Coates | first10 = Matthew M. | last11 = Coggeshall | first11 = Megan | last12 = Dandona | first12 = Lalit | last13 = Dicker | first13 = Daniel J. | last14 = Erskine | first14 = Holly E. | last15 = Ferrari | first15 = Alize J. | last16 = Fitzmaurice | first16 = Christina | last17 = Foreman | first17 = Kyle | last18 = Forouzanfar | first18 = Mohammad H. | last19 = Fraser | first19 = Maya S. | last20 = Fullman | first20 = Nancy | last21 = Gething | first21 = Peter W. | last22 = Goldberg | first22 = Ellen M. | last23 = Graetz | first23 = Nicholas | last24 = Haagsma | first24 = Juanita A. | last25 = Hay | first25 = Simon I. | last26 = Huynh | first26 = Chantal | last27 = Johnson | first27 = Catherine O. | last28 = Kassebaum | first28 = Nicholas J. | last29 = Kinfu | first29 = Yohannes | last30 = Kulikoff | first30 = Xie Rachel | display-authors = 29 }}</ref> Between 2003 and 2009, bleeding accounted for 27% of maternal deaths globally.<ref name="SayChou2014">{{cite journal|last1=Say|first1=Lale|last2=Chou|first2=Doris|last3=Gemmill|first3=Alison|last4=Tunçalp|first4=Özge|last5=Moller|first5=Ann-Beth|last6=Daniels|first6=Jane|last7=Gülmezoglu|first7=A Metin|last8=Temmerman|first8=Marleen|last9=Alkema|first9=Leontine|title=Global causes of maternal death: a WHO systematic analysis|journal=The Lancet Global Health|volume=2|issue=6|year=2014|pages=e323–e333|issn=2214-109X|doi=10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70227-X|pmid=25103301|doi-access=free|hdl=1854/LU-5796925|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

[[Differential diagnosis]] of first trimester bleeding is as follows, with the [[mnemonic]] AGE IS Low (during first trimester):
* [[Abortion (spontaneous)]], also referred to as [[miscarriage]]. One study came to the result that the risk of miscarriage during the course of the pregnancy with just spotting during the [[first trimester]] was 9%, and with light bleeding 12%, compared to 12% in pregnancies without any first trimester bleeding. However, heavy first trimester bleeding was estimated to have a miscarriage risk of 24%.<ref>Hasan, R.; Baird, D. D.; [[Amy H. Herring|Herring, A. H.]]; Olshan, A. F.; Jonsson Funk, M. L.; Hartmann, K. E. (2009). "Association Between First-Trimester Vaginal Bleeding and Miscarriage". ''Obstetrics & Gynecology''. '''114''' (4): 860–867. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:[https://doi.org/10.1097%2FAOG.0b013e3181b79796 10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181b79796]</ref>
* [[Gestational trophoblastic neoplasia]]
* [[Ectopic pregnancy]], which implies a pregnancy outside the uterus, commonly in the fallopian tube, which may lead to bleeding internally that could be fatal if untreated. In cases where there is heavy bleeding and an [[obstetric ultrasonography]] assists in diagnosing a [[pregnancy of unknown location]] (no visible intrauterine pregnancy), it has been estimated that approximately 6% have an underlying ectopic pregnancy.<ref>Kirk, E.; Bottomley, C.; Bourne, T. (2013). "Diagnosing ectopic pregnancy and current concepts in the management of pregnancy of unknown location". ''Human Reproduction Update''. '''20''' (2): 250–61. [[PubMed Identifier|PMID]] [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24101604 24101604]. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:[https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fhumupd%2Fdmt047 10.1093/humupd/dmt047]</ref>
* [[Implantation bleeding]]
* [[Chorionic hematoma]]
* Spotting
* Lower [[Genitourinary tract|GU tract]] causes
* [[Vagina]]l bleed
* [[Cervix|Cervical]] bleed
Other causes of early pregnancy bleeding may include:
* [[Postcoital bleeding]], which is vaginal bleeding after sexual intercourse that can be normal with pregnancy
* Iatrogenic causes, or bleeding due to medical treatment or intervention, such as sex steroids, anticoagulants, or intrauterine contraceptive devices<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brenner|first=Paul|date=September 1996|title=Differential diagnosis of abnormal uterine bleeding|url=|journal=American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology|volume=175|pages=766–769|via=}}</ref>
* Infection<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ricardo Gómez, Roberto Romero, Jyh Kae Nien, Luis Medina, Mario Carstens, Yeon Mee Kim, Tinnakorn Chaiworapongsa, Jimmy Espinoza & Rogelio González|first=|date=August 2009|title=Idiopathic vaginal bleeding during pregnancy as the only clinical manifestation of intrauterine infection|url=|journal=The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine|volume=18|pages=31–37|via=}}</ref>


==Later pregnancy==
==Later pregnancy==
{{main|Antepartum bleeding}}
{{main|Antepartum bleeding}}
[[Antepartum bleeding]] (APH), also prepartum hemorrhage, is bleeding during pregnancy from the 24th week<ref name=":0">[http://patient.info/doctor/antepartum-haemorrhage patient.info » PatientPlus » Antepartum Haemorrhage] Last Updated: 5 May 2009</ref> (sometimes defined as from the 20th week<ref>[http://www.thewomens.org.au/AntepartumHaemorrhage The Royal Women’s Hospital > antepartum haemorrhage] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100108223247/http://www.thewomens.org.au/AntepartumHaemorrhage |date=2010-01-08 }} Retrieved on Jan 13, 2009</ref><ref name=":0" />) [[gestational age]] to full term (40th week). The primary consideration is the presence of a [[placenta previa]] which is a low lying placenta at or very near to the internal cervical os. This condition occurs in roughly 4 out of 1000<ref>Soyama H, Miyamoto M, Ishibashi H, Takano M, Sasa H, Furuya K (2016) Relation between Birth Weight and Intraoperative Hemorrhage during Cesarean Section in Pregnancy with Placenta Previa. PLoS ONE 11(11): e0167332. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0167332</ref> pregnancies and usually needs to be resolved by delivering the baby via [[cesarean section]]. Also a placental [[abruption]] (in which there is premature separation of the placenta) can lead to obstetrical hemorrhage, sometimes concealed. This pathology is of important consideration after maternal trauma such as a motor vehicle accident or fall.
[[Antepartum bleeding]] (APH), also prepartum hemorrhage, is bleeding during pregnancy from the 24th week<ref name=":0">[http://patient.info/doctor/antepartum-haemorrhage patient.info » PatientPlus » Antepartum Haemorrhage] Last Updated: 5 May 2009</ref> (sometimes defined as from the 20th week<ref>[http://www.thewomens.org.au/AntepartumHaemorrhage The Royal Women’s Hospital > antepartum haemorrhage] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100108223247/http://www.thewomens.org.au/AntepartumHaemorrhage |date=2010-01-08 }} Retrieved on Jan 13, 2009</ref><ref name=":0" />) [[Gestational age (obstetrics)|gestational age]] up to the birth of the baby.<ref name=St2010Ant/> The primary consideration is the presence of a [[placenta previa]] which is a low lying placenta at or very near to the internal cervical os. This condition occurs in roughly 4 out of 1000 <ref name="pmid27902772">{{cite journal | vauthors = Soyama H, Miyamoto M, Ishibashi H, Takano M, Sasa H, Furuya K | title = Relation between Birth Weight and Intraoperative Hemorrhage during Cesarean Section in Pregnancy with Placenta Previa | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 11 | issue = 11 | pages = e0167332 | date = 2016 | pmid = 27902772 | pmc = 5130260 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0167332 | bibcode = 2016PLoSO..1167332S | doi-access = free }}</ref> pregnancies and usually needs to be resolved by delivering the baby via [[cesarean section]]. Also a placental [[abruption]] (in which there is premature separation of the placenta) can lead to obstetrical hemorrhage, sometimes concealed. This pathology is of important consideration after maternal trauma such as a motor vehicle accident or fall.


Other considerations to include when assessing antepartum bleeding are: sterile vaginal exams that are performed in order to assess dilation of the patient when the 40th week is approaching. As well as cervical insufficiency defined as a midtrimester (14th-26th week) dilation of the cervix which may need medical intervention to assist in keeping the pregnancy sustainable.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/cervical-insufficiency|title=Cervical insufficiency|last=Berghella, MD|first=Vincenzo|date=July 2017|website=UpToDate|access-date=}}</ref>
Other considerations to include when assessing antepartum bleeding are: sterile vaginal exams that are performed in order to assess dilation of the patient when the 40th week is approaching. As well as cervical insufficiency defined as a midtrimester (14th-26th week) dilation of the cervix which may need medical intervention to assist in keeping the pregnancy sustainable.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/cervical-insufficiency|title=Cervical insufficiency|last=Berghella, MD|first=Vincenzo|date=July 2017|website=UpToDate}}</ref>


===During labor===
===During labor===
Besides placenta previa and placental abruption, [[uterine rupture]] can occur, which is a very serious condition leading to internal or external bleeding. Bleeding from the [[fetus]] is rare, but may occur with two conditions called vasa previa and velamentous umbilical cord insertion where the fetal blood vessels lie near the placental insertion site unprotected by Wharton's jelly of the cord.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://stage0www.uptodate.com/contents/velamentous-umbilical-cord-insertion-and-vasa-previa?source=search_result&search=Vasa+previa&selectedTitle=1~17|title=Velamentous umbilical cord insertion and vasa previa|last=Charles J Lockwood, MD, MHCM Karen Russo-Stieglitz, MD|first=|date=July 2017|website=UpToDate|access-date=}}</ref> Occasionally this condition can be diagnosed by ultrasound. There are also tests to differentiate maternal blood from fetal blood which can help in determining the source of the bleed.
Besides [[Placenta praevia|placenta previa]] and [[placental abruption]], [[uterine rupture]] can occur, which is a very serious condition leading to internal or external bleeding. Bleeding from the [[fetus]] is rare, but may occur with two conditions called [[Vasa praevia|vasa previa]] and [[Velamentous cord insertion|velamentous umbilical cord insertion]] where the fetal blood vessels lie near the placental insertion site unprotected by Wharton's jelly of the cord.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://stage0www.uptodate.com/contents/velamentous-umbilical-cord-insertion-and-vasa-previa?source=search_result&search=Vasa+previa&selectedTitle=1~17|title=Velamentous umbilical cord insertion and vasa previa|vauthors = ((Charles J Lockwood, MD, MHCM)), ((Karen Russo-Stieglitz, MD))|date=July 2017|website=UpToDate}}</ref> Occasionally this condition can be diagnosed by ultrasound. There are also tests to differentiate maternal blood from fetal blood which can help in determining the source of the bleed.


==After delivery==
==After delivery==
{{main|Postpartum bleeding}}
{{main|Postpartum bleeding}}
Abnormal bleeding after delivery, or postpartum hemorrhage, is the loss of greater than 500 ml of blood following vaginal delivery, or 1000 ml of blood following cesarean section. Other definitions of excessive postpartum bleeding are hemodynamic instability, drop of hemoglobin of more than 10%,<ref>Atukunda EC, Mugyenyi GR, Obua C, Atuhumuza EB, Musinguzi N, Tornes YF, et al. (2016) Measuring Post-Partum Haemorrhage in Low-Resource Settings: The Diagnostic Validity of Weighed Blood Loss versus Quantitative Changes in Hemoglobin. PLoS ONE 11(4): e0152408. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152408</nowiki></ref> or requiring blood transfusion. In the literature, primary postpartum hemorrhage is defined as uncontrolled bleeding that occurs in the first 24 hours after delivery while secondary hemorrhage occurs between 24 hours and six weeks.<ref name=":1">Global burden of maternal haemorrhage in the year 2000 Carmen Dolea1, Carla AbouZahr2 , Claudia Stein1 Evidence and Information for Policy (EIP), World Health Organization, Geneva, July 2003</ref>
Abnormal bleeding after delivery, or postpartum hemorrhage, is the loss of greater than 500 ml of blood following vaginal delivery, or 1000 ml of blood following cesarean section. Other definitions of excessive postpartum bleeding are hemodynamic instability, drop of hemoglobin of more than 10%,<ref name="pmid27050823">{{cite journal | vauthors = Atukunda EC, Mugyenyi GR, Obua C, Atuhumuza EB, Musinguzi N, Tornes YF, Agaba AG, Siedner MJ | title = Measuring Post-Partum Haemorrhage in Low-Resource Settings: The Diagnostic Validity of Weighed Blood Loss versus Quantitative Changes in Hemoglobin | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 11 | issue = 4 | pages = e0152408 | date = 2016 | pmid = 27050823 | pmc = 4822885 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0152408 | bibcode = 2016PLoSO..1152408A | doi-access = free }}</ref> or requiring blood transfusion. In the literature, primary postpartum hemorrhage is defined as uncontrolled bleeding that occurs in the first 24 hours after delivery while secondary hemorrhage occurs between 24 hours and six weeks.<ref name=":1">Global burden of maternal haemorrhage in the year 2000 Carmen Dolea1, Carla AbouZahr2, Claudia Stein1 Evidence and Information for Policy (EIP), World Health Organization, Geneva, July 2003</ref>


== Risk factors ==
== Risk factors ==
In rare cases, inherited bleeding disorders, like [[hemophilia]], [[von Willebrand disease]] (vWD), or [[Factor IX deficiency|factor IX]] or [[Haemophilia C|XI]] deficiency, may cause severe postpartum hemorrhage, with an increased risk of death particularly in the postpartum period.<ref name=":1" /> The risk of postpartum hemorrhage in patients with vWD and carriers of hemophilia has been found to be 18.5% and 22% respectively. This pathology occurs due to the normal physiological drop in maternal clotting factors after delivery which greatly increases the risk of secondary postpartum hemorrhage.<ref>Kadir, R. A. and Aledort, L. M. (2000), Obstetrical and gynaecological bleeding: a common presenting symptom. Clinical & Laboratory Haematology, 22: 12–16. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2257.2000.00007.x</ref>
In rare cases, inherited bleeding disorders, like [[hemophilia]], [[von Willebrand disease]] (vWD), or [[Factor IX deficiency|factor IX]] or [[Haemophilia C|XI]] deficiency, may cause severe postpartum hemorrhage, with an increased risk of death particularly in the postpartum period.<ref name=":1" /> The risk of postpartum hemorrhage in patients with vWD and carriers of hemophilia has been found to be 18.5% and 22% respectively. This pathology occurs due to the normal physiological drop in maternal clotting factors after delivery which greatly increases the risk of secondary postpartum hemorrhage.<ref name="pmid11251653">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kadir RA, Aledort LM | title = Obstetrical and gynaecological bleeding: a common presenting symptom | journal = Clinical and Laboratory Haematology | volume = 22 | pages = 12–6; discussion 30–2 | date = October 2000 | issue = Suppl 1 | pmid = 11251653 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2257.2000.00007.x}}</ref>
⚫
Another bleeding risk factor is thrombocytopenia, or decreased platelet levels, which is the most common hematological change associated with pregnancy induced hypertension. If platelet counts drop less than 100,000 per microliter the patient will be at a severe risk for inability to clot during and after delivery.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pregnancy and birth sourcebook|last=Aldred|first=Heather E.|publisher=health reference series|year=1997|isbn=9780780802162}}</ref>

⚫
Another bleeding risk factor is thrombocytopenia, or decreased platelet levels, which is the most common hematological change associated with pregnancy induced hypertension. If platelet counts drop less than 100,000 per microliter the patient will be at a severe risk for inability to clot during and after delivery.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pregnancy and birth sourcebook|last=Aldred|first=Heather E.|publisher=health reference series|year=1997|isbn=9780780802162|location=|pages=}}</ref>


== Medical tests ==
== Medical tests ==
If a small amount of bleeding is seen in early pregnancy a physician may request:
If a small amount of bleeding is seen in early pregnancy a physician may request:
* A quantitative human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) blood test to confirm the pregnancy or assist in diagnosing a potential miscarriage<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/symptoms-during-pregnancy/vaginal-bleeding-during-early-pregnancy|title=Vaginal bleeding during early pregnancy|last=R. Phillip Heine, MD; Geeta K. Swamy, MD|first=|date=August 2009|website=Merck Manual|access-date=}}</ref>
* A quantitative human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) blood test to confirm the pregnancy or assist in diagnosing a potential miscarriage <ref name="HeineSwamy">{{Cite web|url=https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/symptoms-during-pregnancy/vaginal-bleeding-during-early-pregnancy|title=Vaginal bleeding during early pregnancy|vauthors = Heine PR, Swamy GK|date=August 2009|website=Merck Manual}}</ref>
* Transvaginal pelvic ultrasonography to confirm that the pregnancy is not outside of the uterus<ref name=":2" />
* Transvaginal pelvic ultrasonography to confirm that the pregnancy is not outside of the uterus<ref name="HeineSwamy"/>
* Blood type and Rh test to rule out [[hemolytic disease of the newborn]]<ref name=":2" />
* Blood type and Rh test to rule out [[hemolytic disease of the newborn]]<ref name="HeineSwamy"/>
For bleeding seen in later pregnancy tests may include:
For bleeding seen in later pregnancy tests may include:
* [[Complete blood count|Complete blood count (CBC)]] and blood type and screen<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/symptoms-during-pregnancy/vaginal-bleeding-during-late-pregnancy|title=Vaginal bleeding during late pregnancy|last=R. Phillip Heine, MD; Geeta K. Swamy, MD|first=|date=August 2009|website=Merck Manual|access-date=}}</ref>
* [[Complete blood count|Complete blood count (CBC)]] and blood type and screen <ref name="HeineSwamy"/>
* Ultrasound to determine placental location<ref name=":3" />
* Ultrasound to determine placental location <ref name="HeineSwamy"/>
* [[Kleihauer–Betke test|Kleihauer-Betke]] (KB) test especially if there was maternal trauma<ref name=":3" />
* [[Kleihauer–Betke test|Kleihauer-Betke]] (KB) test especially if there was maternal trauma <ref name="HeineSwamy"/>


==Unrelated bleeding==
==Unrelated bleeding==
Pregnant patients may have bleeding from the reproductive tract due to trauma, including sexual trauma, neoplasm, most commonly [[cervical cancer]], and [[hematologic disorder]]s. Molar pregnancy (also called [[Molar pregnancy|hydatiform mole]]) is a type of pregnancy where the sperm and the egg have joined within the uterus, but the result is a cyst resembling a grape-like cluster rather than an embryo. Bleeding can be an early sign of this tumor developing.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pregnancy and birth sourcebook|last=Aldred|first=Heather E.|publisher=Omnigraphics|year=1997|isbn=9780780802162|location=|pages=}}</ref>
Pregnant patients may have bleeding from the reproductive tract due to trauma, including sexual trauma, neoplasm, most commonly [[cervical cancer]], and [[hematologic disorder]]s. Molar pregnancy (also called [[Molar pregnancy|hydatiform mole]]) is a type of pregnancy where the sperm and the egg have joined within the uterus, but the result is a cyst resembling a grape-like cluster rather than an embryo. Bleeding can be an early sign of this tumor developing.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pregnancy and birth sourcebook|last=Aldred|first=Heather E.|publisher=Omnigraphics|year=1997|isbn=9780780802162}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
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{{Pathology of pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium}}
{{Pathology of pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Obstetrical Hemorrhage}}
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[[Category:Health issues in pregnancy]]
[[Category:Health issues in pregnancy]]
[[Category:Women's health]]
[[Category:Women's health]]
[[Category:Obstetric haemorrhage]]

Latest revision as of 23:36, 21 July 2024

Obstetrical bleeding
Other namesMaternal bleeding, obstetrical hemorrhage, obstetric haemorrhage,[1] maternal hemorrhage
SpecialtyObstetrics
Frequency8.7 million (2015)[2]
Deaths83,000 (2015)[3]

Obstetrical bleeding is bleeding in pregnancy that occurs before, during, or after childbirth.[4] Bleeding before childbirth is that which occurs after 24 weeks of pregnancy.[4] Bleeding may be vaginal or less commonly into the abdominal cavity. Bleeding which occurs before 24 weeks is known as early pregnancy bleeding.

Causes of bleeding before and during childbirth include cervicitis, placenta previa, placental abruption and uterine rupture.[4][5] Causes of bleeding after childbirth include poor contraction of the uterus, retained products of conception, and bleeding disorders.[4]

About 8.7 million cases of severe maternal bleeding occurred in 2015[2] resulting in 83,000 deaths.[3] Between 2003 and 2009, bleeding accounted for 27% of maternal deaths globally.[6]

Later pregnancy

[edit]
Main article: Antepartum bleeding

Antepartum bleeding (APH), also prepartum hemorrhage, is bleeding during pregnancy from the 24th week[7] (sometimes defined as from the 20th week[8][7]) gestational age up to the birth of the baby.[5] The primary consideration is the presence of a placenta previa which is a low lying placenta at or very near to the internal cervical os. This condition occurs in roughly 4 out of 1000 [9] pregnancies and usually needs to be resolved by delivering the baby via cesarean section. Also a placental abruption (in which there is premature separation of the placenta) can lead to obstetrical hemorrhage, sometimes concealed. This pathology is of important consideration after maternal trauma such as a motor vehicle accident or fall.

Other considerations to include when assessing antepartum bleeding are: sterile vaginal exams that are performed in order to assess dilation of the patient when the 40th week is approaching. As well as cervical insufficiency defined as a midtrimester (14th-26th week) dilation of the cervix which may need medical intervention to assist in keeping the pregnancy sustainable.[10]

During labor

[edit]

Besides placenta previa and placental abruption, uterine rupture can occur, which is a very serious condition leading to internal or external bleeding. Bleeding from the fetus is rare, but may occur with two conditions called vasa previa and velamentous umbilical cord insertion where the fetal blood vessels lie near the placental insertion site unprotected by Wharton's jelly of the cord.[11] Occasionally this condition can be diagnosed by ultrasound. There are also tests to differentiate maternal blood from fetal blood which can help in determining the source of the bleed.

After delivery

[edit]
Main article: Postpartum bleeding

Abnormal bleeding after delivery, or postpartum hemorrhage, is the loss of greater than 500 ml of blood following vaginal delivery, or 1000 ml of blood following cesarean section. Other definitions of excessive postpartum bleeding are hemodynamic instability, drop of hemoglobin of more than 10%,[12] or requiring blood transfusion. In the literature, primary postpartum hemorrhage is defined as uncontrolled bleeding that occurs in the first 24 hours after delivery while secondary hemorrhage occurs between 24 hours and six weeks.[13]

Risk factors

[edit]

In rare cases, inherited bleeding disorders, like hemophilia, von Willebrand disease (vWD), or factor IX or XI deficiency, may cause severe postpartum hemorrhage, with an increased risk of death particularly in the postpartum period.[13] The risk of postpartum hemorrhage in patients with vWD and carriers of hemophilia has been found to be 18.5% and 22% respectively. This pathology occurs due to the normal physiological drop in maternal clotting factors after delivery which greatly increases the risk of secondary postpartum hemorrhage.[14] Another bleeding risk factor is thrombocytopenia, or decreased platelet levels, which is the most common hematological change associated with pregnancy induced hypertension. If platelet counts drop less than 100,000 per microliter the patient will be at a severe risk for inability to clot during and after delivery.[15]

Medical tests

[edit]

If a small amount of bleeding is seen in early pregnancy a physician may request:

  • A quantitative human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) blood test to confirm the pregnancy or assist in diagnosing a potential miscarriage [16]
  • Transvaginal pelvic ultrasonography to confirm that the pregnancy is not outside of the uterus[16]
  • Blood type and Rh test to rule out hemolytic disease of the newborn[16]

For bleeding seen in later pregnancy tests may include:

Unrelated bleeding

[edit]

Pregnant patients may have bleeding from the reproductive tract due to trauma, including sexual trauma, neoplasm, most commonly cervical cancer, and hematologic disorders. Molar pregnancy (also called hydatiform mole) is a type of pregnancy where the sperm and the egg have joined within the uterus, but the result is a cyst resembling a grape-like cluster rather than an embryo. Bleeding can be an early sign of this tumor developing.[17]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics". World Health Organization. Retrieved 2023-12-05.
  2. ^ a b Vos, Theo; Allen, Christine; Arora, Megha; Barber, Ryan M.; Bhutta, Zulfiqar A.; Brown, Alexandria; Carter, Austin; Casey, Daniel C.; Charlson, Fiona J.; Chen, Alan Z.; Coggeshall, Megan; Cornaby, Leslie; Dandona, Lalit; Dicker, Daniel J.; Dilegge, Tina; Erskine, Holly E.; Ferrari, Alize J.; Fitzmaurice, Christina; Fleming, Tom; Forouzanfar, Mohammad H.; Fullman, Nancy; Gething, Peter W.; Goldberg, Ellen M.; Graetz, Nicholas; Haagsma, Juanita A.; Hay, Simon I.; Johnson, Catherine O.; Kassebaum, Nicholas J.; Kawashima, Toana; et al. (October 2016). "Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015". Lancet. 388 (10053): 1545–1602. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6. PMC 5055577. PMID 27733282.
  3. ^ a b Wang, Haidong; Naghavi, Mohsen; Allen, Christine; Barber, Ryan M.; Bhutta, Zulfiqar A.; Carter, Austin; Casey, Daniel C.; Charlson, Fiona J.; Chen, Alan Zian; Coates, Matthew M.; Coggeshall, Megan; Dandona, Lalit; Dicker, Daniel J.; Erskine, Holly E.; Ferrari, Alize J.; Fitzmaurice, Christina; Foreman, Kyle; Forouzanfar, Mohammad H.; Fraser, Maya S.; Fullman, Nancy; Gething, Peter W.; Goldberg, Ellen M.; Graetz, Nicholas; Haagsma, Juanita A.; Hay, Simon I.; Huynh, Chantal; Johnson, Catherine O.; Kassebaum, Nicholas J.; Kinfu, Yohannes; et al. (October 2016). "Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015". Lancet. 388 (10053): 1459–1544. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31012-1. PMC 5388903. PMID 27733281.
  4. ^ a b c d Walfish, M.; Neuman, A.; Wlody, D. (December 2009). "Maternal haemorrhage". British Journal of Anaesthesia. 103: i47 – i56. doi:10.1093/bja/aep303. PMID 20007990.
  5. ^ a b Stables, Dorothy; Rankin, Jean (2010). Physiology in Childbearing: With Anatomy and Related Biosciences. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 429. ISBN 978-0702044113.
  6. ^ Say, Lale; Chou, Doris; Gemmill, Alison; Tunçalp, Özge; Moller, Ann-Beth; Daniels, Jane; Gülmezoglu, A Metin; Temmerman, Marleen; Alkema, Leontine (2014). "Global causes of maternal death: a WHO systematic analysis". The Lancet Global Health. 2 (6): e323 – e333. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70227-X. hdl:1854/LU-5796925. ISSN 2214-109X. PMID 25103301.
  7. ^ a b patient.info » PatientPlus » Antepartum Haemorrhage Last Updated: 5 May 2009
  8. ^ The Royal Women’s Hospital > antepartum haemorrhage Archived 2010-01-08 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on Jan 13, 2009
  9. ^ Soyama H, Miyamoto M, Ishibashi H, Takano M, Sasa H, Furuya K (2016). "Relation between Birth Weight and Intraoperative Hemorrhage during Cesarean Section in Pregnancy with Placenta Previa". PLOS ONE. 11 (11): e0167332. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1167332S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0167332. PMC 5130260. PMID 27902772.
  10. ^ Berghella, MD, Vincenzo (July 2017). "Cervical insufficiency". UpToDate.
  11. ^ Charles J Lockwood, MD, MHCM, Karen Russo-Stieglitz, MD (July 2017). "Velamentous umbilical cord insertion and vasa previa". UpToDate.
  12. ^ Atukunda EC, Mugyenyi GR, Obua C, Atuhumuza EB, Musinguzi N, Tornes YF, Agaba AG, Siedner MJ (2016). "Measuring Post-Partum Haemorrhage in Low-Resource Settings: The Diagnostic Validity of Weighed Blood Loss versus Quantitative Changes in Hemoglobin". PLOS ONE. 11 (4): e0152408. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1152408A. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0152408. PMC 4822885. PMID 27050823.
  13. ^ a b Global burden of maternal haemorrhage in the year 2000 Carmen Dolea1, Carla AbouZahr2, Claudia Stein1 Evidence and Information for Policy (EIP), World Health Organization, Geneva, July 2003
  14. ^ Kadir RA, Aledort LM (October 2000). "Obstetrical and gynaecological bleeding: a common presenting symptom". Clinical and Laboratory Haematology. 22 (Suppl 1): 12–6, discussion 30–2. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2257.2000.00007.x. PMID 11251653.
  15. ^ Aldred, Heather E. (1997). Pregnancy and birth sourcebook. health reference series. ISBN 9780780802162.
  16. ^ a b c d e f Heine PR, Swamy GK (August 2009). "Vaginal bleeding during early pregnancy". Merck Manual.
  17. ^ Aldred, Heather E. (1997). Pregnancy and birth sourcebook. Omnigraphics. ISBN 9780780802162.
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