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{{short description|Genus of plants in the family Aristolochiaceae}}
{{Short description|Genus of plants in the family Aristolochiaceae}}
{{Automatic taxobox
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Aristolochia labiata.jpg
| image = Aristolochia labiata.jpg
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<br/>''Isotrema'' <small>Raf. (disputed)</small>
<br/>''Isotrema'' <small>Raf. (disputed)</small>
}}
}}

'''''Aristolochia''''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|ə|ˌ|r|ɪ|s|t|ə|ˈ|l|oʊ|k|i|ə}}) is a large [[plant]] [[genus]] with over 500 [[species]] that is the [[type genus]] of the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Aristolochiaceae]]. Its members are commonly known as '''birthwort''', '''pipevine''' or '''Dutchman's pipe''' and are widespread and occur in the most diverse climates. Some species, like ''[[Aristolochia utriformis|A.&nbsp;utriformis]]'' and ''[[Aristolochia westlandii|A.&nbsp;westlandii]]'', are threatened with [[extinct]]ion.
'''''Aristolochia''''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|ə|ˌ|r|ɪ|s|t|ə|ˈ|l|oʊ|k|i|ə}}) is a large [[plant]] [[genus]] with over 500 [[species]] that is the [[type genus]] of the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Aristolochiaceae]]. Its members are commonly known as '''birthwort''', '''pipevine''' or '''Dutchman's pipe''' and are widespread and occur in the most diverse climates. Some species, like ''[[Aristolochia utriformis|A.&nbsp;utriformis]]'' and ''[[Aristolochia westlandii|A.&nbsp;westlandii]]'', are threatened with [[extinct]]ion.


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The common names ''Dutchman's pipe'' and ''pipevine'' (e.g. common pipevine, ''[[Aristolochia durior|A.&nbsp;durior]]'') are an allusion to old-fashioned [[meerschaum]] pipes at one time common in the Netherlands and northern Germany. ''Birthwort'' (e.g. European birthwort ''[[Aristolochia clematitis|A.&nbsp;clematitis]]'') refers to these species' flower shape, resembling a [[birth canal]].
The common names ''Dutchman's pipe'' and ''pipevine'' (e.g. common pipevine, ''[[Aristolochia durior|A.&nbsp;durior]]'') are an allusion to old-fashioned [[meerschaum]] pipes at one time common in the Netherlands and northern Germany. ''Birthwort'' (e.g. European birthwort ''[[Aristolochia clematitis|A.&nbsp;clematitis]]'') refers to these species' flower shape, resembling a [[birth canal]].
Aristolochia was first described by the 4th c. BC Greek philosopher and botanist Theophrastos in his book [Inquiry of Plants, IX.8.3], and the scientific name ''Aristolochia'' was developed from [[Ancient Greek]] ''aristos'' (''άριστος'') "best" + ''locheia'' (''λοχεία''), ''childbirth'' or ''childbed'', relating to its known ancient use in childbirth.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_JM_treatment.pl?575,576 |title=Jepson Manual: ''Aristolochia'' |publisher=Ucjeps.berkeley.edu |access-date=2013-08-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mobot.org/tours/medicinal_plants/birthwort.asp |title=Missouri Botanical Garden |publisher=Mobot.org |access-date=2013-08-15}}</ref> The Roman orator [[Cicero]] records a different tradition, that the plant was named for the otherwise unknown individual with the common Greek name Aristolochos, who had learned from a dream that it was an antidote for snake bites.<ref>Cicero, ''On Divination'' 1.10.16</ref>
Aristolochia was first described by the 4th c. BC Greek philosopher and botanist [[Theophrastus]] in his ‘’Inquiry of Plants’’ [IX.8.3], and the scientific name ''Aristolochia'' was developed from [[Ancient Greek]] ''aristos'' (''άριστος'') "best" + ''locheia'' (''λοχεία''), ''childbirth'' or ''childbed'', relating to its known ancient use in childbirth.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_JM_treatment.pl?575,576 |title=Jepson Manual: ''Aristolochia'' |publisher=Ucjeps.berkeley.edu |access-date=2013-08-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mobot.org/tours/medicinal_plants/birthwort.asp |title=Missouri Botanical Garden |publisher=Mobot.org |access-date=2013-08-15}}</ref> The Roman orator [[Cicero]] records a different tradition, that the plant was named for the otherwise unknown individual with the common Greek name Aristolochos, who had learned from a dream that it was an antidote for snake bites.<ref>Cicero, ''On Divination'' 1.10.16</ref>
[[Image:Aristolochic acid.png|thumb|left|upright|[[Aristolochic acid]], the main [[toxin]] of pipevines]]
[[Image:Aristolochic acid.png|thumb|upright|[[Aristolochic acid]], the main [[toxin]] of pipevines]]

==Herbalism, toxicity and carcinogenicity==
{{More citations needed section|date=May 2009}}

The species ''[[Aristolochia clematitis]]'' was highly regarded as a medicinal plant since the ancient [[Ancient Egyptian medicine|Egyptians]], [[Ancient Greek medicine|Greeks]] and [[Medicine in ancient Rome|Romans]], and on until the [[Early Modern]] era; it also plays a role in [[traditional Chinese medicine]]. Due to its resemblance to the uterus, the [[doctrine of signatures]] held that ''birthwort'' was useful in childbirth. A preparation was given to women upon delivery to expel the [[placenta]], as noted by the herbalist [[Dioscurides]] in the 1st century AD. Despite its presence in ancient medicine, ''Aristolochia'' is known to contain the lethal toxin [[aristolochic acid]].

The ''[[Bencao Gangmu]]'', compiled by Li Shi-Zhen in the latter part of the sixteenth century, was based on the author's experience and on data obtained from earlier herbals; this Chinese herbal classic describes 1892 "drugs" (with 1110 drawings), including many species of ''Aristolochia''.<ref>Grollman, A. P., et al. (2009) Aristolochic acid nephropathy: An environmental and iatrogenic disease. In: Fishbein, J. C. (ed.) ''Advances in Molecular Toxicology'' Vol. 3. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp 211-22.</ref> For 400 years, the ''Bencao Gangmu'' remained the principal source of information in traditional Chinese medicine and the work was translated into numerous languages, reflecting its influence in countries other than China. In the mid-twentieth century, the ''Bencao Gangmu'' was replaced by modern ''Materia Medica'', the most comprehensive source being ''Zhong Hua Ben Cao'' (''Encyclopedia of Chinese Materia Medica''), published in 1999.<ref>Health Department and National Chinese Medicine Management Office (ed.). ''Zhong Hua Ben Cao'', 3–460–509. Shanghai Science Technology Publication. 1999.</ref> The ''Encyclopedia'' lists 23 species of ''Aristolochia'', though with little mention of toxicity. The Chinese government currently lists the following ''Aristolochia'' herbs: ''A.&nbsp;manshuriensis'' (stems), ''A.&nbsp;fangchi'' (root), ''A.&nbsp;debilis'' (root and fruit), and ''[[aristolochia contorta|A.&nbsp;contorta]]'' (fruit), two of which (''madouling'' and ''qingmuxiang'') appear in the 2005 [[Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China]].

In traditional Chinese medicine ''Aristolochia'' species are used for certain forms of acute [[arthritis]] and [[edema]].<ref>Bensky, D., et al. ''Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica'', Third Edition. 2004. pp 1054-55.</ref><ref name=vanherweghem>{{cite journal |last1=Vanherweghem | first1=J.-L. |last2=Tielemans |first2=C. |last3=Abramowicz |first3=D. |last4=Depierreux |first4=M. |last5=Vanhaelen-Fastre |first5=R. |last6=Vanhaelen |first6= M. |last7= Dratwa |first7= M. |last8=Richard |first8=C. |last9=Vandervelde |first9=D. |last10=Verbeelen |first10=D. |last11=Jadoul |first11=M. |title=Rapidly progressive interstitial renal fibrosis in young women: association with slimming regimen including Chinese herbs |doi=10.1016/0140-6736(93)92984-2 |date=February 1993 |journal=[[The Lancet|Lancet]] |issn=0140-6736 |volume=341 |issue=8842 |pages=387–91 |pmid=8094166| s2cid=32428737 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanhaelen |first1=Maurice |last2=Vanhaelen-Fastre |first2=Renée |last3=But |first3=Paul |last4=Vanherweghem |first4=Jean-Louis |date=January 1994 |title=Identification of aristolochic acid in Chinese herbs |journal=[[The Lancet|Lancet]] |issn=0140-6736 |volume=343 |issue=8890 |page=174 |pmid=7904018 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(94)90964-4|s2cid=34836561 }}</ref>

Despite the toxic properties of aristolochic acid, naturopaths claim that a decoction of birthwort stimulates the production and increases the activity of [[white blood cell]]s,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine|last=Chevallier|first=Andrew|publisher=Penguin|year=2016|isbn=9781465456755|page=171}}</ref> or that pipevines contain a [[disinfectant]] which assists in [[wound healing]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cnps-yerbabuena.org/dutchmans-pipe-aristolochia-californica/|title=Dutchman's Pipe (Aristolochia californica)|last=Wood|first=Michael|date=March 2004|website=Yerbabuena org}}</ref> Also, ''[[Aristolochia bracteolata]]'' is colloquially known as "worm killer" due to supposed [[antihelminthic]] activity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=D Udhaya Nandhini, M Rajasekar, T Venmathi|date=February 2017|title=A review on worm killer: Aristolochia bracteolata|url=http://www.phytojournal.com/archives/2017/vol6issue2/PartA/6-1-56-579.pdf|journal=Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry}}</ref>

''Aristolochia'' taxa have also been used as reptile repellents. ''[[Aristolochia serpentaria|A.&nbsp;serpentaria]]'' (Virginia snakeroot) is thus named because the root was used to treat snakebite, as "so offensive to these reptiles, that they not only avoid the places where it grows, but even flee from the traveler who carries a piece of it in his hand".<ref>Freeman-Mitford, A. B. ''The Bamboo Garden'' (1896) quoted in Alice M. Coats, ''Garden Shrubs and Their Histories'' (1964) 1992, ''s.v.'' "Aristolochia".</ref> ''A.&nbsp;pfeiferi'',<ref>{{Cite book|title=Plants and Animals in the Life of the Kuna|last=Jorge Ventocilla, Heraclio Herrera, Valerio Núñez|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=2010|isbn=9780292786790}}</ref> ''A.&nbsp;rugosa'',<ref>{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of Economic Plants|last=Uphof|first=J. C. Th.|publisher=la Universidad de Michigan|year=1959}}</ref> and ''A.&nbsp;trilobata''<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=28179114|title=Medicinal plants used to treat snakebite in Central America: Review and assessment of scientific evidence|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=199|pages=240–256|date=March 2017|last1=Giovannini|first1=P|last2=Howes|first2=M. R|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2017.02.011}}</ref> are also used in folk medicine to treat snakebites.
[[Image:Aristolochia sp.jpg|thumb|Ornamental ''[[Aristolochia ringens]]'']]

===Toxicity and carcinogenicity===
In 1993, a series of end-stage renal disease cases was reported<ref name=vanherweghem/><ref>Depierreux ''et al.'' (1994)</ref><!--see also {{DOI|10.1016/S0140-6736(94)90964-4}} PMID 7904018 --> from [[Belgium]] associated with a weight loss treatment, where ''[[Stephania tetrandra]]'' in a herbal preparation was suspected of being replaced with ''[[Aristolochia fangchi]]''.<ref>The names ''han fang ji'' (漢防己, Chinese ''fang ji'' - ''S.&nbsp;tetrandra'') and ''guan fang ji'' (廣防己, Broad ''fang ji'' - ''A.&nbsp;fanchi'') had apparently been confused.</ref><ref>Stiborova ''et al.'' (1999)</ref> More than 105 patients were identified with [[kidney disease|nephropathy]] following the ingestion of this preparation from the same clinic from 1990 to 1992. Many required [[renal transplantation]] or [[dialysis]].<ref>Vergano, D. [https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/columnist/vergano/story/2012-04-07/do-herbal-remedies-work/54102616/1 Herbal 'remedy' may trigger widespread kidney failure.] ''USA Today'' April 16, 2012.</ref> Aristolochia is a component of some Chinese herbal medicines.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Li | first1 = X | last2 = Yang | first2 = L | last3 = Yu | first3 = Y | year = 2001 | title = An analysis of the clinical and pathological characteristics of Mu-tong (a Chinese herb) induced tubulointerstitial nephropathy | journal = Zhonghua Nei Ke Za Zhi | volume = 40 | issue = 10| pages = 681–7 | pmid = 11769723 }}</ref>

''Aristolochia'' has been shown to be both a potent carcinogen and kidney toxin. Herbal compounds containing ''Aristolochia'' are classified as a [[List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens|Group 1]] [[carcinogen]] by the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]].<ref>ACS (2006)</ref> Epidemiological and laboratory studies have identified ''Aristolochia'' to be a dangerous kidney toxin; ''Aristolochia'' has been shown associated with more than 100 cases of kidney failure.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cosyns | first1 = J. P. | year = 2003 | title = Aristolochic acid and 'Chinese herbs nephropathy': a review of the evidence to date | journal = Drug Saf. | volume = 26 | issue = 1| pages = 33–48 | pmid = 12495362 | doi=10.2165/00002018-200326010-00004| s2cid = 46073980 }}</ref> Furthermore, it appears as if contamination of [[grain]] with [[Aristolochia clematitis|European birthwort]] (''A.&nbsp;clematitis'') is a cause of [[Balkan nephropathy]], a severe renal disease occurring in parts of [[southeast Europe]].<ref>Grollman ''et al.'' (2007)</ref> In 2001 the UK government banned the sale, supply and importation of any medicinal product consisting of or containing a plant of the genus Aristolochia.<ref>Statutory Instruments 2001 No. 1841. The Medicines (Aristolochia and Mu Tong etc.) (Prohibition) Order 2001. http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2001/1841/made</ref> Several other plant species that do not cause themselves kidney poisoning, but which were commonly substituted with Aristolochia in the remedies, were prohibited in the same order.<ref>Illegal herbal remedies containing Aristolochia: vigilance needed. MHRA continues to identify cases of herbal medicines, particularly traditional Chinese medicines, which contain illegal and toxic Aristolochia or aristolochic acids. 11 December 2014. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. https://www.gov.uk/drug-safety-update/illegal-herbal-remedies-containing-aristolochia-vigilance-needed</ref>

Aristolochic acid was linked to aristolochic acid-associated urothelial cancer in a Taiwanese study in 2012.<ref>{{cite journal| last1 = Chen|first1 = C.|display-authors=et al|year = 2012|title = Aristolochic acid-associated urothelial cancer in Taiwan|journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume = 109|issue = 21|pages = 8241–46|doi=10.1073/pnas.1119920109|pmid=22493262|pmc=3361449|doi-access = free}}</ref> In 2013, two studies reported that aristolochic acid is a strong carcinogen. Whole-genome and exome analysis of individuals with a known exposure to aristolochic acid revealed a higher rate of somatic mutation in DNA.<ref>S. L. Poon, S.-T. Pang, J. R. McPherson, W. Yu, K. K. Huang, P. Guan, W.-H. Weng, E. Y. Siew, Y. Liu, H. L. Heng, S. C. Chong, A. Gan, S. T. Tay, W. K. Lim, I. Cutcutache, D. Huang, L. D. Ler, M.-L. Nairismägi, M. H. Lee, Y.-H. Chang, K.-J. Yu, W. Chan-on, B.-K. Li, Y.-F. Yuan, C.-N. Qian, K.-F. Ng, C.-F. Wu, C.-L. Hsu, R. M. Bunte, M. R. Stratton, P. A. Futreal, W.-K. Sung, C.-K. Chuang, C. K. Ong, S. G. Rozen, P. Tan, B. T. Teh, Genome-Wide Mutational Signatures of Aristolochic Acid and Its Application as a Screening Tool.Sci. Transl. Med. 5, 197ra101 (2013)</ref><ref>M. L. Hoang, C.-H. Chen, V. S. Sidorenko, J. He, K. G. Dickman, B. H. Yun, M. Moriya, N. Niknafs, C. Douville, R. Karchin, R. J. Turesky, Y.-S. Pu, B. Vogelstein, N. Papadopoulos, A. P. Grollman, K. W. Kinzler, T. A. Rosenquist, Mutational Signature of Aristolochic Acid Exposure as Revealed by Whole-Exome Sequencing. Sci. Transl. Med. 5, 197ra102 (2013)</ref> [[Metabolite]]s of aristolochic acid enter the cell nucleus and form adducts on [[DNA]]. While adducts on the transcribed DNA strand within genes are detected and removed by [[Nucleotide excision repair#Transcription coupled repair .28TC-NER.29|transcription-coupled repair]], the adducts on the non-transcribed strand remain and eventually cause DNA replication errors. These adducts have a preference for [[adenine]] bases, and cause A-to-T [[transversion]]s. Furthermore, these metabolites appear to show a preference for C'''A'''G and T'''A'''G sequences.

==Garden history==
Due to their spectacular flowers, several species are used as [[ornamental plant]]s, notably the hardy ''A.&nbsp;durior'' of eastern North America, which was one of [[John Bartram]]'s many introductions to British gardens; in 1761 Bartram sent seeds he had collected in the [[Ohio River Valley]] to [[Peter Collinson (botanist)|Peter Collinson]] in London, and Collinson gave them to the nurseryman James Gordon at Mile End to raise. The vine was soon adopted for creating for arbors "a canopy impenetrable to the rays of the sun, or moderate rain," as [[John Sims (taxonomist)|Dr John Sims]] noted in ''[[The Botanical Magazine]]'', 1801.<ref>Quoted in Coats (1964) 1992.</ref>
[[Image:Black and yellow butterfly KL.jpg|thumb|right|[[Trogonoptera brookiana|Rajah Brooke's birdwing]]: its caterpillars feed on ''Aristolochia foveolata'']]

==Swallowtail butterflies==
Many species of ''Aristolochia'' are eaten by the caterpillar larvae of [[swallowtail butterflies]], thus making themselves unpalatable to most [[predator]]s. Lepidoptera feeding on pipevines include:

[[Choreutidae]]
*''[[Millieria]]'' [[leaf miner]]
[[Papilionidae]]
*[[False Apollo]] (''Archon apollinus'') &ndash; known from numerous pipevine species
*''[[Bhutanitis]]''
**[[Bhutan glory]] (''B.&nbsp;lidderdalii'') &ndash; known from ''A.&nbsp;griffithi'', ''A.&nbsp;kaempferii'', ''A.&nbsp;mandshuriensis'' and maybe others<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://knowledgebase.lookseek.com/Bhutan-Glory-Bhutanitis-lidderdalii.html|title=Bhutan Glory Butterfly|website=Knowledge Base}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://astronomy-to-zoology.tumblr.com/post/102379567052/bhutan-glory-bhutanitis-lidderdalii-a-species|title=Bhutan Glory (Bhutanitis lidderdalii)|date=2015|website=Astronomy to Zoology}}</ref><!-- species article is ambiguous -->
**[[Chinese three-tailed swallowtail]] (''B.&nbsp;thaidina'') &ndash; known from ''A.&nbsp;moupinensis''
*[[Troidini]]
**[[Great windmill]] (''Atrophaneura dasarada'') &ndash; only known from ''A.&nbsp;griffithi''
**[[Common batwing]] (''Atrophaneura varuna'') &ndash; only known from ''A.&nbsp;kaempferi''
**''[[Troides plateni]]'' &ndash; only known from [[Indian birthwort]] (''A.&nbsp;tagala'')
**[[Cairns birdwing]] (''Ornithoptera euphorion'')
**[[Richmond birdwing]] (''O.&nbsp;richmondia'')
**[[Ornithoptera paradisea|Paradise birdwing]] (''O.&nbsp;paradisea'')
**Rajah Brooke's birdwing (''[[Trogonoptera brookiana]]'') &ndash; only known from ''A.&nbsp;foveolata''
**[[Magellan birdwing]] (''T.&nbsp;magellanus'') &ndash; known on ''[[Aristolochia cucurbitifolia|A.&nbsp;cucurbitifolia]]'', ''A.&nbsp;ovatifolia'', ''A.&nbsp;zollingeriana'' and maybe others
**[[Pipevine swallowtail]] (''Battus philenor'') &ndash; known on ''[[Aristolochia macrophylla|A.&nbsp;macrophylla]]'', [[Virginia snakeroot]] (''[[Aristolochia serpentaria|A.&nbsp;serpentaria]]'') and others
**[[Polydamas Swallowtail]], ''Battus polydamas''
**''[[Parides]]'' genus of swallowtails, also called cattlehearts

In Australia the [[invasive weed|invasive]] ''[[Aristolochia littoralis]]'' is fatal to the caterpillars of ''Ornithoptera euphorion'' and ''O.&nbsp;richmondia'' and threatens to displace their proper host, ''[[Aristolochia tagala|A.&nbsp;tagala]]''.


==Selected species==
==Selected species==
{{Main|List of Aristolochia species|l1=List of ''Aristolochia'' species}}
* ''[[Aristolochia acuminata]]'' <small>Lam.</small> [[Image:Aristolochia acuminata Blanco1.104.png|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia acuminata]]'' habitus drawing]]
* ''[[Aristolochia acuminata]]'' <small>Lam.</small> [[Image:Aristolochia acuminata Blanco1.104.png|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia acuminata]]'' habitus drawing]]
* ''Aristolochia acutifolia''
* ''Aristolochia allemanii''
* ''Aristolochia anguicida'' <small>Jacq.</small> &ndash; harlequin Dutchman's pipe
* ''[[Aristolochia arborea]]'' [[Image:Aristolochoia arborea0.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia arborea]]'' flowers]]
* ''[[Aristolochia arborea]]'' [[Image:Aristolochoia arborea0.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia arborea]]'' flowers]]
* ''Aristolochia arcuata'' <small>Mast.</small>
* ''Aristolochia auricularia''
* ''[[Aristolochia baetica]]''
* ''[[Aristolochia baetica]]''
* ''Aristolochia bilabiata'' <small>L.</small> &ndash; West Indian Dutchman's pipe
* ''Aristolochia billardieri''
* ''Aristolochia bilobata'' &ndash; two-lobed Dutchman's pipe
* ''Aristolochia bodamae''
* ''[[Aristolochia boosii]]''
* ''[[Aristolochia boosii]]''
* ''Aristolochia bottae''
* ''[[Aristolochia bracteolata]]'' <small>Lam.</small> &ndash; worm killer
* ''[[Aristolochia bracteolata]]'' <small>Lam.</small> &ndash; worm killer
* ''Aristolochia bridgesii'' &ndash; Chilean yellow fox's ears
* ''Aristolochia burelae''
* ''[[Aristolochia californica]]'' <small>Torr.</small> &ndash; California pipevine, California Dutchman's pipe
* ''[[Aristolochia californica]]'' <small>Torr.</small> &ndash; California pipevine, California Dutchman's pipe
* ''Aristolochia cauliflora'' <small>Ule</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia cauliflora]]'' <small>Ule</small>
* ''Aristolochia caudata''
* ''Aristolochia chachapoyensis''
* ''Aristolochia chapmaniana'' (= ''A.&nbsp;tonduzii'')
[[File:Aristolochia chilensis (8640786996) (2).jpg|thumb|''[[Aristolochia chilensis]]'']]
[[File:Aristolochia chilensis (8640786996) (2).jpg|thumb|''[[Aristolochia chilensis]]'']]
* ''[[Aristolochia chilensis]]'' <small>Bridges ex Lindl.</small> &ndash; Chilean fox's ears
* ''[[Aristolochia chilensis]]'' <small>Bridges ex Lindl.</small> &ndash; Chilean fox's ears
* ''Aristolochia chrismulleriana''<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Takeuchi | first1 = W | year = 2013 | title = Floristic records from the upper Sepik of Papua New Guinea: ''Aristolochia chrismülleriana'' sp. nov. (Aristolochiaceae), ''Monanthocitrus paludosa'' (Rutaceae), and ''Secamone timorensis'' (Apocynaceae) | url = http://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2013/f/p00114p057f.pdf | journal = Phytotaxa | volume = 114 | issue = 1| pages = 51–57 | doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.114.1.5}}</ref>
* ''[[Aristolochia clematitis]]'' <small>L.</small> &ndash; European birthwort
* ''[[Aristolochia clematitis]]'' <small>L.</small> &ndash; European birthwort
* ''Aristolochia colossifolia'' &ndash; giant-leaved aristolochia
* ''Aristolochia constricta''
* ''[[Aristolochia contorta]]''
* ''[[Aristolochia contorta]]''
* ''Aristolochia cordiflora''
* ''Aristolochia cordigera''
* ''Aristolochia cornuta''
* ''Aristolochia coryi'' <small>I.M.Johnst</small> &ndash; Cory's Dutchman's pipe
* ''[[Aristolochia cucurbitifolia]]'' <small>[[Bunzō Hayata|Hayata]]</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia cucurbitifolia]]'' <small>[[Bunzō Hayata|Hayata]]</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia cucurbitoides]]'' <small>C.F.Liang</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia cucurbitoides]]'' <small>C.F.Liang</small>
[[Image:Aristolochia eriantha1.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia eriantha]]'']]
[[Image:Aristolochia eriantha1.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia eriantha]]'']]
* ''Aristolochia cymbifera'' <small>Mart.</small>
[[Image:Aristolochia gibertii.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia gibertii]]'']]
[[Image:Aristolochia gibertii.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia gibertii]]'']]
[[File:Gespensterpflanze (Aristolochia grandiflora) (14522217697).jpg|thumb|''[[Aristolochia grandiflora]]'']]
[[File:Gespensterpflanze (Aristolochia grandiflora) (14522217697).jpg|thumb|''[[Aristolochia gigantea]]'']]
* ''Aristolochia daemoninoxia''
[[Image:Aristolochia pistolochia flor.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia pistolochia]]'']]
[[Image:Aristolochia pistolochia flor.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia pistolochia]]'']]
[[Image:Aristolochia maxima2.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia maxima]]'']]
[[Image:Aristolochia maxima2.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia maxima]]'']]
* ''Aristolochia dalyi''
* ''[[Aristolochia delavayi]]'' <small>[[Adrien René Franchet|Franch.]]</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia delavayi]]'' <small>[[Adrien René Franchet|Franch.]]</small>
* ''Aristolochia deltantha''
* ''Aristolochia deltoidea''
* ''[[Aristolochia didyma]]'' &ndash; ''yawar panga''
* ''[[Aristolochia didyma]]'' &ndash; ''yawar panga''
* ''[[Aristolochia durior]]'' (= ''A.&nbsp;macrophylla'') &ndash; common Dutchman's pipe, common pipevine
* ''[[Aristolochia durior]]'' (= ''A.&nbsp;macrophylla'') &ndash; common Dutchman's pipe, common pipevine
* ''Aristolochia erecta'' &ndash; swanflower
* ''[[Aristolochia eriantha]]''
* ''[[Aristolochia eriantha]]''
* ''Aristolochia esperanzae'' <small>Kuntze</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia esperanzae]]'' <small>Kuntze</small>
* ''Aristolochia fangchi'' <small>Y.C.Wu ex L.D.Chow & S.M.Hwang</small>
* ''Aristolochia filipendulina''
* ''[[Aristolochia fimbriata]]'' &ndash; white-veined Dutchman's pipe
* ''[[Aristolochia fimbriata]]'' &ndash; white-veined Dutchman's pipe
* ''Aristolochia foetida'' &ndash; Jalisco Dutchman's pipe
* ''Aristolochia foveolata''
* ''Aristolochia galeata''
* ''[[Aristolochia gibertii]]''
* ''[[Aristolochia gibertii]]''
* ''[[Aristolochia gigantea]]'' <small>Mart.</small> &ndash; giant pelican flower, Brazilian Dutchman's pipe
* ''[[Aristolochia gigantea]]'' <small>Mart.</small> &ndash; giant pelican flower, Brazilian Dutchman's pipe
* ''Aristolochia glandulosa'' <small>J.Kickx f.</small> &ndash; Cuban birthwort
* ''[[Aristolochia gorgona]]''
* ''[[Aristolochia gorgona]]''
* ''[[Aristolochia grandiflora]]'' <small>Sw.</small> &ndash; pelican flower
* ''[[Aristolochia grandiflora]]'' <small>Sw.</small> &ndash; pelican flower
* ''Aristolochia griffithi''
* ''Aristolochia guentheri''
* ''[[Aristolochia hainanensis]]'' <small>[[Elmer Drew Merrill|Merr.]]</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia hainanensis]]'' <small>[[Elmer Drew Merrill|Merr.]]</small>
* ''Aristolochia hians''
* ''Aristolochia hirta''
* ''Aristolochia holtzei''
* ''[[Aristolochia indica]]'' <small>L.</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia indica]]'' <small>L.</small>
* ''Aristolochia inflata''
* ''Aristolochia iquitensis''
* ''Aristolochia islandica''
* ''Aristolochia kaempferi'' <small>Willd.</small>
* ''Aristolochia kewensis''
* ''Aristolochia klugii'' &ndash; moth-winged birthwort
* ''[[Aristolochia labiata]]'' <small>Willd.</small> &ndash; mottled Dutchman's pipe, rooster flower
* ''[[Aristolochia labiata]]'' <small>Willd.</small> &ndash; mottled Dutchman's pipe, rooster flower
* ''Aristolochia leuconeura''
* ''[[Aristolochia lindneri]]'' [[Image:Aristolochia lindneri6.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia lindneri]]'']]
* ''[[Aristolochia lindneri]]'' [[Image:Aristolochia lindneri6.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia lindneri]]'']]
* ''Aristolochia lingulata''
[[File:Aristolochiaceae - Aristolochia littoralis.JPG|thumb|''[[Aristolochia littoralis]]'']]
[[File:Aristolochiaceae - Aristolochia littoralis.JPG|thumb|''[[Aristolochia littoralis]]'']]
* ''[[Aristolochia littoralis]]'' <small>D.Parodi</small> &ndash; elegant Dutchman's pipe, calico flower
* ''[[Aristolochia littoralis]]'' <small>D.Parodi</small> &ndash; elegant Dutchman's pipe, calico flower
* ''[[Aristolochia longa]]'' &ndash; long aristolochia, sarrasine
* ''[[Aristolochia longa]]'' &ndash; long aristolochia, sarrasine
* ''[[Aristolochia macrophylla]]'' <small>Lam.</small> [[Image:Aristolochia macrophylla on tree.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia macrophylla]]'']]
* ''[[Aristolochia macrophylla]]'' <small>Lam.</small> [[Image:Aristolochia macrophylla on tree.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia macrophylla]]'']]
* ''Aristolochia macroura''
* ''[[Aristolochia macroura]]''
* ''Aristolochia manchuriensis''<!-- CurtisBotMag24:86. -->
* ''Aristolochia mathewsii''
* ''Aristolochia maurorum''
[[Image:Aristolochia pontica 2.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia pontica]]'']]
[[Image:Aristolochia pontica 2.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia pontica]]'']]
[[File:Aristolochia sempervirens Blüte.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia sempervirens]]'']]
[[File:Aristolochia sempervirens Blüte.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Aristolochia sempervirens]]'']]
* ''[[Aristolochia maxima]]'' <small>Jacq.</small> &ndash; Florida Dutchman's pipe
* ''[[Aristolochia maxima]]'' <small>Jacq.</small> &ndash; Florida Dutchman's pipe
* ''Aristolochia moupinensis''
* ''Aristolochia nana'' &ndash; tiny pelican flower
* ''[[Aristolochia obliqua]]'' <small>S.M.Hwang</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia obliqua]]'' <small>S.M.Hwang</small>
* ''Aristolochia odoratissima'' <small>L.</small> &ndash; fragrant Dutchman's pipe
* ''Aristolochia orbicularis''
* ''Aristolochia ornithocephala'' &ndash; bird's head pipevine
* ''Aristolochia ovalifolia''
* ''[[Aristolochia paecilantha]]''
* ''[[Aristolochia paecilantha]]''
* ''Aristolochia pallida''
* ''[[Aristolochia pistolochia]]'' <small>L.</small>
* ''Aristolochia parviflora''
* ''Aristolochia paulistana'' <small>Hoehne</small>
* ''Aristolochia peltata'' <small>L.</small> &ndash; peltate Dutchman's pipe
* ''Aristolochia pentandra'' <small>Jacq.</small> &ndash; Marsh's Dutchman's pipe
* ''Aristolochia pfeiferi'' &ndash; ''dubsangid'' ([[Kuna language]])
* ''Aristolochia pilosa''
* ''Aristolochia pistolochia'' <small>L.</small>
* ''Aristolochia poecilantha''
* ''[[Aristolochia pontica]]''
* ''[[Aristolochia pontica]]''
* ''Aristolochia prostrata''
* ''Aristolochia pubera''
* ''[[Aristolochia quangbinhensis]]''
* ''[[Aristolochia quangbinhensis]]''
* ''Aristolochia raja''
* ''[[Aristolochia reticulata]]'' <small>Jacq.</small> &ndash; Red River snakeroot, Texas Dutchman's pipe
* ''Aristolochia ridicula'' <small>N.E.Br.</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia ringens]]'' <small>Vahl</small> &ndash; gaping Dutchman's pipe
* ''[[Aristolochia ringens]]'' <small>Vahl</small> &ndash; gaping Dutchman's pipe
* ''[[Aristolochia rotunda]]'' <small>L.</small> &ndash; smearwort, round birthwort, English mercury, mercury goosefoot, allgood, tola bona, fat hen &ndash; type species
* ''[[Aristolochia rotunda]]'' <small>L.</small> &ndash; smearwort, round birthwort, English mercury, mercury goosefoot, allgood, tola bona, fat hen &ndash; type species
* ''Aristolochia rugosa'' <small>Lam.</small> &ndash; mat root ([[Trinidad and Tobago]])
* ''Aristolochia salvadorensis''
**''Aristolochia salvadorensis platensis''
* ''Aristolochia schippii''
* ''[[Aristolochia scytophylla]]'' <small>S.M.Hwang & D.L.Chen</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia scytophylla]]'' <small>S.M.Hwang & D.L.Chen</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia sempervirens]]'' <small>L.</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia sempervirens]]'' <small>L.</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia serpentaria]]'' <small>L.</small> &ndash; Virginia snakeroot
* ''[[Aristolochia serpentaria]]'' <small>L.</small> &ndash; Virginia snakeroot
* ''Aristolochia silvatica''
* ''[[Aristolochia sipho]]'' <small>[[Charles Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle|L'Hér.]]</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia sipho]]'' <small>[[Charles Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle|L'Hér.]]</small>
* ''Aristolochia socorroensis''
* ''Aristolochia sprucei'' &ndash; spruce-leaved aristolochia
* ''[[Aristolochia stevensii ]]'' <small>Barringer</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia stevensii ]]'' <small>Barringer</small>
* ''Aristolochia stomachoides''
* ''Aristolochia surinamensis'' <small>Willd.</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia tagala]]'' &ndash; Indian birthwort
* ''[[Aristolochia tagala]]'' &ndash; Indian birthwort
* ''Aristolochia taliscana''
* ''Aristolochia tentaculata''
* ''Aristolochia thozetii''
* ''[[Aristolochia thwaitesii]]'' <small>Hook</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia thwaitesii]]'' <small>Hook</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia tomentosa]]'' <small>Sims</small> &ndash; woolly pipevine, woolly Dutchman's pipe
* ''[[Aristolochia tomentosa]]'' <small>Sims</small> &ndash; woolly pipevine, woolly Dutchman's pipe
* ''[[Aristolochia tricaudata]]''
* ''[[Aristolochia tricaudata]]''
* ''Aristolochia trilobata'' &ndash; ''bejuco de Santiago'' (Trinidad and Tobago)
* ''[[Aristolochia trilobata]]''
* ''[[Aristolochia tuberosa]]'' <small>C.F.Liang & S.M.Hwang</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia tuberosa]]'' <small>C.F.Liang & S.M.Hwang</small>
* ''Aristolochia urupaensis'' &ndash; heart-leaved aristolochia
* ''[[Aristolochia utriformis]]'' <small>S.M.Hwang</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia utriformis]]'' <small>S.M.Hwang</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia watsonii]]'' <small>Woot. & Standl.</small> &ndash; Watson's Dutchman's pipe
* ''[[Aristolochia watsonii]]'' <small>Woot. & Standl.</small> &ndash; Watson's Dutchman's pipe
* ''Aristolochia weddellii''
* ''[[Aristolochia westlandii]]'' <small>Hemsl.</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia westlandii]]'' <small>Hemsl.</small>
* ''Aristolochia wrightii'' <small>Seem.</small>
* ''[[Aristolochia yunnanensis]]'' <small>[[Adrien René Franchet|Franch.]]</small><ref name="GRINSpecies">{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?970 |title=GRIN Species Records of ''Aristolochia'' |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=2011-01-08}}</ref><ref name="ITIS">{{ITIS |taxon=''Aristolochia'' |id=18328 |access-date=2011-01-08}}</ref>
* ''[[Aristolochia yunnanensis]]'' <small>[[Adrien René Franchet|Franch.]]</small><ref name="GRINSpecies">{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?970 |title=GRIN Species Records of ''Aristolochia'' |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=2011-01-08}}</ref><ref name="ITIS">{{ITIS |taxon=''Aristolochia'' |id=18328 |access-date=2011-01-08}}</ref>


==Swallowtail butterflies==
===Formerly placed here===
Many species of ''Aristolochia'' are eaten by the caterpillar larvae of [[swallowtail butterflies]], thus making themselves unpalatable to most [[predator]]s. Lepidoptera feeding on pipevines include:
* ''[[Abuta amara]]'' (as ''Aristolochia amara'')

* ''[[Pararistolochia goldieana]]'' <small>(Hook.f.) Hutch. & Dalziel</small> (as ''A.&nbsp;goldieana'' <small>Hook.f.</small>)<ref name="GRINSpecies"/>
[[Choreutidae]]
*''[[Millieria]]'' [[leaf miner]]
[[Papilionidae]]
*[[False Apollo]] (''Archon apollinus'') &ndash; known from numerous pipevine species
*''[[Bhutanitis]]''
**[[Bhutan glory]] (''B.&nbsp;lidderdalii'') &ndash; known from ''A.&nbsp;griffithi'', ''A.&nbsp;kaempferii'', ''A.&nbsp;mandshuriensis'' and maybe others<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://knowledgebase.lookseek.com/Bhutan-Glory-Bhutanitis-lidderdalii.html|title=Bhutan Glory Butterfly|website=Knowledge Base}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://astronomy-to-zoology.tumblr.com/post/102379567052/bhutan-glory-bhutanitis-lidderdalii-a-species|title=Bhutan Glory (Bhutanitis lidderdalii)|date=2015|website=Astronomy to Zoology}}</ref><!-- species article is ambiguous -->
**[[Chinese three-tailed swallowtail]] (''B.&nbsp;thaidina'') &ndash; known from ''A.&nbsp;moupinensis''
*[[Troidini]]
**[[Great windmill]] (''Atrophaneura dasarada'') &ndash; only known from ''A.&nbsp;griffithi''
**[[Common batwing]] (''Atrophaneura varuna'') &ndash; only known from ''A.&nbsp;kaempferi''
**''[[Troides plateni]]'' &ndash; only known from [[Indian birthwort]] (''A.&nbsp;tagala'')
**[[Cairns birdwing]] (''Ornithoptera euphorion'')
**[[Richmond birdwing]] (''O.&nbsp;richmondia'')
**[[Ornithoptera paradisea|Paradise birdwing]] (''O.&nbsp;paradisea'')
**Rajah Brooke's birdwing (''[[Trogonoptera brookiana]]'') &ndash; only known from ''A.&nbsp;foveolata''
**[[Magellan birdwing]] (''T.&nbsp;magellanus'') &ndash; known on ''[[Aristolochia cucurbitifolia|A.&nbsp;cucurbitifolia]]'', ''A.&nbsp;ovatifolia'', ''A.&nbsp;zollingeriana'' and maybe others
**[[Pipevine swallowtail]] (''Battus philenor'') &ndash; known on ''[[Aristolochia macrophylla|A.&nbsp;macrophylla]]'', [[Virginia snakeroot]] (''[[Aristolochia serpentaria|A.&nbsp;serpentaria]]'') and others
**[[Polydamas Swallowtail]] (''Battus polydamas'')
**''[[Parides]]'' genus of swallowtails, also called cattlehearts
*[[Zerynthiini]]
**''[[Allancastria caucasica]]''
**[[Eastern Festoon]] (''Allancastria cerisyi'') &ndash; known from numerous pipevine species <ref>Tolman, T., 1997. Butterflies of Britain & Europe. Harper Collins</ref>
**[[Southern Festoon]] (''Zerynthia polyxena'') &ndash; known from numerous pipevine species
**[[Spanish Festoon]] (''Zerynthia rumina'') &ndash; known from numerous pipevine species

In Australia the [[invasive weed|invasive]] ''[[Aristolochia littoralis]]'' is fatal to the caterpillars of ''Ornithoptera euphorion'' and ''O.&nbsp;richmondia'' and threatens to displace their proper host, ''[[Aristolochia tagala|A.&nbsp;tagala]]''.

==Herbalism, toxicity and carcinogenicity==
The species ''[[Aristolochia clematitis]]'' was highly regarded as a medicinal plant since the ancient [[Ancient Egyptian medicine|Egyptians]], [[Ancient Greek medicine|Greeks]] and [[Medicine in ancient Rome|Romans]], and on until the [[Early Modern]] era; it also plays a role in [[traditional Chinese medicine]]. Due to its resemblance to the uterus, the [[doctrine of signatures]] held that ''birthwort'' was useful in childbirth. A preparation was given to women upon delivery to expel the [[placenta]], as noted by the herbalist [[Dioscurides]] in the 1st century AD. Despite its presence in ancient medicine, ''Aristolochia'' is known to contain the lethal toxin [[aristolochic acid]].

The ''[[Bencao Gangmu]]'', compiled by Li Shi-Zhen in the latter part of the sixteenth century, was based on the author's experience and on data obtained from earlier herbals; this Chinese herbal classic describes 1892 "drugs" (with 1110 drawings), including many species of ''Aristolochia''.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/S1872-0854(09)00007-1 |title=Chapter 7 Aristolochic Acid Nephropathy |series=Advances in Molecular Toxicology |year=2009 |last1=Grollman |first1=Arthur P. |last2=Scarborough |first2=John |last3=Jelaković |first3=Bojan |volume=3 |pages=211–227 |isbn=9780444533579 }}</ref> For 400 years, the ''Bencao Gangmu'' remained the principal source of information in traditional Chinese medicine and the work was translated into numerous languages, reflecting its influence in countries other than China. In the mid-twentieth century, the ''Bencao Gangmu'' was replaced by modern ''Materia Medica'', the most comprehensive source being ''Zhong Hua Ben Cao'' (''Encyclopedia of Chinese Materia Medica''), published in 1999.<ref>Health Department and National Chinese Medicine Management Office (ed.). ''Zhong Hua Ben Cao'', 3–460–509. Shanghai Science Technology Publication. 1999.</ref> The ''Encyclopedia'' lists 23 species of ''Aristolochia'', though with little mention of toxicity. The Chinese government currently lists the following ''Aristolochia'' herbs: ''A.&nbsp;manshuriensis'' (stems), ''A.&nbsp;fangchi'' (root), ''A.&nbsp;debilis'' (root and fruit), and ''[[aristolochia contorta|A.&nbsp;contorta]]'' (fruit), two of which (''madouling'' and ''qingmuxiang'') appear in the 2005 [[Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China]].

In traditional Chinese medicine ''Aristolochia'' species are used for certain forms of acute [[arthritis]] and [[edema]].<ref>Bensky, D., et al. ''Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica'', Third Edition. 2004. pp 1054-55.</ref><ref name=vanherweghem>{{cite journal |last1=Vanherweghem |first1=J-L. |last2=Tielemans |first2=C. |last3=Abramowicz |first3=D. |last4=Depierreux |first4=M. |last5=Vanhaelen-Fastre |first5=R. |last6=Vanhaelen |first6=M. |last7=Dratwa |first7=M. |last8=Richard |first8=C. |last9=Vandervelde |first9=D. |last10=Verbeelen |first10=D. |last11=Jadoul |first11=M. |title=Rapidly progressive interstitial renal fibrosis in young women: association with slimming regimen including Chinese herbs |journal=The Lancet |date=February 1993 |volume=341 |issue=8842 |pages=387–391 |doi=10.1016/0140-6736(93)92984-2 |pmid=8094166 |s2cid=32428737 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanhaelen |first1=Maurice |last2=Vanhaelen-Fastre |first2=Renée |last3=But |first3=Paul |last4=Vanherweghem |first4=Jean-Louis |title=Identification of aristolochic acid in Chinese herbs |journal=The Lancet |date=January 1994 |volume=343 |issue=8890 |pages=174 |doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(94)90964-4 |pmid=7904018 |s2cid=34836561 }}</ref>

Despite the toxic properties of aristolochic acid, naturopaths claim that a decoction of birthwort stimulates the production and increases the activity of [[white blood cell]]s,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine|last=Chevallier|first=Andrew|publisher=Penguin|year=2016|isbn=9781465456755|page=171}}</ref> or that pipevines contain a [[disinfectant]] which assists in [[wound healing]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cnps-yerbabuena.org/dutchmans-pipe-aristolochia-californica/|title=Dutchman's Pipe (Aristolochia californica)|last=Wood|first=Michael|date=March 2004|website=Yerbabuena org}}</ref> Also, ''[[Aristolochia bracteolata]]'' is colloquially known as "worm killer" due to supposed [[antihelminthic]] activity.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=D Udhaya |last1=Nandhini|first2= M |last2=Rajasekar|first3= T |last3=Venmathi|date=February 2017|title=A review on worm killer: Aristolochia bracteolata|url=http://www.phytojournal.com/archives/2017/vol6issue2/PartA/6-1-56-579.pdf|journal=Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry}}</ref>

''Aristolochia'' taxa have also been used as reptile repellents. ''[[Aristolochia serpentaria|A.&nbsp;serpentaria]]'' (Virginia snakeroot) is thus named because the root was used to treat snakebite, as "so offensive to these reptiles, that they not only avoid the places where it grows, but even flee from the traveler who carries a piece of it in his hand".<ref>Freeman-Mitford, A. B. ''The Bamboo Garden'' (1896) quoted in Alice M. Coats, ''Garden Shrubs and Their Histories'' (1964) 1992, ''s.v.'' "Aristolochia".</ref> ''A.&nbsp;pfeiferi'',<ref>{{Cite book|title=Plants and Animals in the Life of the Kuna|first1=Jorge|last1= Ventocilla|first2= Heraclio|last2= Herrera|first3= Valerio|last3= Núñez|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=2010|isbn=9780292786790}}</ref> ''A.&nbsp;rugosa'',<ref>{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of Economic Plants|last=Uphof|first=J. C. Th.|publisher=la Universidad de Michigan|year=1959}}</ref> and ''A.&nbsp;trilobata''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Giovannini |first1=Peter |last2=Howes |first2=Melanie-Jayne R. |title=Medicinal plants used to treat snakebite in Central America: Review and assessment of scientific evidence |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |date=March 2017 |volume=199 |pages=240–256 |doi=10.1016/j.jep.2017.02.011 |pmid=28179114 }}</ref> are also used in folk medicine to treat snakebites.
[[Image:Aristolochia sp.jpg|thumb|Ornamental ''[[Aristolochia ringens]]'']]

===Toxicity and carcinogenicity===
In 1993, a series of end-stage renal disease cases was reported<ref name=vanherweghem/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Depierreux |first1=Michel |last2=Van Damme |first2=Baudewijn |last3=Vanden Houte |first3=Kaat |last4=Vanherweghem |first4=Jean Louis |title=Pathologic Aspects of a Newly Described Nephropathy Related to the Prolonged Use of Chinese Herbs |journal=American Journal of Kidney Diseases |date=August 1994 |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=172–180 |doi=10.1016/s0272-6386(12)80178-8 |pmid=8048421 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanhaelen |first1=Maurice |last2=Vanhaelen-Fastre |first2=Renée |last3=But |first3=Paul |last4=Vanherweghem |first4=Jean-Louis |title=Identification of aristolochic acid in Chinese herbs |journal=The Lancet |date=January 1994 |volume=343 |issue=8890 |pages=174 |doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(94)90964-4 |pmid=7904018|s2cid=34836561 }}</ref> from [[Belgium]] associated with a weight loss treatment, where ''[[Stephania tetrandra]]'' in a herbal preparation was suspected of being replaced with ''[[Aristolochia fangchi]]''.<ref>The names ''han fang ji'' (漢防己, Chinese ''fang ji'' - ''S.&nbsp;tetrandra'') and ''guan fang ji'' (廣防己, Broad ''fang ji'' - ''A.&nbsp;fanchi'') had apparently been confused.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stiborová |first1=M. |last2=Frei |first2=E. |last3=Breuer |first3=A. |last4=Bieler |first4=C.A. |last5=Schmeiser |first5=H.H. |title=Aristolactam I a metabolite of aristolochic acid I upon activation forms an adduct found in DNA of patients with Chinese herbs nephropathy |journal=Experimental and Toxicologic Pathology |date=July 1999 |volume=51 |issue=4–5 |pages=421–427 |doi=10.1016/S0940-2993(99)80033-5 |pmid=10445409 |bibcode=1999EToxP..51..421S }}</ref> More than 105 patients were identified with [[kidney disease|nephropathy]] following the ingestion of this preparation from the same clinic from 1990 to 1992. Many required [[renal transplantation]] or [[Kidney dialysis|dialysis]].<ref>Vergano, D. [https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/columnist/vergano/story/2012-04-07/do-herbal-remedies-work/54102616/1 Herbal 'remedy' may trigger widespread kidney failure.] ''USA Today'' April 16, 2012.</ref> Aristolochia is a component of some Chinese [[herbal medicine]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Li | first1 = X | last2 = Yang | first2 = L | last3 = Yu | first3 = Y | year = 2001 | title = An analysis of the clinical and pathological characteristics of Mu-tong (a Chinese herb) induced tubulointerstitial nephropathy | journal = Zhonghua Nei Ke Za Zhi | volume = 40 | issue = 10| pages = 681–7 | pmid = 11769723 }}</ref>

''Aristolochia'' has been shown to be both a potent carcinogen and kidney toxin. Herbal compounds containing ''Aristolochia'' are classified as a [[List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens|Group 1]] [[carcinogen]] by the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]].<ref>ACS (2006)</ref> Epidemiological and laboratory studies have identified ''Aristolochia'' to be a dangerous kidney toxin; ''Aristolochia'' has been shown to be associated with more than 100 cases of kidney failure.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cosyns | first1 = J. P. | year = 2003 | title = Aristolochic acid and 'Chinese herbs nephropathy': a review of the evidence to date | journal = Drug Saf. | volume = 26 | issue = 1| pages = 33–48 | pmid = 12495362 | doi=10.2165/00002018-200326010-00004| s2cid = 46073980 }}</ref> Furthermore, it appears as if contamination of [[grain]] with [[Aristolochia clematitis|European birthwort]] (''A.&nbsp;clematitis'') is a cause of [[Balkan nephropathy]], a severe renal disease occurring in parts of [[southeast Europe]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grollman |first1=Arthur P. |last2=Shibutani |first2=Shinya |last3=Moriya |first3=Masaaki |last4=Miller |first4=Frederick |last5=Wu |first5=Lin |last6=Moll |first6=Ute |last7=Suzuki |first7=Naomi |last8=Fernandes |first8=Andrea |last9=Rosenquist |first9=Thomas |last10=Medverec |first10=Zvonimir |last11=Jakovina |first11=Krunoslav |last12=Brdar |first12=Branko |last13=Slade |first13=Neda |last14=Turesky |first14=Robert J. |last15=Goodenough |first15=Angela K. |last16=Rieger |first16=Robert |last17=Vukelić |first17=Mato |last18=Jelaković |first18=Bojan |title=Aristolochic acid and the etiology of endemic (Balkan) nephropathy |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=17 July 2007 |volume=104 |issue=29 |pages=12129–12134 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0701248104 |pmid=17620607 |pmc=1913550 |bibcode=2007PNAS..10412129G |doi-access=free }}</ref> In 2001 the UK government banned the sale, supply and importation of any medicinal product consisting of or containing a plant of the genus Aristolochia.<ref>Statutory Instruments 2001 No. 1841. The Medicines (Aristolochia and Mu Tong etc.) (Prohibition) Order 2001. http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2001/1841/made</ref> Several other plant species that do not cause themselves kidney poisoning, but which were commonly substituted with Aristolochia in the remedies, were prohibited in the same order.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Illegal herbal remedies containing Aristolochia: vigilance needed |url=https://www.gov.uk/drug-safety-update/illegal-herbal-remedies-containing-aristolochia-vigilance-needed |access-date=2023-08-24 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref>

Aristolochic acid was linked to aristolochic acid-associated urothelial cancer in a Taiwanese study in 2012.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Chung-Hsin |last2=Dickman |first2=Kathleen G. |last3=Moriya |first3=Masaaki |last4=Zavadil |first4=Jiri |last5=Sidorenko |first5=Viktoriya S. |last6=Edwards |first6=Karen L. |last7=Gnatenko |first7=Dmitri V. |last8=Wu |first8=Lin |last9=Turesky |first9=Robert J. |last10=Wu |first10=Xue-Ru |last11=Pu |first11=Yeong-Shiau |last12=Grollman |first12=Arthur P. |title=Aristolochic acid-associated urothelial cancer in Taiwan |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=22 May 2012 |volume=109 |issue=21 |pages=8241–8246 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1119920109 |pmid=22493262 |pmc=3361449 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In 2013, two studies reported that aristolochic acid is a strong carcinogen. Whole-genome and exome analysis of individuals with a known exposure to aristolochic acid revealed a higher rate of somatic mutation in DNA.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Poon |first1=Song Ling |last2=Pang |first2=See-Tong |last3=McPherson |first3=John R. |last4=Yu |first4=Willie |last5=Huang |first5=Kie Kyon |last6=Guan |first6=Peiyong |last7=Weng |first7=Wen-Hui |last8=Siew |first8=Ee Yan |last9=Liu |first9=Yujing |last10=Heng |first10=Hong Lee |last11=Chong |first11=Soo Ching |last12=Gan |first12=Anna |last13=Tay |first13=Su Ting |last14=Lim |first14=Weng Khong |last15=Cutcutache |first15=Ioana |last16=Huang |first16=Dachuan |last17=Ler |first17=Lian Dee |last18=Nairismägi |first18=Maarja-Liisa |last19=Lee |first19=Ming Hui |last20=Chang |first20=Ying-Hsu |last21=Yu |first21=Kai-Jie |last22=Chan-on |first22=Waraporn |last23=Li |first23=Bin-Kui |last24=Yuan |first24=Yun-Fei |last25=Qian |first25=Chao-Nan |last26=Ng |first26=Kwai-Fong |last27=Wu |first27=Ching-Fang |last28=Hsu |first28=Cheng-Lung |last29=Bunte |first29=Ralph M. |last30=Stratton |first30=Michael R. |last31=Futreal |first31=P. Andrew |last32=Sung |first32=Wing-Kin |last33=Chuang |first33=Cheng-Keng |last34=Ong |first34=Choon Kiat |last35=Rozen |first35=Steven G. |last36=Tan |first36=Patrick |last37=Teh |first37=Bin Tean |title=Genome-Wide Mutational Signatures of Aristolochic Acid and Its Application as a Screening Tool |journal=Science Translational Medicine |date=7 August 2013 |volume=5 |issue=197 |pages=197ra101 |doi=10.1126/scitranslmed.3006086 |pmid=23926199 |s2cid=25923013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hoang |first1=Margaret L. |last2=Chen |first2=Chung-Hsin |last3=Sidorenko |first3=Viktoriya S. |last4=He |first4=Jian |last5=Dickman |first5=Kathleen G. |last6=Yun |first6=Byeong Hwa |last7=Moriya |first7=Masaaki |last8=Niknafs |first8=Noushin |last9=Douville |first9=Christopher |last10=Karchin |first10=Rachel |last11=Turesky |first11=Robert J. |last12=Pu |first12=Yeong-Shiau |last13=Vogelstein |first13=Bert |last14=Papadopoulos |first14=Nickolas |last15=Grollman |first15=Arthur P. |last16=Kinzler |first16=Kenneth W. |last17=Rosenquist |first17=Thomas A. |title=Mutational Signature of Aristolochic Acid Exposure as Revealed by Whole-Exome Sequencing |journal=Science Translational Medicine |date=7 August 2013 |volume=5 |issue=197 |pages=197ra102 |doi=10.1126/scitranslmed.3006200 |pmid=23926200 |pmc=3973132 }}</ref> [[Metabolite]]s of aristolochic acid enter the cell nucleus and form adducts on [[DNA]]. While adducts on the transcribed DNA strand within genes are detected and removed by [[Nucleotide excision repair#Transcription coupled repair .28TC-NER.29|transcription-coupled repair]], the adducts on the non-transcribed strand remain and eventually cause DNA replication errors. These adducts have a preference for [[adenine]] bases, and cause A-to-T [[transversion]]s. Furthermore, these metabolites appear to show a preference for C'''A'''G and T'''A'''G sequences.

==Garden history==
Due to their spectacular flowers, several species are used as [[ornamental plant]]s, notably the hardy ''A.&nbsp;durior'' of eastern North America, which was one of [[John Bartram]]'s many introductions to British gardens; in 1761 Bartram sent seeds he had collected in the [[Ohio River Valley]] to [[Peter Collinson (botanist)|Peter Collinson]] in London, and Collinson gave them to the nurseryman James Gordon at Mile End to raise. The vine was soon adopted for creating for arbors "a canopy impenetrable to the rays of the sun, or moderate rain," as [[John Sims (taxonomist)|Dr John Sims]] noted in ''[[The Botanical Magazine]]'', 1801.<ref>Quoted in Coats (1964) 1992.</ref>
[[Image:Black and yellow butterfly KL.jpg|thumb|right|[[Trogonoptera brookiana|Rajah Brooke's birdwing]]: its caterpillars feed on ''Aristolochia foveolata'']]


==See also==
==See also==
Line 241: Line 158:
== References ==
== References ==
* {{aut|[[American Cancer Society]] (ACS}} (2006): [https://web.archive.org/web/20080317051133/http://www.cancer.org/docroot/PED/content/PED_1_3x_Known_and_Probable_Carcinogens.asp?sitearea=PED Known and Probable Carcinogens (Including Industrial Processes, Occupational Exposures, Infectious Agents, Chemicals, and Radiation).] Version of 02/03/2006. Retrieved 2007-NOV-12.
* {{aut|[[American Cancer Society]] (ACS}} (2006): [https://web.archive.org/web/20080317051133/http://www.cancer.org/docroot/PED/content/PED_1_3x_Known_and_Probable_Carcinogens.asp?sitearea=PED Known and Probable Carcinogens (Including Industrial Processes, Occupational Exposures, Infectious Agents, Chemicals, and Radiation).] Version of 02/03/2006. Retrieved 2007-NOV-12.
* {{cite journal |author=Depierreux, M. |title=Pathologic aspects of a newly described nephropathy related to the prolonged use of Chinese herbs|journal=American Journal of Kidney Diseases | date=August 1994 |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=172–180 |pmid=8048421|display-authors=etal |doi=10.1016/s0272-6386(12)80178-8}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Depierreux |first1=Michel |last2=Van Damme |first2=Baudewijn |last3=Vanden Houte |first3=Kaat |last4=Vanherweghem |first4=Jean Louis |title=Pathologic Aspects of a Newly Described Nephropathy Related to the Prolonged Use of Chinese Herbs |journal=American Journal of Kidney Diseases |date=August 1994 |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=172–180 |doi=10.1016/s0272-6386(12)80178-8 |pmid=8048421 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Grollman | first1 = A. P. |display-authors=et al | year = 2007 | title = Aristolochic acid and the etiology of endemic (Balkan) nephropathy | journal = [[PNAS]] | volume = 104 | issue = 20| pages = 12129–12134 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0701248104 | pmid = 17620607 | pmc=1913550| bibcode = 2007PNAS..10412129G | doi-access = free }} [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/0701248104/DC1 Supporting information]
* {{cite journal |last1=Grollman |first1=Arthur P. |last2=Shibutani |first2=Shinya |last3=Moriya |first3=Masaaki |last4=Miller |first4=Frederick |last5=Wu |first5=Lin |last6=Moll |first6=Ute |last7=Suzuki |first7=Naomi |last8=Fernandes |first8=Andrea |last9=Rosenquist |first9=Thomas |last10=Medverec |first10=Zvonimir |last11=Jakovina |first11=Krunoslav |last12=Brdar |first12=Branko |last13=Slade |first13=Neda |last14=Turesky |first14=Robert J. |last15=Goodenough |first15=Angela K. |last16=Rieger |first16=Robert |last17=Vukelić |first17=Mato |last18=Jelaković |first18=Bojan |title=Aristolochic acid and the etiology of endemic (Balkan) nephropathy |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=17 July 2007 |volume=104 |issue=29 |pages=12129–12134 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0701248104 |pmid=17620607 |pmc=1913550 |bibcode=2007PNAS..10412129G |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Heinrich | first1 = M. |display-authors=et al | year = 2009 | title = Local uses of ''Aristolochia'' species and content of aristolochic acid 1 and 2 – a global assessment based on bibliographic sources | journal = Journal of Ethnopharmacology | volume = 125 | issue = 1| pages = 108–44 | doi=10.1016/j.jep.2009.05.028 | pmid=19505558}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Heinrich |first1=Michael |last2=Chan |first2=Jennifer |last3=Wanke |first3=Stefan |last4=Neinhuis |first4=Christoph |last5=Simmonds |first5=Monique S.J. |title=Local uses of ''Aristolochia'' species and content of aristolochic acid 1 and 2 – a global assessment based on bibliographic sources |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |date=August 2009 |volume=125 |issue=1 |pages=108–144 |doi=10.1016/j.jep.2009.05.028 |pmid=19505558 }}
* {{cite journal |author=Stiborova, M. |title=Aristolactam I a metabolite of aristolochic acid I upon activation forms an adduct found in DNA of patients with Chinese herbs nephropathy |journal=Experimental Toxicological Pathology | date=July 1999 |volume=51 |issue=4–5 |pages=421–427|display-authors=etal |doi=10.1016/s0940-2993(99)80033-5|pmid=10445409 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Stiborová |first1=M. |last2=Frei |first2=E. |last3=Breuer |first3=A. |last4=Bieler |first4=C.A. |last5=Schmeiser |first5=H.H. |title=Aristolactam I a metabolite of aristolochic acid I upon activation forms an adduct found in DNA of patients with Chinese herbs nephropathy |journal=Experimental and Toxicologic Pathology |date=July 1999 |volume=51 |issue=4–5 |pages=421–427 |doi=10.1016/S0940-2993(99)80033-5 |pmid=10445409 |bibcode=1999EToxP..51..421S }}


==Further reading==
==Further reading==
*{{cite journal | last1 = Mathew | first1 = J. E. | display-authors = et al | year = 2011 | title = ''Anti-inflammatory, antipruritic and mast cell stabilizing activity of ''Aristolochia indica | url = http://www.mums.ac.ir/shares/basic_medical/basicmedjou/2011/sep/a4.pdf | journal = Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences | volume = 14 | issue = 5 | pages = 422–27 | access-date = 2012-08-17 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150610204848/http://www.mums.ac.ir/shares/basic_medical/basicmedjou/2011/sep/a4.pdf | archive-date = 2015-06-10 | url-status = dead | pmid = 23493617 | pmc = 3586839 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mathew |first1=Jessy Elizabeth |last2=Kaitheri |first2=Srinivasan Keloth |last3=DinakaranVachala |first3=Seekarajapuram |last4=Jose |first4=Magi |title=Anti-inflammatory, Antipruritic and Mast Cell Stabilizing Activity of Aristolochia Indica |journal=Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences |date=2011 |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=422–427 |pmid=23493617 |pmc=3586839 }}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Sati | first1 = H. |display-authors=et al | year = 2011 | title = Phytochemical and pharmacological potential of ''Aristolochia indica'': A review | url = http://rjpbcs.com/pdf/2011_2(4)/%5B68%5D.pdf | journal = Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical Sciences | volume = 2 | issue = 4| pages = 647–54 }}


==External links==
==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Commons category|Aristolochia}}
{{Commons category|Aristolochia}}
{{Wikispecies}}
{{Wikispecies}}
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{{Taxonbar|from=Q156212}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q156212}}
{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Aristolochia| ]]
[[Category:Aristolochia| ]]

Latest revision as of 06:06, 30 July 2024

Aristolochia
Aristolochia labiata
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Magnoliids
Order: Piperales
Family: Aristolochiaceae
Subfamily: Aristolochioideae
Genus: Aristolochia
L.[1]
Species

Over 500, see text

Synonyms

Hocquartia Dum.
Holostylis Duch., Ann. Sci. Nat., Bot. sér. 4, 2: 33, t. 5. 1854.
Isotrema Raf. (disputed)

Aristolochia (English: /əˌrɪstəˈloʊkiə/) is a large plant genus with over 500 species that is the type genus of the family Aristolochiaceae. Its members are commonly known as birthwort, pipevine or Dutchman's pipe and are widespread and occur in the most diverse climates. Some species, like A. utriformis and A. westlandii, are threatened with extinction.

Isotrema is usually included here, but might be a valid genus. If so, it contains those species with a three-lobed calyx.

Description

[edit]
Calico flower (A. littoralis): habit

Aristolochia is a genus of evergreen and deciduous lianas (woody vines) and herbaceous perennials. The smooth stem is erect or somewhat twining. The simple leaves are alternate and cordate, membranous, growing on leaf stalks. There are no stipules.

The flowers grow in the leaf axils. They are inflated and globose at the base, continuing as a long perianth tube, ending in a tongue-shaped, brightly colored lobe. There is no corolla. The calyx is one to three whorled, and three to six toothed. The sepals are united (gamosepalous). There are six to 40 stamens in one whorl. They are united with the style, forming a gynostemium. The ovary is inferior and is four to six locular.

These flowers have a specialized pollination mechanism. The plants are aromatic and their strong scent[2] attracts insects. The inner part of the perianth tube is covered with hairs, acting as a fly-trap. These hairs then wither to release the fly, covered with pollen.

The fruit is dehiscent capsule with many endospermic seeds.

The common names Dutchman's pipe and pipevine (e.g. common pipevine, A. durior) are an allusion to old-fashioned meerschaum pipes at one time common in the Netherlands and northern Germany. Birthwort (e.g. European birthwort A. clematitis) refers to these species' flower shape, resembling a birth canal. Aristolochia was first described by the 4th c. BC Greek philosopher and botanist Theophrastus in his ‘’Inquiry of Plants’’ [IX.8.3], and the scientific name Aristolochia was developed from Ancient Greek aristos (άριστος) "best" + locheia (λοχεία), childbirth or childbed, relating to its known ancient use in childbirth.[3][4] The Roman orator Cicero records a different tradition, that the plant was named for the otherwise unknown individual with the common Greek name Aristolochos, who had learned from a dream that it was an antidote for snake bites.[5]

Aristolochic acid, the main toxin of pipevines

Selected species

[edit]
Main article: List of Aristolochia species
Aristolochia chilensis
Aristolochia eriantha
Aristolochia gibertii
Aristolochia gigantea
Aristolochia pistolochia
Aristolochia maxima
Aristolochia littoralis
Aristolochia pontica
Aristolochia sempervirens

Swallowtail butterflies

[edit]

Many species of Aristolochia are eaten by the caterpillar larvae of swallowtail butterflies, thus making themselves unpalatable to most predators. Lepidoptera feeding on pipevines include:

Choreutidae

Papilionidae

In Australia the invasive Aristolochia littoralis is fatal to the caterpillars of Ornithoptera euphorion and O. richmondia and threatens to displace their proper host, A. tagala.

Herbalism, toxicity and carcinogenicity

[edit]

The species Aristolochia clematitis was highly regarded as a medicinal plant since the ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, and on until the Early Modern era; it also plays a role in traditional Chinese medicine. Due to its resemblance to the uterus, the doctrine of signatures held that birthwort was useful in childbirth. A preparation was given to women upon delivery to expel the placenta, as noted by the herbalist Dioscurides in the 1st century AD. Despite its presence in ancient medicine, Aristolochia is known to contain the lethal toxin aristolochic acid.

The Bencao Gangmu, compiled by Li Shi-Zhen in the latter part of the sixteenth century, was based on the author's experience and on data obtained from earlier herbals; this Chinese herbal classic describes 1892 "drugs" (with 1110 drawings), including many species of Aristolochia.[11] For 400 years, the Bencao Gangmu remained the principal source of information in traditional Chinese medicine and the work was translated into numerous languages, reflecting its influence in countries other than China. In the mid-twentieth century, the Bencao Gangmu was replaced by modern Materia Medica, the most comprehensive source being Zhong Hua Ben Cao (Encyclopedia of Chinese Materia Medica), published in 1999.[12] The Encyclopedia lists 23 species of Aristolochia, though with little mention of toxicity. The Chinese government currently lists the following Aristolochia herbs: A. manshuriensis (stems), A. fangchi (root), A. debilis (root and fruit), and A. contorta (fruit), two of which (madouling and qingmuxiang) appear in the 2005 Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China.

In traditional Chinese medicine Aristolochia species are used for certain forms of acute arthritis and edema.[13][14][15]

Despite the toxic properties of aristolochic acid, naturopaths claim that a decoction of birthwort stimulates the production and increases the activity of white blood cells,[16] or that pipevines contain a disinfectant which assists in wound healing.[17] Also, Aristolochia bracteolata is colloquially known as "worm killer" due to supposed antihelminthic activity.[18]

Aristolochia taxa have also been used as reptile repellents. A. serpentaria (Virginia snakeroot) is thus named because the root was used to treat snakebite, as "so offensive to these reptiles, that they not only avoid the places where it grows, but even flee from the traveler who carries a piece of it in his hand".[19] A. pfeiferi,[20] A. rugosa,[21] and A. trilobata[22] are also used in folk medicine to treat snakebites.

Ornamental Aristolochia ringens

Toxicity and carcinogenicity

[edit]

In 1993, a series of end-stage renal disease cases was reported[14][23][24] from Belgium associated with a weight loss treatment, where Stephania tetrandra in a herbal preparation was suspected of being replaced with Aristolochia fangchi.[25][26] More than 105 patients were identified with nephropathy following the ingestion of this preparation from the same clinic from 1990 to 1992. Many required renal transplantation or dialysis.[27] Aristolochia is a component of some Chinese herbal medicines.[28]

Aristolochia has been shown to be both a potent carcinogen and kidney toxin. Herbal compounds containing Aristolochia are classified as a Group 1 carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer.[29] Epidemiological and laboratory studies have identified Aristolochia to be a dangerous kidney toxin; Aristolochia has been shown to be associated with more than 100 cases of kidney failure.[30] Furthermore, it appears as if contamination of grain with European birthwort (A. clematitis) is a cause of Balkan nephropathy, a severe renal disease occurring in parts of southeast Europe.[31] In 2001 the UK government banned the sale, supply and importation of any medicinal product consisting of or containing a plant of the genus Aristolochia.[32] Several other plant species that do not cause themselves kidney poisoning, but which were commonly substituted with Aristolochia in the remedies, were prohibited in the same order.[33]

Aristolochic acid was linked to aristolochic acid-associated urothelial cancer in a Taiwanese study in 2012.[34] In 2013, two studies reported that aristolochic acid is a strong carcinogen. Whole-genome and exome analysis of individuals with a known exposure to aristolochic acid revealed a higher rate of somatic mutation in DNA.[35][36] Metabolites of aristolochic acid enter the cell nucleus and form adducts on DNA. While adducts on the transcribed DNA strand within genes are detected and removed by transcription-coupled repair, the adducts on the non-transcribed strand remain and eventually cause DNA replication errors. These adducts have a preference for adenine bases, and cause A-to-T transversions. Furthermore, these metabolites appear to show a preference for CAG and TAG sequences.

Garden history

[edit]

Due to their spectacular flowers, several species are used as ornamental plants, notably the hardy A. durior of eastern North America, which was one of John Bartram's many introductions to British gardens; in 1761 Bartram sent seeds he had collected in the Ohio River Valley to Peter Collinson in London, and Collinson gave them to the nurseryman James Gordon at Mile End to raise. The vine was soon adopted for creating for arbors "a canopy impenetrable to the rays of the sun, or moderate rain," as Dr John Sims noted in The Botanical Magazine, 1801.[37]

Rajah Brooke's birdwing: its caterpillars feed on Aristolochia foveolata

See also

[edit]

Footnotes

[edit]
  1. ^ "Genus: Aristolochia L." Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. 2009-01-30. Retrieved 2011-01-08.
  2. ^ "sometimes with a very disagreeable odour" remarks the Royal Horticultural Society, Dictionary of Gardening.
  3. ^ "Jepson Manual: Aristolochia". Ucjeps.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  4. ^ "Missouri Botanical Garden". Mobot.org. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  5. ^ Cicero, On Divination 1.10.16
  6. ^ "GRIN Species Records of Aristolochia". Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2011-01-08.
  7. ^ "Aristolochia". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 2011-01-08.
  8. ^ "Bhutan Glory Butterfly". Knowledge Base.
  9. ^ "Bhutan Glory (Bhutanitis lidderdalii)". Astronomy to Zoology. 2015.
  10. ^ Tolman, T., 1997. Butterflies of Britain & Europe. Harper Collins
  11. ^ Grollman, Arthur P.; Scarborough, John; Jelaković, Bojan (2009). Chapter 7 Aristolochic Acid Nephropathy. Advances in Molecular Toxicology. Vol. 3. pp. 211–227. doi:10.1016/S1872-0854(09)00007-1. ISBN 9780444533579.
  12. ^ Health Department and National Chinese Medicine Management Office (ed.). Zhong Hua Ben Cao, 3–460–509. Shanghai Science Technology Publication. 1999.
  13. ^ Bensky, D., et al. Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica, Third Edition. 2004. pp 1054-55.
  14. ^ a b Vanherweghem, J-L.; Tielemans, C.; Abramowicz, D.; Depierreux, M.; Vanhaelen-Fastre, R.; Vanhaelen, M.; Dratwa, M.; Richard, C.; Vandervelde, D.; Verbeelen, D.; Jadoul, M. (February 1993). "Rapidly progressive interstitial renal fibrosis in young women: association with slimming regimen including Chinese herbs". The Lancet. 341 (8842): 387–391. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(93)92984-2. PMID 8094166. S2CID 32428737.
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  16. ^ Chevallier, Andrew (2016). Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine. Penguin. p. 171. ISBN 9781465456755.
  17. ^ Wood, Michael (March 2004). "Dutchman's Pipe (Aristolochia californica)". Yerbabuena org.
  18. ^ Nandhini, D Udhaya; Rajasekar, M; Venmathi, T (February 2017). "A review on worm killer: Aristolochia bracteolata" (PDF). Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry.
  19. ^ Freeman-Mitford, A. B. The Bamboo Garden (1896) quoted in Alice M. Coats, Garden Shrubs and Their Histories (1964) 1992, s.v. "Aristolochia".
  20. ^ Ventocilla, Jorge; Herrera, Heraclio; Núñez, Valerio (2010). Plants and Animals in the Life of the Kuna. University of Texas Press. ISBN 9780292786790.
  21. ^ Uphof, J. C. Th. (1959). Dictionary of Economic Plants. la Universidad de Michigan.
  22. ^ Giovannini, Peter; Howes, Melanie-Jayne R. (March 2017). "Medicinal plants used to treat snakebite in Central America: Review and assessment of scientific evidence". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 199: 240–256. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2017.02.011. PMID 28179114.
  23. ^ Depierreux, Michel; Van Damme, Baudewijn; Vanden Houte, Kaat; Vanherweghem, Jean Louis (August 1994). "Pathologic Aspects of a Newly Described Nephropathy Related to the Prolonged Use of Chinese Herbs". American Journal of Kidney Diseases. 24 (2): 172–180. doi:10.1016/s0272-6386(12)80178-8. PMID 8048421.
  24. ^ Vanhaelen, Maurice; Vanhaelen-Fastre, Renée; But, Paul; Vanherweghem, Jean-Louis (January 1994). "Identification of aristolochic acid in Chinese herbs". The Lancet. 343 (8890): 174. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(94)90964-4. PMID 7904018. S2CID 34836561.
  25. ^ The names han fang ji (漢防己, Chinese fang ji - S. tetrandra) and guan fang ji (廣防己, Broad fang ji - A. fanchi) had apparently been confused.
  26. ^ Stiborová, M.; Frei, E.; Breuer, A.; Bieler, C.A.; Schmeiser, H.H. (July 1999). "Aristolactam I a metabolite of aristolochic acid I upon activation forms an adduct found in DNA of patients with Chinese herbs nephropathy". Experimental and Toxicologic Pathology. 51 (4–5): 421–427. Bibcode:1999EToxP..51..421S. doi:10.1016/S0940-2993(99)80033-5. PMID 10445409.
  27. ^ Vergano, D. Herbal 'remedy' may trigger widespread kidney failure. USA Today April 16, 2012.
  28. ^ Li, X; Yang, L; Yu, Y (2001). "An analysis of the clinical and pathological characteristics of Mu-tong (a Chinese herb) induced tubulointerstitial nephropathy". Zhonghua Nei Ke Za Zhi. 40 (10): 681–7. PMID 11769723.
  29. ^ ACS (2006)
  30. ^ Cosyns, J. P. (2003). "Aristolochic acid and 'Chinese herbs nephropathy': a review of the evidence to date". Drug Saf. 26 (1): 33–48. doi:10.2165/00002018-200326010-00004. PMID 12495362. S2CID 46073980.
  31. ^ Grollman, Arthur P.; Shibutani, Shinya; Moriya, Masaaki; Miller, Frederick; Wu, Lin; Moll, Ute; Suzuki, Naomi; Fernandes, Andrea; Rosenquist, Thomas; Medverec, Zvonimir; Jakovina, Krunoslav; Brdar, Branko; Slade, Neda; Turesky, Robert J.; Goodenough, Angela K.; Rieger, Robert; Vukelić, Mato; Jelaković, Bojan (17 July 2007). "Aristolochic acid and the etiology of endemic (Balkan) nephropathy". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (29): 12129–12134. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10412129G. doi:10.1073/pnas.0701248104. PMC 1913550. PMID 17620607.
  32. ^ Statutory Instruments 2001 No. 1841. The Medicines (Aristolochia and Mu Tong etc.) (Prohibition) Order 2001. http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2001/1841/made
  33. ^ "Illegal herbal remedies containing Aristolochia: vigilance needed". GOV.UK. Retrieved 2023-08-24.
  34. ^ Chen, Chung-Hsin; Dickman, Kathleen G.; Moriya, Masaaki; Zavadil, Jiri; Sidorenko, Viktoriya S.; Edwards, Karen L.; Gnatenko, Dmitri V.; Wu, Lin; Turesky, Robert J.; Wu, Xue-Ru; Pu, Yeong-Shiau; Grollman, Arthur P. (22 May 2012). "Aristolochic acid-associated urothelial cancer in Taiwan". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109 (21): 8241–8246. doi:10.1073/pnas.1119920109. PMC 3361449. PMID 22493262.
  35. ^ Poon, Song Ling; Pang, See-Tong; McPherson, John R.; Yu, Willie; Huang, Kie Kyon; Guan, Peiyong; Weng, Wen-Hui; Siew, Ee Yan; Liu, Yujing; Heng, Hong Lee; Chong, Soo Ching; Gan, Anna; Tay, Su Ting; Lim, Weng Khong; Cutcutache, Ioana; Huang, Dachuan; Ler, Lian Dee; Nairismägi, Maarja-Liisa; Lee, Ming Hui; Chang, Ying-Hsu; Yu, Kai-Jie; Chan-on, Waraporn; Li, Bin-Kui; Yuan, Yun-Fei; Qian, Chao-Nan; Ng, Kwai-Fong; Wu, Ching-Fang; Hsu, Cheng-Lung; Bunte, Ralph M.; Stratton, Michael R.; Futreal, P. Andrew; Sung, Wing-Kin; Chuang, Cheng-Keng; Ong, Choon Kiat; Rozen, Steven G.; Tan, Patrick; Teh, Bin Tean (7 August 2013). "Genome-Wide Mutational Signatures of Aristolochic Acid and Its Application as a Screening Tool". Science Translational Medicine. 5 (197): 197ra101. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3006086. PMID 23926199. S2CID 25923013.
  36. ^ Hoang, Margaret L.; Chen, Chung-Hsin; Sidorenko, Viktoriya S.; He, Jian; Dickman, Kathleen G.; Yun, Byeong Hwa; Moriya, Masaaki; Niknafs, Noushin; Douville, Christopher; Karchin, Rachel; Turesky, Robert J.; Pu, Yeong-Shiau; Vogelstein, Bert; Papadopoulos, Nickolas; Grollman, Arthur P.; Kinzler, Kenneth W.; Rosenquist, Thomas A. (7 August 2013). "Mutational Signature of Aristolochic Acid Exposure as Revealed by Whole-Exome Sequencing". Science Translational Medicine. 5 (197): 197ra102. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3006200. PMC 3973132. PMID 23926200.
  37. ^ Quoted in Coats (1964) 1992.

References

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Further reading

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