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{{Short description|A 5,430-metre (17,810 ft) high volcan in Bolivia}}
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'''Tata Sabaya''' is a {{convert|5430|m}} high [[volcano]] in [[Bolivia]]. It is part of the [[Central Volcanic Zone]], one of several [[Andean Volcanic Belt|volcanic belts in the Andes]] which are separated by gaps without volcanic activity. This section of the Andes was volcanically active since the [[Jurassic]], with an episode of strong [[Ignimbrite|ignimbritic]] volcanism occurring during the [[Miocene]]. Tata Sabaya lies in a thinly populated region north of the [[Salar de Coipasa]].
'''Tata Sabaya''' is a {{convert|5430|m|adj=on}} high [[volcano]] in [[Bolivia]]. It is part of the [[Central Volcanic Zone]], one of several [[Andean Volcanic Belt|volcanic belts in the Andes]] which are separated by gaps without volcanic activity. This section of the Andes was volcanically active since the [[Jurassic]], with an episode of strong [[Ignimbrite|ignimbritic]] volcanism occurring during the [[Miocene]]. Tata Sabaya lies in a thinly populated region north of the [[Salar de Coipasa]] [[salt pan (geology)|salt pan]].


The volcanic activity at Tata Sabaya and elsewhere in the Central Volcanic Zone is the consequence of the [[subduction]] of the [[Nazca Plate]] beneath the [[South American Plate|South America Plate]]. The volcano has developed along a lineament that separates older [[crust]] north of the lineament from younger crust in the south, and the edifice has been constructed by [[Andesite|andesitic]] rocks.
Volcanic activity at Tata Sabaya and elsewhere in the Central Volcanic Zone is the consequence of the [[subduction]] of the [[Nazca Plate]] beneath the [[South American Plate|South America Plate]]. The volcano has developed along a [[lineament]] that separates older [[crust (geology)|crust]] north of the lineament from younger crust in the south, and the edifice has been formed by [[Andesite|andesitic]] rocks.


The southern flank of Tata Sabaya failed during the latest [[Pleistocene]] about 12,000 - 12,360 years before present. Debris from the collapse entered a lake that covered the Salar de Coipasa at that time and formed a deposit with a volume of {{convert|6|±|1|km3}}. Subsequently the collapse scar was partly filled in with more recent [[lava flows]] and [[Lava dome|lava domes]]; one eruption occurred about 6,000 years [[Before Present|before present]].
The southern flank of Tata Sabaya [[Sector collapse|failed]] during the latest [[Pleistocene]] about 12,000–12,360 years before present. Debris from the collapse entered a lake that covered the Salar de Coipasa at that time and formed a deposit with a volume of {{convert|6|±|1|km3}}. Subsequently, the collapse scar was partly filled in with more recent [[lava flows]] and [[lava dome]]s; one eruption occurred about 6,000 years [[Before Present|before present]].


== Geography and geomorphology ==
== Geography and geomorphology ==


Tata Sabaya lies just north of the [[Salar de Coipasa]] in [[Bolivia]]. The small village of [[Pagador]] lies west-southwest of the volcano,{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=307,308}} but the whole region is overall thinly inhabited.<ref name="BanksMarkland2005" /> The name means "Father Sabaya"; the term "Sabaya" may be the [[Aymara]] corruption of the [[Quechua]] term for "devil", "demon".<ref name="Holmer2013" /> The volcano is a topic in local myths, where it is sometimes personified.<ref name="Gisbert1994" />
Tata Sabaya lies just north of the [[Salar de Coipasa]] in [[Bolivia]]. The small village of [[Pagador]] lies west-southwest of the volcano,{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=307,308}} but the whole region is overall thinly inhabited.<ref name="BanksMarkland2005" /> The name means "Father Sabaya"; the term "Sabaya" may be the [[Aymara language|Aymara]] corruption of the [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]] term for "devil", "demon".<ref name="Holmer2013" /> The volcano is a topic in local myths, where it is sometimes personified.<ref name="Gisbert1994" />


Tata Sabaya is part of the [[Central Volcanic Zone]] of the Andes,{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=306}} which consists of a [[volcanic arc]] that mainly follows the [[Cordillera Occidental (Bolivia)|Western Cordillera]]. There are about 44 [[Holocene]] volcanoes, however the remoteness of the region and dry climate has restricted scientific research of these volcanoes; among the better known are [[Lastarria]], the [[Nevados de Payachata]], [[Ollagüe]], [[San Pablo (volcano)|San Pablo]], [[San Pedro (Chile volcano)|San Pedro]] and [[Socompa]].{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=307}}
Tata Sabaya is part of the [[Central Volcanic Zone]] of the Andes,{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=306}} which consists of a [[volcanic arc]] that mainly follows the [[Cordillera Occidental (Bolivia)|Western Cordillera]]. There are about 44 [[Holocene]] volcanoes, however the remoteness of the region and dry climate has restricted scientific research of these volcanoes; among the better known are [[Lastarria]], the [[Nevados de Payachata]], [[Ollagüe]], [[San Pablo (volcano)|San Pablo]], [[San Pedro (Chile volcano)|San Pedro]] and [[Socompa]].{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=307}}


Tata Sabaya is a mountain which reaches a height of {{convert|5430|m}}.<ref name="FrancisWells1988" />{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=308}} Five [[lava flow]]s extend north from the summit and display levees and flow fronts, the flows reaching a maximum length of {{convert|2|km}}; the top of these flows is cut by a collapse scar that extends east and west of the edifice in the form of [[Escarpment|scarps]] up to {{convert|50|m}} high.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=313}} The space between the scarps is in turn filled by more recent lava flows with a blocky appearance.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=315}} Farther away of the edifice, the scarp is more noticeable and reaches a height of about {{convert|200|m}} on the southeastern side of the volcano.<ref name="FrancisWells1988" />
Tata Sabaya is a volcano which reaches a height of {{convert|5430|m}}.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=308}}<ref name="FrancisWells1988" /> Five [[lava flow]]s extend north from the summit and display levees and flow fronts, the flows reaching a maximum length of {{convert|2|km}}. The top of these flows is cut by a collapse scar that extends east and west of the edifice in the form of [[Escarpment|scarps]] up to {{convert|50|m}} high.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=313}} The space between the scarps is in turn filled by more recent lava flows with a blocky appearance.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=315}} Farther away of the edifice, the scarp is more noticeable and reaches a height of about {{convert|200|m}} on the southeastern side of the volcano.<ref name="FrancisWells1988" />


A {{convert|300|km2}} large deposit south of the volcano, originally interpreted as a [[nuee ardente]] deposit, is actually a [[landslide]] deposit{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=307}} which extends over a length of {{convert|20|km}} and a width of {{convert|7|km}};<ref name="DeruelleBrousse2010" /> its volume is about {{convert|6|±|1|km3}}.<ref name="GodoyClavero2012" /> The landslide incorporated material from the salar,{{sfn|Clavero|Pocoaca|Godoy|Godoy|2006|p=442}} and its rocks reflect in part the layering and structure of the pre-collapse volcano.<ref name="GodoyClavero2012" /> The deposit is one of the more conspicuous of its type, to the point that it was observed and identified on low-resolution [[Landsat]] images.<ref name="FrancisWells1988" /> It consists of material that forms hummock-like deposits, with individual hummocks becoming smaller the farther away from the edifice they are.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=313}} The deposit extends into the [[Salar de Coipasa]] where it is confined by [[fault]]s<ref name="DeruelleBrousse2010" /> and is in part covered by lacustrine sediments such as [[tufa]].{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=313}}<gallery>
A {{convert|300|km2|adj=on}} large deposit south of the volcano, originally interpreted as a [[nuee ardente]] deposit, is actually a [[landslide]] deposit{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=307}} which extends over a length of {{convert|20|km}} and a width of {{convert|7|km}};<ref name="DeruelleBrousse2010" /> its volume is about {{convert|6|±|1|km3}}.<ref name="GodoyClavero2012" /> The landslide incorporated material from the salar,{{sfn|Clavero|Pocoaca|Godoy|Godoy|2006|p=442}} and its rocks reflect in part the layering and structure of the pre-collapse volcano.<ref name="GodoyClavero2012" /> The deposit is one of the more conspicuous of its type, to the point that it was observed and identified on low-resolution [[Landsat]] images.<ref name="FrancisWells1988" /> It consists of material that forms [[hummock]]-like deposits, with individual hummocks becoming smaller the farther away from the edifice they are.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=313}} The deposit extends into the Salar de Coipasa where it is confined by [[fault (geology)|fault]]s<ref name="DeruelleBrousse2010" /> and is in part covered by lacustrine sediments such as [[tufa]].{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=313}}<gallery mode=packed heights="300px">
File:Tata Sabaya debris avalanche.jpg|Outline of the debris avalanche
File:Tata Sabaya debris avalanche.jpg|Outline of the debris avalanche
File:Tata Sabaya debris avalanche DEM.jpg|Debris avalanche profile
File:Tata Sabaya debris avalanche DEM.jpg|Debris avalanche profile
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== Geology ==
== Geology ==


Off the western coast of South America, the [[Nazca Plate]] [[subduct]]s beneath the [[South America Plate]],{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=305}} at a rate of about {{convert|10|cm/year|in/year}}.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=309}} This subduction process is responsible for the volcanism in the [[Andean Volcanic Belt]], which occurs in a [[Northern Volcanic Zone]] in Ecuador and Colombia, a [[Central Volcanic Zone]] in Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina and a [[Southern Volcanic Zone]] in Chile and Argentina. These volcanic zones are separated by gaps without volcanism, where the subduction process is shallower.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=305,306}}
Off the western coast of South America, the [[Nazca Plate]] [[subduct]]s beneath the [[South America Plate]]{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=305}} at a rate of about {{convert|10|cm/year|in/year}}.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=309}} This subduction process is responsible for the volcanism in the [[Andean Volcanic Belt]], which occurs in a [[Northern Volcanic Zone]] in Ecuador and Colombia, a [[Central Volcanic Zone]] in Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina and a [[Southern Volcanic Zone]] in Chile and Argentina. These volcanic zones are separated by gaps without volcanism, where the subduction process is shallower.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=305,306}}


Based on research several phases of tectonic and volcanic activity have been identified in the Central Volcanic Zone. An earlier phase of volcanism in the [[Chilean Coast Range|Cordillera de la Costa]] commenced in the [[Jurassic]] but is considered separate from the Central Volcanic Zone magmatism proper. After an erosional hiatus during the [[Oligocene]], [[volcanic arc]] activity increased during the [[Miocene]] and culminated in a phase of strong [[ignimbrite]] eruptions,{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=306}} which originated in [[caldera]]s. This phase was associated with a substantial thickening of the [[crust (geology)|crust]] in the Central Andes. During the [[Pleistocene]] ignimbrite volcanism waned again and [[stratovolcano]]es began to develop.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=307}}
Several phases of tectonic and volcanic activity have been identified in the Central Volcanic Zone. An earlier phase of volcanism in the [[Chilean Coast Range|Cordillera de la Costa]] commenced in the [[Jurassic]] but is considered separate from the Central Volcanic Zone magmatism proper. After an erosional hiatus during the [[Oligocene]], [[volcanic arc]] activity increased during the [[Miocene]] and culminated in a phase of strong [[ignimbrite]] eruptions,{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=306}} which originated in [[caldera]]s. This phase was associated with a substantial thickening of the [[crust (geology)|crust]] in the Central Andes. During the [[Pleistocene]] ignimbrite volcanism waned again and [[stratovolcano]]es began to develop.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=307}}


Tata Sabaya lies along a crustal transition area which separates a younger crust farther south from an older ([[Proterozoic]]) crust in the north,{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=307}} which is made up by the [[Chilenia]] [[terrane]] and the [[Arequipa-Antofalla]] [[craton]], respectively. This transition area appears to coincide with a chain of volcanoes that Tata Sabaya is part of and which extends from [[Cerro Saxani]] in the east to [[Isluga]] in Chile, as well as with the northern end of the [[Pica gap]] where no recent volcanism occurs in the volcanic arc.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=309}}
Tata Sabaya lies along a crustal transition area which separates a younger [[crust (geology)|crust]] farther south from an older ([[Proterozoic]]) crust in the north,{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=307}} which is made up by the [[Chilenia]] [[terrane]] and the [[Arequipa-Antofalla]] [[craton]], respectively. This transition area appears to coincide with a chain of volcanoes that Tata Sabaya is part of and which extends from [[Cerro Saxani]] in the east to [[Isluga]] in Chile, as well as with the northern end of the [[Pica gap]] where no recent volcanism occurs in the volcanic arc.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=309}}


The basement of the volcano is formed by the [[Ignimbrite|ignimbritic]] Altos de Pica [[formation (geology)|formation]], although outcrops of [[granite]] have been observed in the region;{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=309}} one of these outcrops may be a [[Precambrian]] granite subsequently thermally modified in the [[Toarcian]].<ref name="SempereCarlier2002" /> This basement is covered by younger volcanic rocks, [[alluvium]] and sediments of the [[Salar de Coipasa]]. [[Seismic tomography]] suggests that molten [[magma]] exists in the regional crust.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=309}}
The basement of the volcano is formed by the ignimbritic Altos de Pica [[formation (geology)|formation]], although outcrops of [[granite]] have been observed in the region;{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=309}} one of these outcrops may be a [[Precambrian]] granite subsequently thermally modified in the [[Toarcian]].<ref name="SempereCarlier2002" /> This basement is covered by younger volcanic rocks, [[alluvium]] and sediments of the Salar de Coipasa. [[Seismic tomography]] suggests that molten [[magma]] exists in the regional crust.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=309}}


=== Composition ===
=== Composition ===


Tata Sabaya has produced "two-[[pyroxene]]" [[andesite]] and porphyritic andesite.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=309,313,315}} Minerals contained within the rock are [[augite]], [[biotite]], [[hornblende]], [[hypersthene]], [[plagioclase]] and [[titanomagnetite]] with only little variation between rocks erupted during separate stages of volcanic activity.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=315,317}} The erupted volcanites define a [[potassium]]-rich [[calc-alkaline]] suite. Inclusions of more [[mafic]] rocks in the erupted material may indicate that mafic magma was injected into the [[magma chamber]] of Tata Sabaya.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=315}} The magma genesis at Tata Sabaya has been explained with magma mixing processes, which gave rise to a fairly uniform composition of the eruption products.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=332}}
Tata Sabaya has produced "two-[[pyroxene]]" [[andesite]] and [[porphyritic]] andesite.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=309,313,315}} Minerals contained within the rock are [[augite]], [[biotite]], [[hornblende]], [[hypersthene]], [[plagioclase]] and [[titanomagnetite]] with only little variation between rocks erupted during separate stages of volcanic activity.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=315,317}} The erupted volcanites define a [[potassium]]-rich [[calc-alkaline]] suite. Inclusions of more [[mafic]]{{efn|A volcanic rock relatively rich in [[iron]] and [[magnesium]], relative to [[silicium]].<ref name="Pinti2011" />}} rocks in the erupted material may indicate that mafic magma was injected into the [[magma chamber]] of Tata Sabaya.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=315}} The magma genesis at Tata Sabaya has been explained with magma mixing processes, which gave rise to a fairly uniform composition of the eruption products.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=332}}


== Climate and vegetation ==
== Climate and vegetation ==


The region is dry with precipitation mainly falling during southern hemisphere summer, and has little vegetation cover.<ref name="BanksMarkland2005" /> ''[[Polylepis tarapacana]]'' trees grow on the slopes of Tata Sabaya; these trees form the highest woodlands in the world.<ref name="Morales2012" /> Other aspects of regional vegetation are the so-called [[puna]] [[steppe]], which is characterized by grass and [[shrub]] vegetation.<ref name="Pouteau2011" />
The region is dry with precipitation mainly falling during southern hemisphere summer, and has little vegetation cover.<ref name="BanksMarkland2005" /> ''[[Polylepis tarapacana]]'' trees grow on the slopes of Tata Sabaya; these trees form the highest woodlands in the world.<ref name="Morales2012" /> Other aspects of regional vegetation are the so-called [[puna grassland|puna]] [[steppe]], which is characterized by grass and [[shrub]] vegetation.<ref name="Pouteau2011" />


== Eruption history ==
== Eruption history ==


Of all volcanoes in Bolivia, Tata Sabaya is the only one with Holocene activity which is not on the border with another country.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=307}} The young age of the mountain has been inferred from the lack of [[moraine]]s<ref name="FrancisWells1988" /> and [[glaciation]] on the mountain, unlike neighbouring summits.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=308}}
Of all volcanoes in Bolivia, Tata Sabaya is the only one with Holocene activity which is not on the border with another country.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=307}} The young age of the mountain has been inferred from the lack of [[glaciation]]{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=308}} and [[moraine]]s on the mountain,<ref name="FrancisWells1988" /> unlike neighbouring summits.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=308}}


The earliest activity at Tata Sabaya constructed a [[pyroclastic shield]], which crops out as a {{convert|20|m}} thick sequence of block-and-ash flows [[fallout]] deposits and [[pumice]] deposits in the northern sector of the volcano.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=309}} [[Effusive eruption]]s then built up a volcanic cone on top of this shield; the five northerly lava flows were emplaced during this phase of activity. Some lava flows from this stage were unstable and collapsed, covering the northern parts of the volcano with debris.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=312,313}}
The earliest activity at Tata Sabaya constructed a [[pyroclastic shield]], which crops out as a {{convert|20|m|adj=on}} thick sequence of block-and-ash flows [[volcanic ash|fallout]] deposits and [[pumice]] deposits in the northern sector of the volcano.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=309}} [[Effusive eruption]]s then built up a volcanic cone on top of this shield; the five northerly lava flows were emplaced during this phase of activity. Some lava flows from this stage were unstable and collapsed, covering the northern parts of the volcano with debris.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=312,313}}


This effusive activity eventually oversteepened the cone, causing its southern sector to collapse. During this collapse and [[Landslide|landsliding]], large [[toreva]] blocks developed from sectors of the cone which slid down undeformed, while other material from the cone formed the hummocks in the sector collapse deposit;{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=313}} there was no explosive eruption at the time of the collapse. The configuration of the deposit indicates that the debris entered the Salar when it was filled with water; the height of the tufa deposits imply that water levels were about {{convert|3700|m}} above sea level. This{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=315}} and the lake terraces that the landslide overran marks the collapse as synchronous with the [[Lake Tauca]] episode 12,000-12,360 years ago.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=315}}<ref name="FrancisWells1988" /> The onset of such collapses on volcanoes is often determined by [[fault]]ing, climate change or eruption of the volcano; at Tata Sabaya earthquakes and the injection of new magma has been invoked to explain the destabilization of the edifice.<ref name="GodoyClavero2012" />
This effusive activity eventually oversteepened the cone, causing its southern sector to collapse. During this collapse and [[Landslide|landsliding]], large [[Toreva block|toreva]] blocks developed from sectors of the cone which slid down undeformed, while other material from the cone formed the hummocks in the sector collapse deposit;{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=313}} there was no explosive eruption at the time of the collapse. The configuration of the deposit indicates that the debris entered the Salar when it was filled with water; the height of the tufa deposits imply that water levels were about {{convert|3700|m}} above sea level. This{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=315}} and the lake terraces that the landslide overran marks the collapse as synchronous with the [[Lake Tauca]] episode 12,000-12,360 years ago{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=315}}<ref name="FrancisWells1988" /> when water levels in the Salar de Coipasa reached their maximum.<ref name="GVP" /> The onset of such collapses on volcanoes is often determined by faulting, climate change or eruption of the volcano; at Tata Sabaya earthquakes and the injection of new magma has been invoked to explain the destabilization of the edifice.<ref name="GodoyClavero2012" />


After the collapse, Holocene activity filled the scar with [[lava dome]]s and lava flows; some of these in turn collapsed as well and gave rise to hot avalanche deposits.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=315}} [[Radiocarbon dating]] for a [[pyroclastic flow]] has yielded an age of 6,000 years [[before present]], implying that the volcano may be still active.{{sfn|Clavero|Pocoaca|Godoy|Godoy|2006|p=439}}
After the collapse, Holocene activity filled the scar with [[lava dome]]s and lava flows, cancelling the traces of the collapse;<ref name="GVP" /> some of these in turn collapsed as well and gave rise to hot avalanche deposits.{{sfn|de Silva|Davidson|Croudace|Escobar|1993|p=315}} [[Radiocarbon dating]] for a [[pyroclastic flow]] has yielded an age of 6,000 years [[before present]], implying that the volcano may be still active.{{sfn|Clavero|Pocoaca|Godoy|Godoy|2006|p=439}} Reportedly, when in 1600 [[Huaynaputina]] erupted in Peru a volcano named Sabaya erupted in [[Oruro Department|Oruro]] and destroyed a village.<ref name="Rice2014" />


== References ==
== Notes ==

{{Reflist|refs=
{{notelist}}
<ref name="Pouteau2011">{{cite journal|last1=Pouteau|first1=Robin|last2=Rambal|first2=Serge|last3=Ratte|first3=Jean-Pierre|last4=Gogé|first4=Fabien|last5=Joffre|first5=Richard|last6=Winkel|first6=Thierry|title=Downscaling MODIS-derived maps using GIS and boosted regression trees: The case of frost occurrence over the arid Andean highlands of Bolivia|journal=Remote Sensing of Environment|date=January 2011|volume=115|issue=1|page=118|doi=10.1016/j.rse.2010.08.011|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0034425710002518|language=en|issn=0034-4257}}</ref>

<ref name="BanksMarkland2005">{{cite journal|last1=Banks|first1=David|last2=Markland|first2=Howard|last3=Smith|first3=Paul V.|last4=Mendez|first4=Carlos|last5=Rodriguez|first5=Javier|last6=Huerta|first6=Alonso|last7=Sæther|first7=Ola M.|title=The effect of filtration on analyses of surface water samples. A study from the Salars of Coipasa and Uyuni, Bolivian Altiplano|journal=Journal of Geochemical Exploration|date=June 2005|volume=86|issue=2|page=107|doi=10.1016/j.gexplo.2005.04.003|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0375674205000415|language=en|issn=0375-6742}}</ref>
==References==
⚫
<ref name="Gisbert1994">{{cite web|last1=Gisbert|first1=Teresa|title=El señorío de los Carangas y los chullpares del Río Lauca|url=http://revistaandinacbc.com/revista-andina-24/|publisher=Centro Bartolome de Las Casas|accessdate=7 February 2018|page=433|language=es|format=PDF|date=1994}}</ref>
{{reflist|30em|refs=
⚫
<ref name="GodoyClavero2012">{{cite journal|last1=Godoy|first1=Benigno|last2=Clavero|first2=Jorge|last3=Rojas|first3=Constanza|last4=Godoy|first4=Estanislao|title=Facies volcánicas del depósito de avalancha de detritos del volcán Tata Sabaya, Andes Centrales|journal=Andean geology|date=2012|volume=39|issue=3|pages=394–406|doi=10.5027/andgeoV39n3-a03|url=https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0718-71062012000300003&script=sci_arttext|language=es|issn=0718-7106}}</ref>
<ref name="Holmer2013">{{cite journal|last1=Holmer|first1=Nils M.|title=Indian Place Names in South America and the Antilles. II|journal=Names|date=19 July 2013|volume=8|issue=4|page=204|doi=10.1179/nam.1960.8.4.197|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1179/nam.1960.8.4.197)}}</ref>
<ref name="Rice2014">{{cite book |last1=Rice |first1=Prudence M. |title=Space-Time Perspectives on Early Colonial Moquegua |date=2014 |publisher=University Press of Colorado |isbn=9781607322764 |page=87 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/28659 |language=en}}</ref>
⚫
<ref name="GVP">{{Cite GVP|vn=355032|name=Tata Sabaya}}</ref>
⚫
<ref name="SempereCarlier2002">{{cite journal|last1=Sempere|first1=Thierry|last2=Carlier|first2=Gabriel|last3=Soler|first3=Pierre|last4=Fornari|first4=Michel|last5=Carlotto|first5=Vı́ctor|last6=Jacay|first6=Javier|last7=Arispe|first7=Oscar|last8=Néraudeau|first8=Didier|last9=Cárdenas|first9=José|last10=Rosas|first10=Silvia|last11=Jiménez|first11=Néstor|title=Late Permian–Middle Jurassic lithospheric thinning in Peru and Bolivia, and its bearing on Andean-age tectonics|journal=Tectonophysics|date=February 2002|volume=345|issue=1-4|page=167|doi=10.1016/S0040-1951(01)00211-6|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040195101002116|language=en|issn=0040-1951}}</ref>
<ref name="Pinti2011">{{Citation |last=Pinti |first=Daniele |date=2011 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Astrobiology |page=938 |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-11274-4_1893 |isbn=9783642112713 |chapter=Mafic and Felsic}}</ref>
⚫
<ref name="Morales2012">{{cite journal|last1=Morales|first1=M. S.|last2=Christie|first2=D. A.|last3=Villalba|first3=R.|last4=Argollo|first4=J.|last5=Pacajes|first5=J.|last6=Silva|first6=J. S.|last7=Alvarez|first7=C. A.|last8=Llancabure|first8=J. C.|last9=Soliz Gamboa|first9=C. C.|title=Precipitation changes in the South American Altiplano since 1300 AD reconstructed by tree-rings|journal=Clim. Past|date=30 March 2012|volume=8|issue=2|page=655|doi=10.5194/cp-8-653-2012|url=https://www.clim-past.net/8/653/2012/|issn=1814-9332}}</ref>
<ref name="FrancisWells1988">{{cite journal|last1=Francis|first1=P. W.|last2=Wells|first2=G. L.|title=Landsat Thematic Mapper observations of debris avalanche deposits in the Central Andes|journal=Bulletin of Volcanology|date=1 July 1988|volume=50|issue=4|page=265|doi=10.1007/BF01047488|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01047488|language=en|issn=0258-8900}}</ref>
<ref name="Pouteau2011">{{cite journal|last1=Pouteau|first1=Robin|last2=Rambal|first2=Serge|last3=Ratte|first3=Jean-Pierre|last4=Gogé|first4=Fabien|last5=Joffre|first5=Richard|last6=Winkel|first6=Thierry|title=Downscaling MODIS-derived maps using GIS and boosted regression trees: The case of frost occurrence over the arid Andean highlands of Bolivia|journal=Remote Sensing of Environment|date=January 2011|volume=115|issue=1|page=118|doi=10.1016/j.rse.2010.08.011|bibcode=2011RSEnv.115..117P|s2cid=129012469 |language=en|issn=0034-4257|url=https://hal.ird.fr/ird-00543818/file/POUTEAU-RSE-final-authors-version-light-p.pdf}}</ref>
<ref name="DeruelleBrousse2010">{{cite journal|last1=Deruelle|first1=B.|last2=Brousse|first2=R.|date=2010|title="NUEE ARDENTE" DEPOSITS AT TATA SABAYA VOLCANO (BOLIVIAN-CHILEAN ANDES): PUMICES AND LAVA BLOCKS CRYSTALLIZATION FROM SINGLE MAGMA AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS|journal=Revista Geológica de Chile|volume=0|issue=22|doi=10.5027/andgeoV11n2-a01|ref=harv|language=es}}</ref>
<ref name="BanksMarkland2005">{{cite journal|last1=Banks|first1=David|last2=Markland|first2=Howard|last3=Smith|first3=Paul V.|last4=Mendez|first4=Carlos|last5=Rodriguez|first5=Javier|last6=Huerta|first6=Alonso|last7=Sæther|first7=Ola M.|title=The effect of filtration on analyses of surface water samples. A study from the Salars of Coipasa and Uyuni, Bolivian Altiplano|journal=Journal of Geochemical Exploration|date=June 2005|volume=86|issue=2|page=107|doi=10.1016/j.gexplo.2005.04.003|language=en|issn=0375-6742}}</ref>
⚫
<ref name="Gisbert1994">{{cite web|last1=Gisbert|first1=Teresa|title=El señorío de los Carangas y los chullpares del Río Lauca|url=http://revistaandinacbc.com/revista-andina-24/|publisher=Centro Bartolome de Las Casas|access-date=7 February 2018|page=433|language=es|format=PDF|date=1994}}</ref>
⚫
<ref name="GodoyClavero2012">{{cite journal|last1=Godoy|first1=Benigno|last2=Clavero|first2=Jorge|last3=Rojas|first3=Constanza|last4=Godoy|first4=Estanislao|title=Facies volcánicas del depósito de avalancha de detritos del volcán Tata Sabaya, Andes Centrales|journal=Andean Geology|date=2012|volume=39|issue=3|pages=394–406|doi=10.5027/andgeoV39n3-a03|url=https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0718-71062012000300003&script=sci_arttext|language=es|issn=0718-7106|doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name="Holmer2013">{{cite journal|last1=Holmer|first1=Nils M.|title=Indian Place Names in South America and the Antilles. II|journal=Names|date=19 July 2013|volume=8|issue=4|page=204|doi=10.1179/nam.1960.8.4.197}}</ref>
⚫
<ref name="SempereCarlier2002">{{cite journal|last1=Sempere|first1=Thierry|last2=Carlier|first2=Gabriel|last3=Soler|first3=Pierre|last4=Fornari|first4=Michel|last5=Carlotto|first5=Vı́ctor|last6=Jacay|first6=Javier|last7=Arispe|first7=Oscar|last8=Néraudeau|first8=Didier|last9=Cárdenas|first9=José|last10=Rosas|first10=Silvia|last11=Jiménez|first11=Néstor|title=Late Permian–Middle Jurassic lithospheric thinning in Peru and Bolivia, and its bearing on Andean-age tectonics|journal=Tectonophysics|date=February 2002|volume=345|issue=1–4|page=167|doi=10.1016/S0040-1951(01)00211-6|bibcode=2002Tectp.345..153S|language=en|issn=0040-1951}}</ref>
⚫
<ref name="Morales2012">{{cite journal|last1=Morales|first1=M. S.|last2=Christie|first2=D. A.|last3=Villalba|first3=R.|last4=Argollo|first4=J.|last5=Pacajes|first5=J.|last6=Silva|first6=J. S.|last7=Alvarez|first7=C. A.|last8=Llancabure|first8=J. C.|last9=Soliz Gamboa|first9=C. C.|title=Precipitation changes in the South American Altiplano since 1300 AD reconstructed by tree-rings|journal=Clim. Past|date=30 March 2012|volume=8|issue=2|page=655|doi=10.5194/cp-8-653-2012|bibcode=2012CliPa...8..653M|issn=1814-9332|url=http://ri.conicet.gov.ar/bitstream/11336/72837/2/CONICET_Digital_Nro.311f7c4c-8c76-4f62-aac4-01830fa23485_A.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name="FrancisWells1988">{{cite journal|last1=Francis|first1=P. W.|last2=Wells|first2=G. L.|title=Landsat Thematic Mapper observations of debris avalanche deposits in the Central Andes|journal=Bulletin of Volcanology|date=1 July 1988|volume=50|issue=4|page=265|doi=10.1007/BF01047488|bibcode=1988BVol...50..258F|s2cid=128824938|language=en|issn=0258-8900}}</ref>
<ref name="DeruelleBrousse2010">{{cite journal|last1=Deruelle|first1=B.|last2=Brousse|first2=R.|date=2010|title="Nuee ardente" deposits at Tata Sabaya volcano (Bolivian-Chilean Andes): Pumices and lava blocks crystallization from single magma at different depths|journal=Revista Geológica de Chile|issue=22|language=es}}</ref>
}}
}}


=== Sources ===
=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite web|website=[[ResearchGate]]|publisher=11th Chilean Geological Congress|format=PDF|ref=harv|last1=Clavero|first1=Jorge|last2=Pocoaca|first2=Gabriel|last3=Godoy|first3=Benigno|last4=Godoy|first4=Estanislao|last5=Rojas|first5=Constanza
* {{cite web|website=[[ResearchGate]]|publisher=11th Chilean Geological Congress|format=PDF|last1=Clavero|first1=Jorge|last2=Pocoaca|first2=Gabriel|last3=Godoy|first3=Benigno|last4=Godoy|first4=Estanislao|last5=Rojas|first5=Constanza
|date=2006|title=Influencia del sustrato en el transporte y emplazamiento de la avalancha del Volcán Tata Sabaya, Andes Centrales|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318030297_Influencia_del_sustrato_en_el_transporte_y_emplazamiento_de_la_avalancha_del_Volcan_Tata_Sabaya_Andes_Centrales}}
|date=2006|title=Influencia del sustrato en el transporte y emplazamiento de la avalancha del Volcán Tata Sabaya, Andes Centrales|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318030297}}
* {{cite journal|last1=de Silva|first1=Shanaka L.|last2=Davidson|first2=Jon P.|last3=Croudace|first3=Ian W.|last4=Escobar|first4=Angel|title=Volcanological and petrological evolution of Volcan Tata Sabaya, SW Bolivia|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|date=March 1993|volume=55|issue=3-4|pages=305–335|doi=10.1016/0377-0273(93)90043-Q|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037702739390043Q|ref=harv|language=en|issn=0377-0273}}
* {{cite journal|last1=de Silva|first1=Shanaka L.|last2=Davidson|first2=Jon P.|last3=Croudace|first3=Ian W.|last4=Escobar|first4=Angel|title=Volcanological and petrological evolution of Volcan Tata Sabaya, SW Bolivia|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|date=March 1993|volume=55|issue=3–4|pages=305–335|doi=10.1016/0377-0273(93)90043-Q|bibcode=1993JVGR...55..305D|language=en|issn=0377-0273}}
{{refend}}
{{refend}}
{{Portal|Andes}}

== External links ==
⚫
*{{Cite GVP|vn=355032|name=Tata Sabaya}}

{{Commons category|Tata Sabaya}}
{{Commons category|Tata Sabaya}}


Latest revision as of 14:33, 17 August 2024

Tata Sabaya
Highest point
Elevation5,430 m (17,810 ft)[1]
Coordinates19°08′S 68°32′W / 19.133°S 68.533°W / -19.133; -68.533[2]
Geography
Tata Sabaya is located in Bolivia
Tata Sabaya
Tata Sabaya

Tata Sabaya is a 5,430-metre (17,810 ft) high volcano in Bolivia. It is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, one of several volcanic belts in the Andes which are separated by gaps without volcanic activity. This section of the Andes was volcanically active since the Jurassic, with an episode of strong ignimbritic volcanism occurring during the Miocene. Tata Sabaya lies in a thinly populated region north of the Salar de Coipasa salt pan.

Volcanic activity at Tata Sabaya and elsewhere in the Central Volcanic Zone is the consequence of the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South America Plate. The volcano has developed along a lineament that separates older crust north of the lineament from younger crust in the south, and the edifice has been formed by andesitic rocks.

The southern flank of Tata Sabaya failed during the latest Pleistocene about 12,000–12,360 years before present. Debris from the collapse entered a lake that covered the Salar de Coipasa at that time and formed a deposit with a volume of 6 ± 1 cubic kilometre (1.44 ± 0.24 cu mi). Subsequently, the collapse scar was partly filled in with more recent lava flows and lava domes; one eruption occurred about 6,000 years before present.

Geography and geomorphology

[edit]

Tata Sabaya lies just north of the Salar de Coipasa in Bolivia. The small village of Pagador lies west-southwest of the volcano,[3] but the whole region is overall thinly inhabited.[4] The name means "Father Sabaya"; the term "Sabaya" may be the Aymara corruption of the Quechua term for "devil", "demon".[5] The volcano is a topic in local myths, where it is sometimes personified.[6]

Tata Sabaya is part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes,[7] which consists of a volcanic arc that mainly follows the Western Cordillera. There are about 44 Holocene volcanoes, however the remoteness of the region and dry climate has restricted scientific research of these volcanoes; among the better known are Lastarria, the Nevados de Payachata, Ollagüe, San Pablo, San Pedro and Socompa.[2]

Tata Sabaya is a volcano which reaches a height of 5,430 metres (17,810 ft).[1][8] Five lava flows extend north from the summit and display levees and flow fronts, the flows reaching a maximum length of 2 kilometres (1.2 mi). The top of these flows is cut by a collapse scar that extends east and west of the edifice in the form of scarps up to 50 metres (160 ft) high.[9] The space between the scarps is in turn filled by more recent lava flows with a blocky appearance.[10] Farther away of the edifice, the scarp is more noticeable and reaches a height of about 200 metres (660 ft) on the southeastern side of the volcano.[8]

A 300-square-kilometre (120 sq mi) large deposit south of the volcano, originally interpreted as a nuee ardente deposit, is actually a landslide deposit[2] which extends over a length of 20 kilometres (12 mi) and a width of 7 kilometres (4.3 mi);[11] its volume is about 6 ± 1 cubic kilometre (1.44 ± 0.24 cu mi).[12] The landslide incorporated material from the salar,[13] and its rocks reflect in part the layering and structure of the pre-collapse volcano.[12] The deposit is one of the more conspicuous of its type, to the point that it was observed and identified on low-resolution Landsat images.[8] It consists of material that forms hummock-like deposits, with individual hummocks becoming smaller the farther away from the edifice they are.[9] The deposit extends into the Salar de Coipasa where it is confined by faults[11] and is in part covered by lacustrine sediments such as tufa.[9]

  • Outline of the debris avalanche
    Outline of the debris avalanche
  • Debris avalanche profile
    Debris avalanche profile
  • Profile of volcano development
    Profile of volcano development

Geology

[edit]

Off the western coast of South America, the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South America Plate[14] at a rate of about 10 centimetres per year (3.9 in/year).[15] This subduction process is responsible for the volcanism in the Andean Volcanic Belt, which occurs in a Northern Volcanic Zone in Ecuador and Colombia, a Central Volcanic Zone in Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina and a Southern Volcanic Zone in Chile and Argentina. These volcanic zones are separated by gaps without volcanism, where the subduction process is shallower.[16]

Several phases of tectonic and volcanic activity have been identified in the Central Volcanic Zone. An earlier phase of volcanism in the Cordillera de la Costa commenced in the Jurassic but is considered separate from the Central Volcanic Zone magmatism proper. After an erosional hiatus during the Oligocene, volcanic arc activity increased during the Miocene and culminated in a phase of strong ignimbrite eruptions,[7] which originated in calderas. This phase was associated with a substantial thickening of the crust in the Central Andes. During the Pleistocene ignimbrite volcanism waned again and stratovolcanoes began to develop.[2]

Tata Sabaya lies along a crustal transition area which separates a younger crust farther south from an older (Proterozoic) crust in the north,[2] which is made up by the Chilenia terrane and the Arequipa-Antofalla craton, respectively. This transition area appears to coincide with a chain of volcanoes that Tata Sabaya is part of and which extends from Cerro Saxani in the east to Isluga in Chile, as well as with the northern end of the Pica gap where no recent volcanism occurs in the volcanic arc.[15]

The basement of the volcano is formed by the ignimbritic Altos de Pica formation, although outcrops of granite have been observed in the region;[15] one of these outcrops may be a Precambrian granite subsequently thermally modified in the Toarcian.[17] This basement is covered by younger volcanic rocks, alluvium and sediments of the Salar de Coipasa. Seismic tomography suggests that molten magma exists in the regional crust.[15]

Composition

[edit]

Tata Sabaya has produced "two-pyroxene" andesite and porphyritic andesite.[18] Minerals contained within the rock are augite, biotite, hornblende, hypersthene, plagioclase and titanomagnetite with only little variation between rocks erupted during separate stages of volcanic activity.[19] The erupted volcanites define a potassium-rich calc-alkaline suite. Inclusions of more mafic[a] rocks in the erupted material may indicate that mafic magma was injected into the magma chamber of Tata Sabaya.[10] The magma genesis at Tata Sabaya has been explained with magma mixing processes, which gave rise to a fairly uniform composition of the eruption products.[21]

Climate and vegetation

[edit]

The region is dry with precipitation mainly falling during southern hemisphere summer, and has little vegetation cover.[4] Polylepis tarapacana trees grow on the slopes of Tata Sabaya; these trees form the highest woodlands in the world.[22] Other aspects of regional vegetation are the so-called puna steppe, which is characterized by grass and shrub vegetation.[23]

Eruption history

[edit]

Of all volcanoes in Bolivia, Tata Sabaya is the only one with Holocene activity which is not on the border with another country.[2] The young age of the mountain has been inferred from the lack of glaciation[1] and moraines on the mountain,[8] unlike neighbouring summits.[1]

The earliest activity at Tata Sabaya constructed a pyroclastic shield, which crops out as a 20-metre (66 ft) thick sequence of block-and-ash flows fallout deposits and pumice deposits in the northern sector of the volcano.[15] Effusive eruptions then built up a volcanic cone on top of this shield; the five northerly lava flows were emplaced during this phase of activity. Some lava flows from this stage were unstable and collapsed, covering the northern parts of the volcano with debris.[24]

This effusive activity eventually oversteepened the cone, causing its southern sector to collapse. During this collapse and landsliding, large toreva blocks developed from sectors of the cone which slid down undeformed, while other material from the cone formed the hummocks in the sector collapse deposit;[9] there was no explosive eruption at the time of the collapse. The configuration of the deposit indicates that the debris entered the Salar when it was filled with water; the height of the tufa deposits imply that water levels were about 3,700 metres (12,100 ft) above sea level. This[10] and the lake terraces that the landslide overran marks the collapse as synchronous with the Lake Tauca episode 12,000-12,360 years ago[10][8] when water levels in the Salar de Coipasa reached their maximum.[25] The onset of such collapses on volcanoes is often determined by faulting, climate change or eruption of the volcano; at Tata Sabaya earthquakes and the injection of new magma has been invoked to explain the destabilization of the edifice.[12]

After the collapse, Holocene activity filled the scar with lava domes and lava flows, cancelling the traces of the collapse;[25] some of these in turn collapsed as well and gave rise to hot avalanche deposits.[10] Radiocarbon dating for a pyroclastic flow has yielded an age of 6,000 years before present, implying that the volcano may be still active.[26] Reportedly, when in 1600 Huaynaputina erupted in Peru a volcano named Sabaya erupted in Oruro and destroyed a village.[27]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ A volcanic rock relatively rich in iron and magnesium, relative to silicium.[20]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d de Silva et al. 1993, p. 308.
  2. ^ a b c d e f de Silva et al. 1993, p. 307.
  3. ^ de Silva et al. 1993, p. 307,308.
  4. ^ a b Banks, David; Markland, Howard; Smith, Paul V.; Mendez, Carlos; Rodriguez, Javier; Huerta, Alonso; Sæther, Ola M. (June 2005). "The effect of filtration on analyses of surface water samples. A study from the Salars of Coipasa and Uyuni, Bolivian Altiplano". Journal of Geochemical Exploration. 86 (2): 107. doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2005.04.003. ISSN 0375-6742.
  5. ^ Holmer, Nils M. (19 July 2013). "Indian Place Names in South America and the Antilles. II". Names. 8 (4): 204. doi:10.1179/nam.1960.8.4.197.
  6. ^ Gisbert, Teresa (1994). "El señorío de los Carangas y los chullpares del Río Lauca" (PDF) (in Spanish). Centro Bartolome de Las Casas. p. 433. Retrieved 7 February 2018.
  7. ^ a b de Silva et al. 1993, p. 306.
  8. ^ a b c d e Francis, P. W.; Wells, G. L. (1 July 1988). "Landsat Thematic Mapper observations of debris avalanche deposits in the Central Andes". Bulletin of Volcanology. 50 (4): 265. Bibcode:1988BVol...50..258F. doi:10.1007/BF01047488. ISSN 0258-8900. S2CID 128824938.
  9. ^ a b c d de Silva et al. 1993, p. 313.
  10. ^ a b c d e de Silva et al. 1993, p. 315.
  11. ^ a b Deruelle, B.; Brousse, R. (2010). ""Nuee ardente" deposits at Tata Sabaya volcano (Bolivian-Chilean Andes): Pumices and lava blocks crystallization from single magma at different depths". Revista Geológica de Chile (in Spanish) (22).
  12. ^ a b c Godoy, Benigno; Clavero, Jorge; Rojas, Constanza; Godoy, Estanislao (2012). "Facies volcánicas del depósito de avalancha de detritos del volcán Tata Sabaya, Andes Centrales". Andean Geology (in Spanish). 39 (3): 394–406. doi:10.5027/andgeoV39n3-a03. ISSN 0718-7106.
  13. ^ Clavero et al. 2006, p. 442.
  14. ^ de Silva et al. 1993, p. 305.
  15. ^ a b c d e de Silva et al. 1993, p. 309.
  16. ^ de Silva et al. 1993, p. 305,306.
  17. ^ Sempere, Thierry; Carlier, Gabriel; Soler, Pierre; Fornari, Michel; Carlotto, Vı́ctor; Jacay, Javier; Arispe, Oscar; Néraudeau, Didier; Cárdenas, José; Rosas, Silvia; Jiménez, Néstor (February 2002). "Late Permian–Middle Jurassic lithospheric thinning in Peru and Bolivia, and its bearing on Andean-age tectonics". Tectonophysics. 345 (1–4): 167. Bibcode:2002Tectp.345..153S. doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(01)00211-6. ISSN 0040-1951.
  18. ^ de Silva et al. 1993, p. 309,313,315.
  19. ^ de Silva et al. 1993, p. 315,317.
  20. ^ Pinti, Daniele (2011), "Mafic and Felsic", Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, p. 938, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-11274-4_1893, ISBN 9783642112713
  21. ^ de Silva et al. 1993, p. 332.
  22. ^ Morales, M. S.; Christie, D. A.; Villalba, R.; Argollo, J.; Pacajes, J.; Silva, J. S.; Alvarez, C. A.; Llancabure, J. C.; Soliz Gamboa, C. C. (30 March 2012). "Precipitation changes in the South American Altiplano since 1300 AD reconstructed by tree-rings" (PDF). Clim. Past. 8 (2): 655. Bibcode:2012CliPa...8..653M. doi:10.5194/cp-8-653-2012. ISSN 1814-9332.
  23. ^ Pouteau, Robin; Rambal, Serge; Ratte, Jean-Pierre; Gogé, Fabien; Joffre, Richard; Winkel, Thierry (January 2011). "Downscaling MODIS-derived maps using GIS and boosted regression trees: The case of frost occurrence over the arid Andean highlands of Bolivia" (PDF). Remote Sensing of Environment. 115 (1): 118. Bibcode:2011RSEnv.115..117P. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2010.08.011. ISSN 0034-4257. S2CID 129012469.
  24. ^ de Silva et al. 1993, p. 312,313.
  25. ^ a b "Tata Sabaya". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
  26. ^ Clavero et al. 2006, p. 439.
  27. ^ Rice, Prudence M. (2014). Space-Time Perspectives on Early Colonial Moquegua. University Press of Colorado. p. 87. ISBN 9781607322764.

Sources

[edit]
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