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{{Short description|Bacterial disease of banana plants}}
{{Taxobox
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Infraspeciesbox special
| name = ''Xanthomonas campestris'' pv. ''musacearum''
| name = ''Xanthomonas campestris'' pv. ''musacearum''
| image =
| image = Banana Xanthomonas Wilt.webp
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Model of a cross section of a banana with Banana Xanthomonas Wilt
| image_caption = Symptoms of Banana ''Xanthomonas'' wilt
| domain = [[Bacteria]]
| status =
| phylum = [[Proteobacteria]]
| status_system =
| classis = [[Gammaproteobacteria]]
| status_ref = {{citation needed|date=}}
| ordo = [[Xanthomonadales]]
⚫
| genus = Xanthomonas
| familia = [[Xanthomonadaceae]]
⚫
| species = campestris
⚫
| genus = ''[[Xanthomonas]]''
| infraspecies_rank1_name = Pathovar
⚫
| species = ''[[Xanthomonas campestris]]''
| infraspecies_rank1_abbrev = pv.
| binomial =''Xanthomonas campestris'' pv. ''musacearum''
| infraspecies_rank1 = ''musacearum''
| binomial_authority =
| authority = ([[Yirgou]] and Bradbury 1968) Dye 1978
| synonyms =
| synonyms_ref = {{citation needed|date=}}
}}
}}


'''Banana Xanthomonas Wilt (BXW)''', or '''banana bacterial wilt (BBW)''' or '''enset wilt''' is a bacterial disease caused by ''[[Xanthomonas campestris]]'' pv. ''musacearum''.<ref name="Tushemereirwe2004">{{Cite journal | author=Tushemereirwe, W. | author2=Kangire, A. | author3=Ssekiwoko, F. | author4=Offord, L.C. | author5=Crozier, J. | author6=Boa, E. | author7=Rutherford, M. | author8=Smith J.J. | title=First report of ''Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum'' on banana in Uganda |journal=[[Plant Pathology (journal)|Plant Pathology]] | volume=53 | issue=6 | year=2004 | page=802 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-3059.2004.01090.x}}</ref> After being originally identified on a close relative of [[banana]], ''[[Enset|Ensete ventricosum]]'', in [[Ethiopia]] in the 1960s,<ref name="Bradbury1968">{{Cite journal | author= Bradbury, J.F. |author2=Yiguro, D. | title=Bacterial wilt of Enset ("Ensete ventricosa") incited by "Xanthomonas musacearum". |journal=[[Phytopathology (journal)|Phytopathology]] | volume=58 | year=1968 | pages=111–112 }}</ref> BXW emanated in Uganda in 2001 affecting all types of banana [[cultivars]]. Since then BXW has been diagnosed in Central and East Africa including banana growing regions of: [[Rwanda]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]], [[Burundi]], and [[Uganda]].<ref name="Mwangi2007">{{Cite journal | author=Mwangi, M. |author2=Bandyopadhyay, R. |author3=Ragama,P. |author4=Tushemereirwe, R.K. | title=Assessment of banana planting practices and cultivar tolerance in relation to management of soilborne ''Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum'' | journal=[[Crop Protection]] | volume=26 |issue=8 | year=2007 | pages=1203–1208 | doi=10.1016/j.cropro.2006.10.017}}</ref>
'''Banana Xanthomonas Wilt''' ('''BXW'''), or '''banana bacterial wilt''' ('''BBW''') or '''enset wilt''' is a bacterial disease caused by ''[[Xanthomonas campestris]]'' [[pathovar|pv.]] ''musacearum''.<ref name="Tushemereirwe2004">{{Cite journal | author=Tushemereirwe, W. | author2=Kangire, A. | author3=Ssekiwoko, F. | author4=Offord, L.C. | author5=Crozier, J. | author6=Boa, E. | author7=Rutherford, M. | author8=Smith J.J. | title=First report of ''Xanthomonas campestris'' pv. ''musacearum'' on banana in Uganda |journal=[[Plant Pathology (journal)|Plant Pathology]] | volume=53 | issue=6 | year=2004 | page=802 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-3059.2004.01090.x| doi-access= }}</ref> After being originally identified on a close relative of [[banana]], ''[[Enset|Ensete ventricosum]]'', in [[Ethiopia]] in the 1960s,<ref name="Bradbury1968">{{Cite journal | author= Bradbury, J.F. |author2=Yiguro, D. | title=Bacterial wilt of Enset ("Ensete ventricosa") incited by "Xanthomonas musacearum". |journal=[[Phytopathology (journal)|Phytopathology]] | volume=58 | year=1968 | pages=111–112 }}</ref> BXW emanated in Uganda in 2001 affecting all types of banana [[cultivars]]. Since then BXW has been diagnosed in Central and East Africa including banana growing regions of: [[Rwanda]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]], [[Burundi]], and [[Uganda]].<ref name="Mwangi2007">{{Cite journal | author=Mwangi, M. |author2=Bandyopadhyay, R. |author3=Ragama,P. |author4=Tushemereirwe, R.K. | title=Assessment of banana planting practices and cultivar tolerance in relation to management of soilborne ''Xanthomonas campestris'' pv. ''musacearum'' | journal=[[Crop Protection]] | volume=26 |issue=8 | year=2007 | pages=1203–1208 | doi=10.1016/j.cropro.2006.10.017|bibcode=2007CrPro..26.1203M }}</ref>


Of the numerous [[List of banana and plantain diseases|diseases infecting bananas]], BXW alongside [[banana bunchy top virus]] has been the most devastating in recent years. Global concern arose over the livelihoods of African banana farmers and the millions relying on bananas as a staple food when the disease was at its worst between the years 2001 and 2005. It was estimated that in Central Uganda from 2001 and 2004, there was a 30-52 % decrease in banana yield due to BXW infection.<ref name="Karamura2010">{{Cite journal | author= Karamura, E. | title=Assessing the Impacts of Banana Bacterial Wilt Disease on Banana(Musa spp.) Productivity and Livelihoods of Ugandan Farm Households. | journal=Acta Horticulturae | volume=879 | issue=879 | year=2010 | pages=749–755 |display-authors=etal| doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2010.879.81 }}</ref> The livelihoods of more than 20 million farmers in Ethiopia is supported bye ''E. ventricosum.'' BXW is a major disease in Ethiopia and Uganda and can result in 70-100% losses of enset.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Plantwise Knowledge Bank {{!}} Controlling bacterial wilt of enset using cultural methods|url=https://www.plantwise.org/KnowledgeBank/factsheetforfarmers/20157800326|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-06-04|website=www.plantwise.org}}</ref>
Of the numerous [[List of banana and plantain diseases|diseases infecting bananas]], BXW alongside [[banana bunchy top virus]] has been the most devastating in recent years. Global concern arose over the livelihoods of African banana farmers and the millions relying on bananas as a staple food when the disease was at its worst between the years 2001 and 2005. It was estimated that in Central Uganda from 2001 and 2004, there was a 30–52 % decrease in banana yield due to BXW infection.<ref name="Karamura2010">{{Cite journal | author= Karamura, E. | title=Assessing the Impacts of Banana Bacterial Wilt Disease on Banana(Musa spp.) Productivity and Livelihoods of Ugandan Farm Households. | journal=Acta Horticulturae | volume=879 | issue=879 | year=2010 | pages=749–755 |display-authors=etal| doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2010.879.81 }}</ref> The livelihoods of more than 20 million farmers in Ethiopia is supported bye ''E. ventricosum.'' BXW is a major disease in Ethiopia and Uganda and can result in 70-100% losses of enset.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2016|title=Plantwise Knowledge Bank {{!}} Controlling bacterial wilt of enset using cultural methods|url=https://www.plantwise.org/KnowledgeBank/factsheetforfarmers/20157800326|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=4 June 2020|journal=Plantwiseplus Knowledge Bank|doi=10.1079/pwkb.20157800326|last1=Haile|first1=M.|last2=Hailegiorgis|first2=Y.|last3=Mekonen|first3=L.|volume=Factsheets for Farmers|doi-access=free}}</ref>


Although extensive management of the disease outbreaks has helped reduce the impact of Banana Xanthomonas Wilt even today BXW continues to a pose a real problem to the banana farmer of Central and East Africa.
Although extensive management of the disease outbreaks has helped reduce the impact of Banana Xanthomonas Wilt even today BXW continues to a pose a real problem to the banana farmer of Central and East Africa.

There is a proposal to reorganize [[Xanthomonas]] – especially [[pathovar]]s of bananas and [[maize|maize/corn]] – along the lines of the most recent [[phylogenetics|phylogenetic]] evidence.<ref name="Studholme-et-al-2020" />


==Symptoms==
==Symptoms==
BXW [[symptoms]] can be sorted into two domains: symptoms on the [[inflorescence]] and symptoms on the [[fruit]]. Symptoms on the fruit are usually used to distinguish BXW from alternative banana diseases. A bacterial ooze is excreted from the plant organs and this is a mandatory sign that BXW may be present. Common symptoms on the fruit include internal discoloration and premature [[ripening]] of the fruit. A cross section of the BXW infected banana is characterized by the yellow- orange discoloration of the [[vascular bundles]] and dark brown [[tissue (biology)|tissue]] scarring.<ref name="Biruma2007">{{Cite journal | author=Biruma, M. | title=Banana ''Xanthomonas'' wilt: a review of the disease, management strategies and future research directions | journal=African Journal of Biotechnology | volume=6 | year=2007 | pages=953–962 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Symptoms on the inflorescence include a gradual [[wilting]] and yellowing of the leaves plus wilting of the [[bracts]] and shriveling of the male [[buds]].<ref name="Abele2009">{{Cite journal | author=Abele, s. | title= Xanthomonas Wilt A threat to banana production in East and Central Africa | journal= Plant Disease | year=2009 | pages=439–451 |display-authors=etal | doi=10.1094/pdis-93-5-0440 | pmid= 30764143 | volume=93| issue= 5 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Many factors may affect the combination of disease symptoms on show. These include the particular cultivar infected, how the disease has been transmitted and the current growing season.
BXW [[symptoms]] can be sorted into two domains: symptoms on the [[inflorescence]] and symptoms on the [[fruit]]. Symptoms on the fruit are usually used to distinguish BXW from alternative banana diseases. A bacterial ooze is excreted from the plant organs and this is a mandatory sign that BXW may be present. Common symptoms on the fruit include internal discoloration and premature [[ripening]] of the fruit. A cross section of the BXW infected banana is characterized by the yellow- orange discoloration of the [[vascular bundles]] and dark brown [[tissue (biology)|tissue]] scarring.<ref name="Biruma2007">{{Cite journal | author=Biruma, M. | title=Banana ''Xanthomonas'' wilt: a review of the disease, management strategies and future research directions | journal=African Journal of Biotechnology | volume=6 | year=2007 | pages=953–962 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Symptoms on the inflorescence include a gradual [[wilting]] and yellowing of the leaves plus wilting of the [[bracts]] and shriveling of the male [[buds]].<ref name="Abele2009">{{Cite journal | author=Abele, s. | title= Xanthomonas Wilt A threat to banana production in East and Central Africa | journal= Plant Disease | year=2009 | pages=439–451 |display-authors=etal | doi=10.1094/pdis-93-5-0440 | pmid= 30764143 | volume=93| issue= 5 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Many factors may affect the combination of disease symptoms on show. These include the particular cultivar infected, how the disease has been transmitted and the current growing season.
Symptoms normally appear within 3 weeks after infection, although the time taken to reach different stages of symptom expression may differ depending on the cultivar, plant growth stage, mode of disease transmission and environmental conditions.<ref name="Ocimati 2012">{{cite journal|last1=Ocimati et al. 2012|title=Systemicity of Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum and time to disease expression after inflorescence infection in East African highland and Pisang Awak bananas in Uganda|journal=Plant Pathology|volume=62 : 4|issue=4|pages=777–785|doi=10.1111/j.1365-3059.2012.02697.x|year=2013|url=https://zenodo.org/record/894900}}</ref> The symptoms expression were found to be faster in AAA-EA cooking varieties compared to ABB cultivars,<ref name="Ocimati 2012"/> in young plants compared to mature plants and during the wet season compared to the dry season. Infected plants show a progressive yellowing and wilting of the leaves, and uneven and premature ripening of the fruit. Male bud symptoms are firstly observed if an infection has occurred via the male inflorescence part, while leaf wilting symptoms are the first to be observed if the infection occurred via other plant parts such as roots, corm, leaf sheaths and leaves.
Symptoms normally appear within 3 weeks after infection, although the time taken to reach different stages of symptom expression may differ depending on the cultivar, plant growth stage, mode of disease transmission and environmental conditions.<ref name="Ocimati 2012">{{cite journal|last1=Ocimati et al. 2012|title=Systemicity of ''Xanthomonas campestris'' pv. ''musacearum'' and time to disease expression after inflorescence infection in East African highland and Pisang Awak bananas in Uganda|journal=Plant Pathology|volume=62 : 4|issue=4|pages=777–785|doi=10.1111/j.1365-3059.2012.02697.x|year=2013|url=https://zenodo.org/record/894900|doi-access=free}}</ref> The symptoms expression were found to be faster in AAA-EA cooking varieties compared to ABB cultivars,<ref name="Ocimati 2012"/> in young plants compared to mature plants and during the wet season compared to the dry season. Infected plants show a progressive yellowing and wilting of the leaves, and uneven and premature ripening of the fruit. Male bud symptoms are firstly observed if an infection has occurred via the male inflorescence part, while leaf wilting symptoms are the first to be observed if the infection occurred via other plant parts such as roots, corm, leaf sheaths and leaves.{{cn|date=November 2022}}


BXW can sometimes be confused with Fusarium wilt – this differs to BXW as in contrast it causes yellowing on older leaves and does not cause abnormal fruit development. Fusarium wilt also causes a dark staining in the stalk whereas BXW does not
BXW can sometimes be confused with Fusarium wilt – this differs to BXW as in contrast it causes yellowing on older leaves and does not cause abnormal fruit development. Fusarium wilt also causes a dark staining in the stalk whereas BXW does not{{cn|date=November 2022}}


==Transmission==
==Transmission==


===Soil===
===Soil===
[[Soil]] is one of the main sources for ''Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum'' [[Inoculation|inoculum]].<ref name="Abele2009"/> ''Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum'' may contaminate the soil for four months and more. BXW awareness campaigns have helped reduce the numbers of farmers growing bananas on contaminated [[Plantain (cooking)|plantains]] aiding in the control of the disease overall. Transmission of contaminated disease itself is thought to be low.
[[Soil]] is one of the main sources for ''Xanthomonas campestris'' pv. ''musacearum'' [[Inoculation|inoculum]].<ref name="Abele2009"/> ''Xanthomonas campestris'' pv. ''musacearum'' may contaminate the soil for four months and more. BXW awareness campaigns have helped reduce the numbers of farmers growing bananas on contaminated [[Plantain (cooking)|plantains]] aiding in the control of the disease overall. Transmission of contaminated disease itself is thought to be low.{{cn|date=November 2022}}


===Airborne===
===Airborne===


It widely thought that ''Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum'' bacteria is transmitted to airborne [[Vector (epidemiology)|vectors]] through exposed male flowers (see [[plant reproductive morphology]]). ''Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum'' bacteria has been isolated from the ooze and nectar excreted from openings of fallen male flowers.<ref name="Tinzaara2006">{{Cite journal | author=Tinzaaara, W. | title=The possible role of insects in the transmission of Banana Xanthomonas Wilt | conference=Programme and Abstract Book of the 4th International Bacterial Wilt Symposium | year=2006 | page=60 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Insects, namely [[stingless bees]] (Apidae), fruit flies ([[Drosophilidae]]) and [[Chloropidae|grass flies]] (Chloropidae), transmit the disease from banana to banana after being drawn to the infected [[nectar]].<ref name="Smith2008">{{Cite journal | author=Smith, J.J. | title=An analysis of the risk from ''Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum'' to banana cultivation in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa | journal=Biodiversity International | year=2008 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> If the disease has been transmitted by insects the symptoms tend to first appear on the male buds of the banana plant.
It widely thought that ''Xanthomonas campestris'' pv. ''musacearum'' bacteria is transmitted to airborne [[Vector (epidemiology)|vectors]] through exposed male flowers (see [[plant reproductive morphology]]). ''Xanthomonas campestris'' pv. ''musacearum'' bacteria has been isolated from the ooze and nectar excreted from openings of fallen male flowers.<ref name="Tinzaara2006">{{Cite conference | author=Tinzaaara, W. | title=The possible role of insects in the transmission of Banana Xanthomonas Wilt | conference=Programme and Abstract Book of the 4th International Bacterial Wilt Symposium | year=2006 | page=60 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Insects, namely [[stingless bees]] (Apidae), fruit flies ([[Drosophilidae]]) and [[Chloropidae|grass flies]] (Chloropidae), transmit the disease from banana to banana after being drawn to the infected [[nectar]].<ref name="Smith2008">{{Cite journal | author=Smith, J.J. | title=An analysis of the risk from ''Xanthomonas campestris'' pv. ''musacearum'' to banana cultivation in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa | journal=Biodiversity International | year=2008 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> If the disease has been transmitted by insects the symptoms tend to first appear on the male buds of the banana plant.{{cn|date=November 2022}}


===Tools===
===Tools===
The knife ([[panga]]) is used almost universally in African agriculture. Use of contaminated knives was a common method for disease spread when the disease originated but increased knowledge of BXW transmission has led to increased numbers of knives being disinfected after use. [[Herbicides]] are now advised as a more economical and effective way of destroying infected banana crop.<ref name="Blomme2008">{{Cite journal | author=Blomme, G. |author2=Turyagyenda, L.F |author3=Mukasa, H. |author4=Eden-Green, S. | title=The effectiveness of different herbicides in the destruction of Banana Xanthomonas Wilt infected plants | journal=African Crop Science Journal | volume=16 | year=2008 | pages=103–110 | doi=10.4314/acsj.v16i1.54350| url=http://www.bioline.org.br/pdf?cs08013 }}</ref>
The knife ([[panga]]) is used almost universally in African agriculture. Use of contaminated knives was a common method for disease spread when the disease originated but increased knowledge of BXW transmission has led to increased numbers of knives being disinfected after use. [[Herbicides]] are now advised as a more economical and effective way of destroying infected banana crop.<ref name="Blomme2008">{{Cite journal | author=Blomme, G. |author2=Turyagyenda, L.F |author3=Mukasa, H. |author4=Eden-Green, S. | title=The effectiveness of different herbicides in the destruction of Banana Xanthomonas Wilt infected plants | journal=African Crop Science Journal | volume=16 | year=2008 | pages=103–110 | doi=10.4314/acsj.v16i1.54350|url=http://www.bioline.org.br/pdf?cs08013 | url-access=subscription }}</ref>


===Infected plant material===
===Infected plant material===
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==Disease management==
==Disease management==
Control of BXW is based upon a variety of methods to help prevent the spread of the disease. Vigilance and the quick removal of infected plants remain critical to minimising spread of the disease. Complete uprooting of diseased mats and the burning or burying of plant debris was encouraged as part of a control package which included the use of clean garden tools and early removal of male buds to prevent insect vector transmission. But uprooting a complete mat is understandably time-consuming and labour-intensive and becomes very difficult when a large number of diseased mats have to be removed. Recent research findings suggest that Xcm bacteria do not colonize all lateral shoots which can lead to a new control method where only visibly attacked plants within a mat are cut at soil level.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Blomme et al. 2014|title=Fine-tuning banana Xanthomonas wilt control options over the past decade in East and Central Africa|journal=Eur J Plant Pathol|volume=139|issue=2|pages=271–287|doi=10.1007/s10658-014-0402-0|year=2014}}</ref> However, this single diseased stem removal should go hand in hand with prevention of new infections that can occur through the use of contaminated garden tools or through insect vector transmission.
Control of BXW is based upon a variety of methods to help prevent the spread of the disease. Vigilance and the quick removal of infected plants remain critical to minimising spread of the disease. Complete uprooting of diseased mats and the burning or burying of plant debris was encouraged as part of a control package which included the use of clean garden tools and early removal of male buds to prevent insect vector transmission. But uprooting a complete mat is understandably time-consuming and labour-intensive and becomes very difficult when a large number of diseased mats have to be removed. Recent research findings suggest that Xcm bacteria do not colonize all lateral shoots which can lead to a new control method where only visibly attacked plants within a mat are cut at soil level.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Blomme et al. 2014|title=Fine-tuning banana Xanthomonas wilt control options over the past decade in East and Central Africa|journal=Eur J Plant Pathol|volume=139|issue=2|pages=271–287|doi=10.1007/s10658-014-0402-0|year=2014|bibcode=2014EJPP..139..271B |s2cid=16217298}}</ref> However, this single diseased stem removal should go hand in hand with prevention of new infections that can occur through the use of contaminated garden tools or through insect vector transmission.{{cn|date=November 2022}}


The [[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International|CABI]]-led programme [[Plantwise]] recommends in addition to removing infected plants and cleaning tools, to prevent further infections by limiting the distribution of fruits to BXW-free areas to reduce the risk of spread, and limiting the movement of animals in banana plantations. They also recommend rotation of banana with other crops if infection is detected.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Plantwise Knowledge Bank {{!}} Banana xanthomonas wilt|url=https://www.plantwise.org/KnowledgeBank/pmdg/20167801440|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-06-04|website=www.plantwise.org}}</ref>
The [[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International|CABI]]-led programme [[Plantwise]] recommends in addition to removing infected plants and cleaning tools, to prevent further infections by limiting the distribution of fruits to BXW-free areas to reduce the risk of spread, and limiting the movement of animals in banana plantations. They also recommend rotation of banana with other crops if infection is detected.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=2018|title=Plantwise Knowledge Bank {{!}} Banana xanthomonas wilt|url=https://www.plantwise.org/KnowledgeBank/pmdg/20167801440|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=4 June 2020|journal=Plantwiseplus Knowledge Bank|volume=Pest Management Decision Guides|doi=10.1079/pwkb.20167801440|doi-access=free}}</ref>


==BXW resistant banana==
===BXW resistant banana===
No banana cultivars in Central and Eastern Africa have shown any resistance to BXW despite some varieties, such as those in the 'Pisang Awak' region, showing increased susceptibility. Scientists have recently transferred two [[genes]] from sweet [[Bell pepper|green pepper]] to bananas in order to confer resistance to BXW.<ref name="Namukwaya2012">{{Cite journal | author=Namukwaya, B. | title=Transgenic banana expressing ''Pflp'' gene confers enhanced resistance to Xanthomonas wilt disease | journal=Transgenic Resistance | volume=21 | issue=4 | year=2012 | pages=855–865 | doi=10.1007/s11248-011-9574-y| pmid=22101927 |display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref name="Tripathi2010">{{Cite journal | author=Tripathi, L. |author2=Mwaka, H. |author3=Tripathi, J.N. |author4=Tushemereirwe, W.K. | title=Expression of sweet pepper Hrap gene in banana enhances resistance to ''Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum'' | journal=Molecular Plant Pathology | volume=6 |issue=6 | year=2010 | pages=721–731 | doi=10.1111/j.1364-3703.2010.00639.x|pmid=21029318 | pmc=6640263 }}</ref> This is a promising step forward in circumventing the time consuming and expensive practices of disease management such as 'debudding'.
No banana cultivars have shown any [[plant disease resistance|resistance]] to BXW<ref name="Goodman-Tripathi-Tripathi">{{cite web |url=http://www.openaccessgovernment.org/controlling-banana-xanthomonas-wilt-disease-in-east-africa/117771/ | title=Controlling Banana Xanthomonas Wilt Disease in East Africa | date=18 August 2021 | first1=Richard | last1=Goodman | author2=([[University of Nebraska-Lincoln]]) | first3=Leena | last3=Tripathi | author4=(IITA ([[International Institute of Tropical Agriculture]])) | first5=Jaindra Nath | last5=Tripathi | author6=(IITA ([[International Institute of Tropical Agriculture]]))}}</ref> despite some varieties, such as those in the 'Pisang Awak' region, showing increased susceptibility. Only ''[[Musa balbisiana|balbisiana]]'' has any resistance.<ref name="Goodman-Tripathi-Tripathi" /> Scientists have recently transferred two [[genes]] from sweet [[Bell pepper|green pepper]] to bananas in order to confer resistance to BXW.<ref name="Namukwaya2012">{{Cite journal | author=Namukwaya, B. | title=Transgenic banana expressing ''Pflp'' gene confers enhanced resistance to Xanthomonas wilt disease | journal=Transgenic Resistance | volume=21 | issue=4 | year=2012 | pages=855–865 | doi=10.1007/s11248-011-9574-y| pmid=22101927 | s2cid=16691753 |display-authors=etal| doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Tripathi2010">{{Cite journal | author=Tripathi, L. |author2=Mwaka, H. |author3=Tripathi, J.N. |author4=Tushemereirwe, W.K. | title=Expression of sweet pepper Hrap gene in banana enhances resistance to ''Xanthomonas campestris'' pv. ''musacearum'' | journal=Molecular Plant Pathology | volume=11 |issue=6 | year=2010 | pages=721–731 | doi=10.1111/j.1364-3703.2010.00639.x|pmid=21029318 | pmc=6640263 }}</ref> This is a promising step forward in circumventing the time consuming and expensive practices of disease management such as 'debudding'.


''Pflp'' and ''Hrap'' genes encoding the proteins plant ferredoxin-like amphipathic protein (pflp) and hypersensitive response-assisting protein (hrap) were isolated from sweet pepper and introduced to the [[genome]] of East African bananas using [[genetic engineering]]. The two proteins induced a [[hypersensitive response]] and [[systemic acquired resistance]] within the banana plant after being exposed to the [[bacterial pathogen]]. It was reported that over half of the [[transgenic]] bananas were resistant to BXW,<ref name="Namukwaya2012"/> resistance that was also found in field trials.<ref name="Tripathi2014">{{Cite journal | author=Tripathi, L. |author2=Tripathi, J. N. |author3=Kiggundu, A. |author4=Korie, S. |author5=Shotkoski, F. |author6=Tushemereirwe, W. K. |name-list-style=amp | title=Field trial of xanthomonas wilt disease-resistant bananas in east africa | journal=Nat. Biotechnol.| volume=32 |issue=9 | year=2014 | pages=868–870 | doi=10.1038/nbt.3007 | pmid=25203031}}</ref>
''Pflp'' and ''Hrap'' genes encoding the proteins plant ferredoxin-like amphipathic protein (pflp) and hypersensitive response-assisting protein (hrap) were isolated from sweet pepper and introduced to the [[genome]] of East African bananas using [[genetic engineering]]. The two proteins induced a [[hypersensitive response]] and [[systemic acquired resistance]] within the banana plant after being exposed to the [[bacterial pathogen]]. It was reported that over half of the [[transgenic]] bananas were resistant to BXW,<ref name="Namukwaya2012"/> resistance that was also found in field trials.<ref name="Tripathi2014">{{Cite journal | author=Tripathi, L. |author2=Tripathi, J. N. |author3=Kiggundu, A. |author4=Korie, S. |author5=Shotkoski, F. |author6=Tushemereirwe, W. K. |name-list-style=amp | title=Field trial of xanthomonas wilt disease-resistant bananas in east africa | journal=Nat. Biotechnol.| volume=32 |issue=9 | year=2014 | pages=868–870 | doi=10.1038/nbt.3007 | pmid=25203031|s2cid=26219835 }}</ref>

==Impact==
BXW can cause losses of up to 100% in [[East Africa|East]] and [[Central Africa|Central]] Africa.<ref name="CGIAR-RTB-A4S-SDSR">{{cite web | first1=Anne | last1=Rietveld | title=More than 180,000 farmers are supported with practices to control the Banana Xanthomonas Wilt (BXW) disease in Burundi, Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo | website=[[CGIAR]] MEL | date=28 March 2021 |url=http://mel.cgiar.org/projects/rtbscalingbxw/356/more-than-180000-farmers-are-supported-with-practices-to-control-the-banana-xanthomonas-wilt-bxw-disease-in-burundi-uganda-and-democratic-republic-of-congo | access-date=5 September 2021}}</ref>


== Sources ==
== Sources ==
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| author = Melese Haile, Yifru Hailegiorgis, Leulseged Mekonen
| author = Melese Haile, Yifru Hailegiorgis, Leulseged Mekonen
| publisher = CABI
| publisher = CABI
| page numbers =
| page numbers =
| source =
| source =
| documentURL = https://www.plantwise.org/KnowledgeBank/factsheetforfarmers/20157800326
| documentURL = https://www.plantwise.org/KnowledgeBank/factsheetforfarmers/20157800326
| license statement URL = https://www.cabi.org/terms-and-conditions/
| license statement URL = https://www.cabi.org/terms-and-conditions/
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| author = Plantwise
| author = Plantwise
| publisher = CABI
| publisher = CABI
| page numbers =
| page numbers =
| source =
| source =
| documentURL = https://www.plantwise.org/KnowledgeBank/pmdg/20167801440
| documentURL = https://www.plantwise.org/KnowledgeBank/pmdg/20167801440
| license statement URL = https://www.cabi.org/terms-and-conditions/
| license statement URL = https://www.cabi.org/terms-and-conditions/
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==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Studholme-et-al-2020">
{{cite journal
| last1=Studholme
| first1=David J.
| last2=Wicker
| first2=Emmanuel
| last3=Abrare
| first3=Sadik Muzemil
| last4=Aspin
| first4=Andrew
| last5=Bogdanove
| first5=Adam
| last6=Broders
| first6=Kirk
| last7=Dubrow
| first7=Zoe
| last8=Grant
| first8=Murray
| last9=Jones
| first9=Jeffrey B.
| last10=Karamura
| first10=Georgina
| last11=Lang
| first11=Jillian
| last12=Leach
| first12=Jan
| last13=Mahuku
| first13=George
| last14=Nakato
| first14=Gloria Valentine
| last15=Coutinho
| first15=Teresa
| last16=Smith
| first16=Julian
| last17=Bull
| first17=Carolee T.
| title=Transfer of ''Xanthomonas campestris'' pv. ''arecae'' and ''X. campestris'' pv. ''musacearum'' to ''X. vasicola'' (Vauterin) as ''X. vasicola'' pv. ''arecae'' comb. nov. and ''X. vasicola'' pv. ''musacearum'' comb. nov. and Description of ''X. vasicola'' pv. ''vasculorum'' pv. nov.
| journal=[[Phytopathology (journal)|Phytopathology]]
| publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]]
| volume=110
| issue=6
| year=2020
| issn=0031-949X
| doi=10.1094/phyto-03-19-0098-le
| pages=1153–1160
| pmid=31922946
| doi-access=free
| hdl=10871/40555
| hdl-access=free
}}
</ref>
}}


==External links==
==External links==
*[http://www.promusa.org/Xanthomonas+wilt Musapedia page on Xanthomonas Wilt of banana]
* [http://www.promusa.org/Xanthomonas+wilt Musapedia page on Xanthomonas Wilt of banana]
*[http://mcknight.ccrp.cornell.edu/projects/ehaf_cop/EHAF_09-500/09-500_project.html The McKnight Foundation, most recent overview of Banana Xanthomonas Wilt]
* [http://mcknight.ccrp.cornell.edu/projects/ehaf_cop/EHAF_09-500/09-500_project.html The McKnight Foundation, most recent overview of Banana ''Xanthomonas'' Wilt]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20101229093214/http://annualreport.iita.org/?p=462 International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) annual report, BXW disease management]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101229093214/http://annualreport.iita.org/?p=462 International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) annual report, BXW disease management]


{{Taxonbar|from=Q15298527}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q15298527}}

Latest revision as of 21:26, 25 August 2024

Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum
Symptoms of Banana Xanthomonas wilt
Symptoms of Banana Xanthomonas wilt
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Pseudomonadota
Class: Gammaproteobacteria
Order: Xanthomonadales
Family: Xanthomonadaceae
Genus: Xanthomonas
Species: X. campestris
Pathovar: X. c.  pv. musacearum
Trionomial name
Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum
(Yirgou and Bradbury 1968) Dye 1978


Banana Xanthomonas Wilt (BXW), or banana bacterial wilt (BBW) or enset wilt is a bacterial disease caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum.[1] After being originally identified on a close relative of banana, Ensete ventricosum, in Ethiopia in the 1960s,[2] BXW emanated in Uganda in 2001 affecting all types of banana cultivars. Since then BXW has been diagnosed in Central and East Africa including banana growing regions of: Rwanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Kenya, Burundi, and Uganda.[3]

Of the numerous diseases infecting bananas, BXW alongside banana bunchy top virus has been the most devastating in recent years. Global concern arose over the livelihoods of African banana farmers and the millions relying on bananas as a staple food when the disease was at its worst between the years 2001 and 2005. It was estimated that in Central Uganda from 2001 and 2004, there was a 30–52 % decrease in banana yield due to BXW infection.[4] The livelihoods of more than 20 million farmers in Ethiopia is supported bye E. ventricosum. BXW is a major disease in Ethiopia and Uganda and can result in 70-100% losses of enset.[5]

Although extensive management of the disease outbreaks has helped reduce the impact of Banana Xanthomonas Wilt even today BXW continues to a pose a real problem to the banana farmer of Central and East Africa.

There is a proposal to reorganize Xanthomonas – especially pathovars of bananas and maize/corn – along the lines of the most recent phylogenetic evidence.[6]

Symptoms

[edit]

BXW symptoms can be sorted into two domains: symptoms on the inflorescence and symptoms on the fruit. Symptoms on the fruit are usually used to distinguish BXW from alternative banana diseases. A bacterial ooze is excreted from the plant organs and this is a mandatory sign that BXW may be present. Common symptoms on the fruit include internal discoloration and premature ripening of the fruit. A cross section of the BXW infected banana is characterized by the yellow- orange discoloration of the vascular bundles and dark brown tissue scarring.[7] Symptoms on the inflorescence include a gradual wilting and yellowing of the leaves plus wilting of the bracts and shriveling of the male buds.[8] Many factors may affect the combination of disease symptoms on show. These include the particular cultivar infected, how the disease has been transmitted and the current growing season. Symptoms normally appear within 3 weeks after infection, although the time taken to reach different stages of symptom expression may differ depending on the cultivar, plant growth stage, mode of disease transmission and environmental conditions.[9] The symptoms expression were found to be faster in AAA-EA cooking varieties compared to ABB cultivars,[9] in young plants compared to mature plants and during the wet season compared to the dry season. Infected plants show a progressive yellowing and wilting of the leaves, and uneven and premature ripening of the fruit. Male bud symptoms are firstly observed if an infection has occurred via the male inflorescence part, while leaf wilting symptoms are the first to be observed if the infection occurred via other plant parts such as roots, corm, leaf sheaths and leaves.[citation needed]

BXW can sometimes be confused with Fusarium wilt – this differs to BXW as in contrast it causes yellowing on older leaves and does not cause abnormal fruit development. Fusarium wilt also causes a dark staining in the stalk whereas BXW does not[citation needed]

Transmission

[edit]

Soil

[edit]

Soil is one of the main sources for Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum inoculum.[8] Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum may contaminate the soil for four months and more. BXW awareness campaigns have helped reduce the numbers of farmers growing bananas on contaminated plantains aiding in the control of the disease overall. Transmission of contaminated disease itself is thought to be low.[citation needed]

Airborne

[edit]

It widely thought that Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum bacteria is transmitted to airborne vectors through exposed male flowers (see plant reproductive morphology). Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum bacteria has been isolated from the ooze and nectar excreted from openings of fallen male flowers.[10] Insects, namely stingless bees (Apidae), fruit flies (Drosophilidae) and grass flies (Chloropidae), transmit the disease from banana to banana after being drawn to the infected nectar.[11] If the disease has been transmitted by insects the symptoms tend to first appear on the male buds of the banana plant.[citation needed]

Tools

[edit]

The knife (panga) is used almost universally in African agriculture. Use of contaminated knives was a common method for disease spread when the disease originated but increased knowledge of BXW transmission has led to increased numbers of knives being disinfected after use. Herbicides are now advised as a more economical and effective way of destroying infected banana crop.[12]

Infected plant material

[edit]

BXW infects all parts of the plant. Disease spread has been primarily linked with the transport of plants shoots for replanting.[11] Other parts of the plant such as the male buds (used in banana beer production) and mulch (banana waste material) can also expose novel regions to the disease.[11]

Disease management

[edit]

Control of BXW is based upon a variety of methods to help prevent the spread of the disease. Vigilance and the quick removal of infected plants remain critical to minimising spread of the disease. Complete uprooting of diseased mats and the burning or burying of plant debris was encouraged as part of a control package which included the use of clean garden tools and early removal of male buds to prevent insect vector transmission. But uprooting a complete mat is understandably time-consuming and labour-intensive and becomes very difficult when a large number of diseased mats have to be removed. Recent research findings suggest that Xcm bacteria do not colonize all lateral shoots which can lead to a new control method where only visibly attacked plants within a mat are cut at soil level.[13] However, this single diseased stem removal should go hand in hand with prevention of new infections that can occur through the use of contaminated garden tools or through insect vector transmission.[citation needed]

The CABI-led programme Plantwise recommends in addition to removing infected plants and cleaning tools, to prevent further infections by limiting the distribution of fruits to BXW-free areas to reduce the risk of spread, and limiting the movement of animals in banana plantations. They also recommend rotation of banana with other crops if infection is detected.[14]

BXW resistant banana

[edit]

No banana cultivars have shown any resistance to BXW[15] despite some varieties, such as those in the 'Pisang Awak' region, showing increased susceptibility. Only balbisiana has any resistance.[15] Scientists have recently transferred two genes from sweet green pepper to bananas in order to confer resistance to BXW.[16][17] This is a promising step forward in circumventing the time consuming and expensive practices of disease management such as 'debudding'.

Pflp and Hrap genes encoding the proteins plant ferredoxin-like amphipathic protein (pflp) and hypersensitive response-assisting protein (hrap) were isolated from sweet pepper and introduced to the genome of East African bananas using genetic engineering. The two proteins induced a hypersensitive response and systemic acquired resistance within the banana plant after being exposed to the bacterial pathogen. It was reported that over half of the transgenic bananas were resistant to BXW,[16] resistance that was also found in field trials.[18]

Impact

[edit]

BXW can cause losses of up to 100% in East and Central Africa.[19]

Sources

[edit]

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA (license statement/permission). Text taken from Plantwise Factsheets for Farmers: Controlling bacterial wilt of enset using cultural methods​, Melese Haile, Yifru Hailegiorgis, Leulseged Mekonen, CABI.

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA (license statement/permission). Text taken from PMDG: Banana xanthomonas wilt​, Plantwise, CABI.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Tushemereirwe, W.; Kangire, A.; Ssekiwoko, F.; Offord, L.C.; Crozier, J.; Boa, E.; Rutherford, M.; Smith J.J. (2004). "First report of Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum on banana in Uganda". Plant Pathology. 53 (6): 802. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3059.2004.01090.x.
  2. ^ Bradbury, J.F.; Yiguro, D. (1968). "Bacterial wilt of Enset ("Ensete ventricosa") incited by "Xanthomonas musacearum"". Phytopathology. 58: 111–112.
  3. ^ Mwangi, M.; Bandyopadhyay, R.; Ragama,P.; Tushemereirwe, R.K. (2007). "Assessment of banana planting practices and cultivar tolerance in relation to management of soilborne Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum". Crop Protection. 26 (8): 1203–1208. Bibcode:2007CrPro..26.1203M. doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2006.10.017.
  4. ^ Karamura, E.; et al. (2010). "Assessing the Impacts of Banana Bacterial Wilt Disease on Banana(Musa spp.) Productivity and Livelihoods of Ugandan Farm Households". Acta Horticulturae. 879 (879): 749–755. doi:10.17660/ActaHortic.2010.879.81.
  5. ^ Haile, M.; Hailegiorgis, Y.; Mekonen, L. (2016). "Plantwise Knowledge Bank | Controlling bacterial wilt of enset using cultural methods". Plantwiseplus Knowledge Bank. Factsheets for Farmers. doi:10.1079/pwkb.20157800326. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
  6. ^ Studholme, David J.; Wicker, Emmanuel; Abrare, Sadik Muzemil; Aspin, Andrew; Bogdanove, Adam; Broders, Kirk; Dubrow, Zoe; Grant, Murray; Jones, Jeffrey B.; Karamura, Georgina; Lang, Jillian; Leach, Jan; Mahuku, George; Nakato, Gloria Valentine; Coutinho, Teresa; Smith, Julian; Bull, Carolee T. (2020). "Transfer of Xanthomonas campestris pv. arecae and X. campestris pv. musacearum to X. vasicola (Vauterin) as X. vasicola pv. arecae comb. nov. and X. vasicola pv. musacearum comb. nov. and Description of X. vasicola pv. vasculorum pv. nov". Phytopathology. 110 (6). American Phytopathological Society: 1153–1160. doi:10.1094/phyto-03-19-0098-le. hdl:10871/40555. ISSN 0031-949X. PMID 31922946.
  7. ^ Biruma, M.; et al. (2007). "Banana Xanthomonas wilt: a review of the disease, management strategies and future research directions". African Journal of Biotechnology. 6: 953–962.
  8. ^ a b Abele, s.; et al. (2009). "Xanthomonas Wilt A threat to banana production in East and Central Africa". Plant Disease. 93 (5): 439–451. doi:10.1094/pdis-93-5-0440. PMID 30764143.
  9. ^ a b Ocimati et al. 2012 (2013). "Systemicity of Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum and time to disease expression after inflorescence infection in East African highland and Pisang Awak bananas in Uganda". Plant Pathology. 62 : 4 (4): 777–785. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3059.2012.02697.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Tinzaaara, W.; et al. (2006). The possible role of insects in the transmission of Banana Xanthomonas Wilt. Programme and Abstract Book of the 4th International Bacterial Wilt Symposium. p. 60.
  11. ^ a b c Smith, J.J.; et al. (2008). "An analysis of the risk from Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum to banana cultivation in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa". Biodiversity International.
  12. ^ Blomme, G.; Turyagyenda, L.F; Mukasa, H.; Eden-Green, S. (2008). "The effectiveness of different herbicides in the destruction of Banana Xanthomonas Wilt infected plants". African Crop Science Journal. 16: 103–110. doi:10.4314/acsj.v16i1.54350.
  13. ^ Blomme et al. 2014 (2014). "Fine-tuning banana Xanthomonas wilt control options over the past decade in East and Central Africa". Eur J Plant Pathol. 139 (2): 271–287. Bibcode:2014EJPP..139..271B. doi:10.1007/s10658-014-0402-0. S2CID 16217298.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ "Plantwise Knowledge Bank | Banana xanthomonas wilt". Plantwiseplus Knowledge Bank. Pest Management Decision Guides. 2018. doi:10.1079/pwkb.20167801440. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
  15. ^ a b Goodman, Richard; (University of Nebraska-Lincoln); Tripathi, Leena; (IITA (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture)); Tripathi, Jaindra Nath; (IITA (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture)) (18 August 2021). "Controlling Banana Xanthomonas Wilt Disease in East Africa".
  16. ^ a b Namukwaya, B.; et al. (2012). "Transgenic banana expressing Pflp gene confers enhanced resistance to Xanthomonas wilt disease". Transgenic Resistance. 21 (4): 855–865. doi:10.1007/s11248-011-9574-y. PMID 22101927. S2CID 16691753.
  17. ^ Tripathi, L.; Mwaka, H.; Tripathi, J.N.; Tushemereirwe, W.K. (2010). "Expression of sweet pepper Hrap gene in banana enhances resistance to Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum". Molecular Plant Pathology. 11 (6): 721–731. doi:10.1111/j.1364-3703.2010.00639.x. PMC 6640263. PMID 21029318.
  18. ^ Tripathi, L.; Tripathi, J. N.; Kiggundu, A.; Korie, S.; Shotkoski, F. & Tushemereirwe, W. K. (2014). "Field trial of xanthomonas wilt disease-resistant bananas in east africa". Nat. Biotechnol. 32 (9): 868–870. doi:10.1038/nbt.3007. PMID 25203031. S2CID 26219835.
  19. ^ Rietveld, Anne (28 March 2021). "More than 180,000 farmers are supported with practices to control the Banana Xanthomonas Wilt (BXW) disease in Burundi, Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo". CGIAR MEL. Retrieved 5 September 2021.
[edit]
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