Black-legged kittiwake: Difference between revisions

Black-legged kittiwake
	Adult black-legged kittiwake in Vardø, Norway
	Calls, recorded on Skomer
Conservation status
	; Vulnerable (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Charadriiformes
Family:	Laridae
Genus:	Rissa
Species:	R. tridactyla
Binomial name
	Rissa tridactyla; (Linnaeus, 1758)
	Range of R. tridactyla Summer range Wintering range
Synonyms
	Larus tridactylus Linnaeus, 1758; Larus rissa Linnaeus, 1766;

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The black-legged kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) is a seabird species in the gull family Laridae. This species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae as Larus tridactylus. The English name is derived from its call, a shrill 'kittee-wa-aaake, kitte-wa-aaake'. In North America, this species is known as the black-legged kittiwake to differentiate it from the red-legged kittiwake, but in Europe, where it is the only member of the genus, it is often known just as kittiwake.

Taxonomy

The black-legged kittiwake was formally described in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. He placed with the gulls in the genus Larus and coined the binomial name Larus tridactylus.^[2] Linnaeus specified the type location as northern Europe but this has been restricted to Great Britain.^[3] The black-legged kittiwake is now placed together with the red-legged kittiwake in the genus Rissa that was introduced in 1826 by the English naturalist James Stephens.^[4] The genus name is from the Icelandic word "rita" for a black-legged kittiwake. The specific tridactyla is from Ancient Greek tridaktulos meaning "three-toed".^[5] The English name "kittiwake" is derived from its call, a shrill 'kittee-wa-aaake, kitte-wa-aaake'.^[6]

Two subspecies are recognised. These are listed below together with their breeding ranges.^[4]

R. t. tridactyla (Linnaeus, 1758) – high Arctic to temperate north coasts, from Greenland, Iceland, west, northwest Europe, Svalbard and northwest New Siberian Islands; Canadian high Arctic (northeast Canada), Gulf of St. Lawrence and Newfoundland (southeast Canada)
R. t. pollicaris Ridgway, 1884 – high Arctic to temperate north coasts, from northeast New Siberian Islands to Sakhalin, Kamchatka Peninsula, Kuril and Commander Islands (east Russia); Aleutian Islands and Bering Sea islands and west, southwest Alaska mainland

Distribution and habitat

The black-legged kittiwake is a coastal bird of the arctic to subarctic regions of the world.^[7] It can be found all across the northern coasts of the Atlantic, from Canada to Greenland as well as on the Pacific side from Alaska to the coast of Siberia.^[8] Black-legged kittiwakes' wintering range extends further south from the St-Lawrence to the southern coast of New Jersey as well as in China, the Sargasso sea and off the coast of west Africa.^[8]^[9] There are two subspecies of black-legged kittiwake. Rissa tridactyla tridactyla can be found on the Atlantic coast whereas Rissa tridactyla pollicaris is found on the Pacific coast.

Out of all the laridae, the kittiwakes are the most pelagic ones. Kittiwakes are almost exclusively found at sea with the exception of the breeding period, from May to September, where they can be found nesting on the sheerest sea cliffs. They are rarely found inland, though they have been reported on few instances as far as 20 km inland.^[8] For the rest of the year, kittiwake spend most of their time on the wing out of sight from the coast.

Description

Adult plumage

The adult is 37–41 cm (15–16 in) in length with a wingspan of 91–105 cm (36–41 in) and a body mass of 305–525 g (10.8–18.5 oz).^[10] It has a white head and body, grey back, grey wings tipped solid black, black legs and a yellow bill. Occasional individuals have pinky-grey to reddish legs, inviting confusion with red-legged kittiwake. The inside of their mouth is also a characteristic feature of the species due to its rich red colour. Such red pigmentation is due to carotenoids pigments and vitamin A which have to be acquired through their diet.^[11] Studies show that integument coloration is associated with male's reproductive success.^[11] Such hypothesis would explain the behavior of couples greeting each other by opening their mouth and flashing their bright mouth it to their partner while vocalizing.^[12] As their Latin name suggests, they only possess three toes since their hind toe is either extremely reduced or completely absent.^[9] The two subspecies being almost identical, R. tridactyla pollicaris is in general slightly larger than its counterpart R. tridactyle tridactyla. In winter, this species acquires a dark grey smudge behind the eye and a grey hind-neck collar. The bill also turns a dusky-olive color.^[9]

Since kittiwakes winter at sea and rarely touch ground during this period, very little is known about their exact molting pattern.

Juvenile plumage

At fledging, the juveniles differ from the adults in having a black 'W' band across the length of the wings and whiter secondary and primary feathers behind the black 'W', a black hind-neck collar and a black terminal band on the tail.^[7] They can also be identified due to their solid black bill.^[7] This plumage is a hatch-year plumage and will only remain for their first year.^[13] Kittiwakes obtain their mature plumage at 4 years old, but will gradually change their juvenile plumage over time until maturity is reached. A second-year juvenile resembles a hatch-year regarding the plumage, though the bill is no longer solid black but instead has a greenish color.^[13] The black marking on the coverts and the tail is still visible. The black marking will only molt during their third year, where the black is no longer present on the coverts, but the grey smudge on the head remains.^[13] A third-year bird will also exhibit a small zone of bright yellow/orange at the base of its mostly greenish bill. It is only at four years old that the bill will reach an overall colour of bright yellow and complete its mature plumage.^[13]

The old fisherman's name of "tarrock" for juvenile kittiwakes is still occasionally used.

Standard measurements^[14]^[15]
length	410–460 mm (16–18 in)
weight	400 g (14 oz)
wingspan	910 mm (36 in)
wing	295–322 mm (11.6–12.7 in)
tail	124–136 mm (4.9–5.4 in)
culmen	33–39 mm (1.3–1.5 in)
tarsus	32–36 mm (1.3–1.4 in)

Vocalization

Sound of kittiwake

The kittiwake is named after its call that resembles a long "kit-ti-wake".^[9] Apart from their typical call, kittiwakes have a wide array of vocalization. Their greeting call is used by the two members of a pair when meeting at the nest after an absence of one or both members. Before and during copulation, the female will often vocalize by making a series of short high pitched "squeak".^[16] This call is also used by the female to beg for food from the male (courtship feeding). When predators are around, the kittiwake alarm call, an "oh oh oh oh" will be heard all across the colony.^[16] Kittiwake will vocalize all day for various reasons and will only stop when the sun is down.

Similar species

The red-legged kittiwake is the only other species in the genus Rissa and can be differentiated from its counterpart by its red legs, as the name suggests.^[17] The head of the red-legged kittiwake is slightly smaller and bears a shorter bill.^[17] The chicks of the Pacific black-legged kittiwake and red-legged kittiwake cannot be distinguished during their youngest downy phase.^[17]

The juvenile black-legged kittiwake can be confused with the Bonaparte's gull juveniles although the kittiwakes' plumage has more black on the primaries and a different pattern going across the coverts.^[12]

Behaviour and ecology

Flight

Kittiwake are known for their graceful flight. Unlike larger gulls, their flight is light with the wings beating in fast strokes.^[12] When looking at them flying around the colony, kittiwakes often look as if they are playing in the wind with their agile flips and loops. Kittiwakes are highly gregarious and therefore are rarely seen flying alone far away from the colony.^[12]

Breeding

It is a coastal breeding bird around the north Pacific and north Atlantic oceans, found most commonly in North America and Europe. Kittiwakes are colonial nesters that form monogamous pairs and exhibit biparental care, meaning that both take part in nest building, incubation and chick rearing. They tend to nest in large numbers on cliffs by the sea side. It breeds in large colonies on cliffs and is very noisy on the breeding ground. Cliff nesting for gulls occurs only in the Rissa species, and the kittiwake is capable of utilizing the very sheerest of vertical cliffs, as is evident in their nesting sites on Staple Island in the outer Farne Islands.

Black-legged kittiwake gulls traditionally prefer nesting on natural cliffs and ledges, and there are historically few instances of kittiwakes nesting on man-made structures. In recent years, a shift in nesting behavior has been noted, particularly in the coastal areas of Northern Norway.^[18]

Nesting

Kittiwake pairs both participate in building the nest in which the female will lay their eggs. The breeding season begins in mid-June and usually end in August.^[19]

Building the nest in order to welcome their fragile eggs is a tedious task and requires time and energy. The parents begin with a layer of mud and grass in order to form a platform that will cushion and help to isolate the eggs from the cold ground.^[16] A cup is then built around the platform in order to keep the eggs from rolling out of the nest.^[16] Finally, the nest is lined with soft and dry material such as moss, grass or seaweed.^[16] The nest is solidified by a continuous trampling of the materials by the pair.^[19] Throughout this period, the male will do courtship feeding by feeding the female at their nest site.^[20] The reasons for such behavior are not quite understood but many hypotheses have been brought up to explain the phenomenon. Hypothesis such as the "nutrition hypothesis" and the "copulation enhancement hypothesis" have shown evidence that this behavior evolved either through natural or sexual selection.^[20]^[21]

Eggs and incubation

Kittiwakes are single-brooded, meaning that the pair will only reproduce once per year. Egg formation within the female usually takes around 15 days and normal egg clutch size ranges from one to two sub-elliptical eggs, though three eggs clutches are not impossible.^[19] The female will lay eggs on alternate days.^[19] The eggs' color varies quite a bit, ranging from white, brownish to turquoise with dark brown speckles.^[16] Once the eggs are laid, the parents will take turns and incubate their clutch for an average period of 27 days.^[22] In case of egg loss, the female might relay another egg within 15 days after the loss.^[16]

Chick-rearing

Chicks usually hatched through the larger end of the egg using their egg tooth.^[16]^[23] The egg tooth usually disappear after seven days post-hatching.^[23] The alpha and beta chicks tend to hatch 1.3 days apart.^[16] Kittiwake are born semi-precocial. The downy young of kittiwakes are white, since they have no need of camouflage from predators, and do not wander from the nest like Larus gulls for obvious safety reasons. Regardless of predation, the chicks are most vulnerable within their first week due to their incapacity to properly thermoregulate during that period.^[16]^[23] Kittiwake chicks also exhibit siblicide, meaning that the first-born chick may kill its sibling in order to avoid competition for food from their parents.^[23] If siblicide is to occur, it will most likely occur within the first 10 days of life of the smaller chick, in most cases the last born.

The downy plumage of chicks start to be replaced by the juvenile plumage only five days after hatching and will continue to do so for about 30 days, until the juvenile plumage is complete. It is not long after the completion of their juvenile plumage that the chicks will have their first flight at 34–58 days old.^[24] Chicks will come back to the nest for several weeks after hatching and will eventually follow the adults at sea where they spend the winter.^[24] Kittiwakes reach sexual maturity at around 4–5 years old.^[23]

Food and feeding

Kittiwakes are primarily pelagic piscivorous birds. Their main food source consists of fish, though it is not unlikely to find invertebrates such as copepods, polychete and squids in their diet, especially when fish is harder to find.^[24] Due to their wide range, kittiwake diet is quite variable. In the Gulf of Alaska, their diet is usually composed of Pacific capelin, Pacific herring, Pacific sand land and much more. Kittiwakes of the coast of the United Kingdom, in Europe, rely mostly on sandeels.^[25] In 2004, the kittiwake population in the Shetland islands, along with the murre (guillemot) and tern ^[16] population, completely failed to reproduce successfully due to a collapse in sandeel stock.^[26] Like most gulls, kittiwake forage at the surface of the water where they tend to catch their prey while in flight or sitting on the water. Throughout winter, kittiwakes spend all of their time at sea where they forage. Unlike some gull species, they do not scavenge at landfills.^[16]^[24]

The foraging style of the kittiwakes is often compared to the terns' foraging strategy due to their frequent hovering and their head diving quickly at the surface of the water.^[9] Instances of kittiwakes following whales are also common since they benefit from the fish fragments expelled by these huge marine mammals.^[9] Fishers and commercial fishing boats are also the frequent witnesses of big groups of kittiwakes, often mixed with other gull species and terns, hovering around their ship in order to benefit from the scraps rejected in their sewage water or thrown overboard.^[8]

There are few studies focussing on their water needs, though they seem to prefer salt water to fresh water.^[9]^[12] Captive kittiwakes are known to refuse fresh water but will willingly drink salt water.^[12]

Relationship with humans

Kittiwakes are a frequent encounter of fisheries in northern regions. Their diet consisting almost exclusively of fish, fishermen tend to seek large aggregation of seabirds since they are often a sign of fish abundance.^[12] On the other hand, kittiwake and other seabirds hang around fishing boats or platforms to collect scraps or any fish that might have been left out.^[8] Due to the kittiwake pelagic lifestyle, they rarely interact with humans on the land, other than occasional sight near the ocean's coast.

In New England, the black-legged kittiwake is often called the "winter gull" since its arrival often signals to people that winter is coming.^[12]

The city of Tromsø, along with other cities in the far north of Norway, has experienced a remarkable increase in the number of kittiwakes choosing to utilize city structures as nesting sites. This rise in urban nesting populations has seen the number of pairs skyrocket from a mere 13 to over 380 between 2017 and 2022. Researchers^[who?] attribute^[where?] this climate change related breeding failures, along with the absence of natural predators in the city, providing a safer environment for the gulls to breed and raise their young.^{[citation needed]} The increasing nesting population has created challenges, as the gulls produce vast amounts of ammonia-smelling feces, discoloring buildings and streets, as well as the noise pollution generated by their constant vocalizations.^{[according to whom?]}

To address these challenges, innovative measures have been implemented in Tromsø. One such initiative involves the establishment of "Kittiwake hotels," which are artificial bird cliff-structures built to encourage nesting away from urban facades.^[18] The hotels have, along with mitigation measures preventing nesting on the city's structures, had success in attracting kittiwakes without having a negative impact on breeding.

Conservation

Population trends

Since the 1970s, it has been believed that the global population of black-legged kittiwake has declined of about 40% in only three generations (one generation is in average 12.9 years), putting the species in a dangerous place for the future.^[1] The global population is estimated at 14,600,000-15,700,000 individuals and is in constant decline. The individual distribution of kittiwakes across the world varies quite a bit, with Europe representing more than 50% of the world's kittiwake and North America representing only 20%. In their recent species assessment, the IUCN Red List pointed out that all but one populations of kittiwakes were in decline, with the exception of the small Canadian arctic population that seems to be increasing at a rate of 1% per year.^[1] The last IUCN Red List report in 2017, the species was moved from "least concern" to a "vulnerable" status on a global scale.^[1]

Threats

Fisheries

Since the kittiwakes are fish specialist and tend to rely on prey species, their reproductive success highly depends on fish availability. Commercial fisheries have been known to have many direct and indirect impacts on their surrounding ecosystem. Direct impacts on the fish species themselves are well known, but the presence of fisheries also has an array of impacts on marine predators that not only rely on the species harvested but also on the "bycatch" species.^[27] Fisheries harvesting species such as the sandeel, one of the main food source for kittiwakes in Europe, are known to have a huge impact of the reproductive success of local populations kittiwakes and other seabirds.^[27] Long-term research on the effect of food availability on kittiwakes in the Gulf of Alaska showed a direct correlation between food availability and reproductive success, using a supplemental-feeding experiment.^[28] Seabirds can also be a direct victim of fisheries. Their tendency to hang around them in hope of a good meal can lead to entanglements in fishing gear, often resulting in death by drowning.^[29]

Global warming

With global warming, the rising of ocean temperature is becoming a serious concern, affecting not only the marine flora and fauna but also the species exploiting the marine environment. Kittiwake are extremely sensitive to variation in food stocks.^[30] Such variations can be due to over exploitation, as mentioned above, but can also be due to variations in sea surface temperature. With the rising the sea surface temperature, many fishes, such as sandeels, are negatively affected by a rise in ocean temperature.^[31] Studies show that sandeels and many copepods populations are being negatively impacted due to increasing sea surface temperature.^[30] Such effect on marine species can have tremendous impact on breeding kittiwakes which rely almost exclusively on pelagic fishes, making food more scarce in a time of high energetic needs.^[31]

Conservation plan

There are still no global conservation plans for the black-legged kittiwake though the species is closely monitored for population trends shifts. There are currently no international legislations regarding this species. However, the black-legged kittiwake is protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 that has been ratified by the US, Canada, Mexico, Russia and Japan.^[32] As for many gull species, the kittiwake is not a species of special interest for the public, therefore there are no education plans put in place in order to inform and educate people regarding this species.

Gallery

In flight, Heligoland, Germany
In Seward, Alaska
Colony at Svalbard
Chased by a parasitic jaeger at Svalbard
At the Norwegian bird-island Runde
At Runde
Youth (Iceland)
ID composite
Capture of individuals for tagging

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d BirdLife International (2019) [amended version of 2018 assessment]. "Rissa tridactyla". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T22694497A155617539. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22694497A155617539.en. Retrieved 18 November 2021.
^ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. p. 136.
^ Peters, James Lee, ed. (1934). Check-List of Birds of the World. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 325.
^ ^a ^b Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (December 2023). "Noddies, gulls, terns, skimmers, skuas, auks". IOC World Bird List Version 14.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 19 July 2024.
^ Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 336, 390. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
^ "Kittiwake". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
^ ^a ^b ^c del Hoyo, J; Elliott, A; Sargatal, J (1996). Handbook of the Birds of the World Vol. 3. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. pp. 622–623. ISBN 84-87334-20-2.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e BirdLife International (2019) Species factsheet: Rissa tridactyla. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 08/10/2019.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Pearson, T. Gilbert (1936). Birds of America. New York: Garden City Publishing. pp. 39–40.
^ "Black-legged kittiwake". All About Birds. Cornell Lab of Ornithology.
^ ^a ^b Leclaire, Sarah; White, Joël; Arnoux, Emilie; Faivre, Bruno; Vetter, Nathanaël; Hatch, Scott A.; Danchin, Étienne (2011-9). "Integument coloration signals reproductive success, heterozygosity, and antioxidant levels in chick-rearing black-legged kittiwakes". Naturwissenschaften. 98 (9): 773–782. doi:10.1007/s00114-011-0827-7 ISSN 0028-1042
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Bent, A. C. (1963). Life histories of North American Gulls and Terns. London: Dover Publication Inc. pp. 36–48.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Pennington, M.G.; Bainbridge, I.P.; Fearon, P. (1994-04). "Biometrics and primary moult of non-breeding Kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla in Liverpool Bay, England". Ringing & Migration. 15 (1): 33–39. doi:10.1080/03078698.1994.9674069 ISSN 0307-8698
^ Godfrey, W. Earl (1966). The Birds of Canada. Ottawa: National Museum of Canada. p. 186.
^ Sibley, David Allen (2000). The Sibley Guide to Birds. New York: Knopf. p. 229. ISBN 978-0-679-45122-8.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Hatch, S. A., G. J. Robertson, and P. H. Baird (2009). Black-legged Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla), version 2.0. In The Birds of North America (A. F. Poole, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. doi:10.2173/bna.92
^ ^a ^b ^c Bent, A. C. (1963). Life Histories of North American Gulls and Terns. London: Dover Publications Inc. pp. 49–51.
^ ^a ^b Benjaminsen, Sigurd; Reiertsen, Tone Kristin; Jacobsen, Karl-Otto (2022). "Urban kittiwakes in Tromsø. Effects of facilitation and mitigation". NINA Report 2235. Norwegian Institute for Nature Research. hdl:11250/3044642. ISBN 9788242650313.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Baichich, Paul J.; Harrison, Colin J. O. (2005). Nests, Eggs, and Nestlings of North American Birds. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 159. ISBN 0-691-12295-4.
^ ^a ^b Neuman, J.; Chardine, J. W.; Porter, J. M. (1998). "Courtship Feeding and Reproductive Success in Black-Legged Kittiwakes". Colonial Waterbirds. 21 (1): 73. doi:10.2307/1521734
^ Helfenstein, Fabrice; Wagner, Richard H.; Danchin, Etienne; Rossi, Jean-Marc (2003-05-01). "Functions of courtship feeding in black-legged kittiwakes: natural and sexual selection". Animal Behaviour. 65 (5): 1027–1033.
^ Hatch, Scott A.; Hatch, Martha A. (1990-08-01). "Breeding seasons of oceanic birds in a subarctic colony". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 68 (8): 1664–1679. doi:10.1139/z90-247 ISSN 0008-4301
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Threlfall, William (1972-10). "The breeding biology of the Black-Legged Kittiwake in Newfoundland". The Auk. 89 (4): 789–816. doi:10.2307/4084109
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Kaufman, Kenn (2017). "Black-legged Kittiwake". Audubon Field Guide. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
^ Heubeck, Martin (17 April 2019). "Black-legged Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla)". Joint Nature Conservation Committee. Retrieved October 8, 2019.
^ Well's, Jeffrey V. (2007). Birder's Conservation Handbook. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 19.
^ ^a ^b Frederiksen, Morten; Wanless, Sarah; Harris, Michael P.; Rothery, Peter; Wilson, Linda J. (2004). "The role of industrial fisheries and oceanographic change in the decline of North Sea black-legged kittiwakes". Journal of Applied Ecology. 41 (6): 1129–1139. doi:10.1111/j.0021-8901.2004.00966.x ISSN 1365-2664
^ Gill, Verena A.; Hatch, Scott A. (2002). "Components of productivity in black-legged kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla: response to supplemental feeding". Journal of Avian Biology. 33 (2): 113–126. doi:10.1034/j.1600-048X.2002.330201.x. ISSN 1600-048X. S2CID 54602867.
^ U.S. Department of Commerce. "Seabirds". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved October 9, 2019.
^ ^a ^b Frederiksen, M; Edwards, M; Mavor, Ra; Wanless, S (2007-11-22). "Regional and annual variation in black-legged kittiwake breeding productivity is related to sea surface temperature". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 350: 137–143. doi:10.3354/meps07126 ISSN 0171-8630
^ ^a ^b Sandvik, H; Reiertsen, Tk; Erikstad, Ke; Anker-Nilssen, T; Barrett, Rt; Lorentsen, Sh; Systad, Gh; Myksvoll, Ms (2014-06-17). "The decline of Norwegian kittiwake populations: modelling the role of ocean warming". Climate Research. 60 (2): 91–102. doi:10.3354/cr01227 ISSN 0936-577X
^ "Migratory Bird Treaty Act". U.S Fish and Wildlife Service.

External links

Media related to Rissa tridactyla at Wikimedia Commons
BirdLife species factsheet for Rissa tridactyla
"Rissa tridactyla". Avibase.
"Black-legged kittiwake media". Internet Bird Collection.
Black-legged kittiwake photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University)
Interactive range map of Rissa tridactyla at IUCN Red List maps
Black-legged kittiwake - Rissa tridactyla - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
Audio recordings of Black-legged kittiwake on Xeno-canto.
Rissa tridactyla in Field Guide: Birds of the World on Flickr
Black-legged kittiwake media from ARKive

[iucn_status_18_November_2021-1] BirdLife International (2019) [amended version of 2018 assessment]. "Rissa tridactyla". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T22694497A155617539. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22694497A155617539.en. Retrieved 18 November 2021.

[2] Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. p. 136.

[3] Peters, James Lee, ed. (1934). Check-List of Birds of the World. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 325.

[ioc-4] Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (December 2023). "Noddies, gulls, terns, skimmers, skuas, auks". IOC World Bird List Version 14.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 19 July 2024.

[5] Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 336, 390. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.

[OED-6] "Kittiwake". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)

[:0-7] Hoyo, J; Elliott, A; Sargatal, J (1996). Handbook of the Birds of the World Vol. 3. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. pp. 622–623. ISBN 84-87334-20-2.

[:1-8] BirdLife International (2019) Species factsheet: Rissa tridactyla. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 08/10/2019.

[:5-9] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Pearson, T. Gilbert (1936). Birds of America. New York: Garden City Publishing. pp. 39–40.

[AAB-10] "Black-legged kittiwake". All About Birds. Cornell Lab of Ornithology.

[:3-11] Leclaire, Sarah; White, Joël; Arnoux, Emilie; Faivre, Bruno; Vetter, Nathanaël; Hatch, Scott A.; Danchin, Étienne (2011-9). "Integument coloration signals reproductive success, heterozygosity, and antioxidant levels in chick-rearing black-legged kittiwakes". Naturwissenschaften. 98 (9): 773–782. doi:10.1007/s00114-011-0827-7 ISSN 0028-1042

[:4-12] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Bent, A. C. (1963). Life histories of North American Gulls and Terns. London: Dover Publication Inc. pp. 36–48.

[:6-13] Pennington, M.G.; Bainbridge, I.P.; Fearon, P. (1994-04). "Biometrics and primary moult of non-breeding Kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla in Liverpool Bay, England". Ringing & Migration. 15 (1): 33–39. doi:10.1080/03078698.1994.9674069 ISSN 0307-8698

[BOC-14] Godfrey, W. Earl (1966). The Birds of Canada. Ottawa: National Museum of Canada. p. 186.

[Sibley-15] Sibley, David Allen (2000). The Sibley Guide to Birds. New York: Knopf. p. 229. ISBN 978-0-679-45122-8.

[:9-16] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Hatch, S. A., G. J. Robertson, and P. H. Baird (2009). Black-legged Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla), version 2.0. In The Birds of North America (A. F. Poole, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. doi:10.2173/bna.92

[:7-17] Bent, A. C. (1963). Life Histories of North American Gulls and Terns. London: Dover Publications Inc. pp. 49–51.

[hdl.handle.net-18] Benjaminsen, Sigurd; Reiertsen, Tone Kristin; Jacobsen, Karl-Otto (2022). "Urban kittiwakes in Tromsø. Effects of facilitation and mitigation". NINA Report 2235. Norwegian Institute for Nature Research. hdl:11250/3044642. ISBN 9788242650313.

[:8-19] Baichich, Paul J.; Harrison, Colin J. O. (2005). Nests, Eggs, and Nestlings of North American Birds. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 159. ISBN 0-691-12295-4.

[:10-20] Neuman, J.; Chardine, J. W.; Porter, J. M. (1998). "Courtship Feeding and Reproductive Success in Black-Legged Kittiwakes". Colonial Waterbirds. 21 (1): 73. doi:10.2307/1521734

[21] Helfenstein, Fabrice; Wagner, Richard H.; Danchin, Etienne; Rossi, Jean-Marc (2003-05-01). "Functions of courtship feeding in black-legged kittiwakes: natural and sexual selection". Animal Behaviour. 65 (5): 1027–1033.

[22] Hatch, Scott A.; Hatch, Martha A. (1990-08-01). "Breeding seasons of oceanic birds in a subarctic colony". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 68 (8): 1664–1679. doi:10.1139/z90-247 ISSN 0008-4301

[:11-23] Threlfall, William (1972-10). "The breeding biology of the Black-Legged Kittiwake in Newfoundland". The Auk. 89 (4): 789–816. doi:10.2307/4084109

[:12-24] Kaufman, Kenn (2017). "Black-legged Kittiwake". Audubon Field Guide. Retrieved 7 October 2019.

[25] Heubeck, Martin (17 April 2019). "Black-legged Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla)". Joint Nature Conservation Committee. Retrieved October 8, 2019.

[26] Well's, Jeffrey V. (2007). Birder's Conservation Handbook. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 19.

[:14-27] Frederiksen, Morten; Wanless, Sarah; Harris, Michael P.; Rothery, Peter; Wilson, Linda J. (2004). "The role of industrial fisheries and oceanographic change in the decline of North Sea black-legged kittiwakes". Journal of Applied Ecology. 41 (6): 1129–1139. doi:10.1111/j.0021-8901.2004.00966.x ISSN 1365-2664

[28] Gill, Verena A.; Hatch, Scott A. (2002). "Components of productivity in black-legged kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla: response to supplemental feeding". Journal of Avian Biology. 33 (2): 113–126. doi:10.1034/j.1600-048X.2002.330201.x. ISSN 1600-048X. S2CID 54602867.

[29] U.S. Department of Commerce. "Seabirds". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved October 9, 2019.

[:15-30] Frederiksen, M; Edwards, M; Mavor, Ra; Wanless, S (2007-11-22). "Regional and annual variation in black-legged kittiwake breeding productivity is related to sea surface temperature". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 350: 137–143. doi:10.3354/meps07126 ISSN 0171-8630

[:16-31] Sandvik, H; Reiertsen, Tk; Erikstad, Ke; Anker-Nilssen, T; Barrett, Rt; Lorentsen, Sh; Systad, Gh; Myksvoll, Ms (2014-06-17). "The decline of Norwegian kittiwake populations: modelling the role of ocean warming". Climate Research. 60 (2): 91–102. doi:10.3354/cr01227 ISSN 0936-577X

[32] "Migratory Bird Treaty Act". U.S Fish and Wildlife Service.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{short description|Species of bird}}
+{{Short description|Species of bird}}
 {{Speciesbox
-| name = Black-legged kittiwake
 | status = VU
 | status_system = IUCN3.1
-| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>BirdLife International. 2018. Rissa tridactyla. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T22694497A132556442. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22694497A132556442.en. Downloaded on 01 January 2019.</ref>
+| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 18 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2019 |title=''Rissa tridactyla'' |amends=2018 |page=e.T22694497A155617539 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22694497A155617539.en |access-date=18 November 2021}}</ref>
 | image = Rissa tridactyla (Vardø, 2012).jpg
+| image_caption = Adult black-legged kittiwake in Vardø, Norway
-| image_caption = [[File:Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) (W1CDR0001389 BD30).ogg|thumb|center|Calls, recorded on [[Skomer]]]]
+|image2=Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) (W1CDR0001389 BD30).ogg
+|image2_caption=Calls, recorded on [[Skomer]]
 | range_map =Rissa tridactyla area all.PNG
 | range_map_caption = Range of ''R. tridactyla'' {{leftlegend|#2BFF2B|Summer range|outline=gray}}{{leftlegend|#0000FF|Wintering range|outline=gray}}
@@ Line 17: / Line 18: @@
 }}
+The '''black-legged kittiwake''' ('''''Rissa tridactyla''''') is a [[seabird]] species in the [[gull]] family Laridae. This species was first described by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in his landmark 1758 [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'']] as ''Larus tridactylus''. The English name is derived from its call, a shrill 'kittee-wa-aaake, kitte-wa-aaake'. In North America, this species is known as the black-legged kittiwake to differentiate it from the [[red-legged kittiwake]], but in Europe, where it is the only member of the [[genus]], it is often known just as '''kittiwake'''.
-The '''black-legged kittiwake''' (''Rissa tridactyla'') is a [[seabird]] species in the [[gull]] family Laridae.
+==Taxonomy==
-This species was first described by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in his landmark 1758 [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'']] as ''Larus tridactylus''.<ref name=Linnaeus1758/> The English name is derived from its call, a shrill 'kittee-wa-aaake, kitte-wa-aaake'.<ref name=OED>{{Cite OED |Kittiwake }}</ref> The genus name ''Rissa'' is from the Icelandic name ''rita'' for this bird, and the specific ''tridactyla'' is from [[Ancient Greek]] ''tridaktulos'', "three-toed", from ''tri-'', "three-" and ''daktulos'', "toe".<ref name=job>{{cite book | last= Jobling | first= James A | year= 2010| title= The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | url= https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling | publisher= Christopher Helm | location = London | isbn = 978-1-4081-2501-4 | pages= [https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling/page/n336 336], 390}}</ref>
+The black-legged kittiwake was [[Species description|formally described]] in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist [[Carl Linnaeus]] in the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|tenth edition]] of his ''[[Systema Naturae]]''. He placed with the gulls in the genus ''[[Larus]]'' and coined the  [[binomial nomenclature|binomial name]] ''Larus tridactylus''.<ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=Carl | author-link=Carl Linnaeus | year=1758 | title= Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis | volume=1 | edition=10th | page=136 | publisher=Laurentii Salvii | location=Holmiae (Stockholm) | language=Latin | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/727041 }}</ref> Linnaeus specified the [[type location (biology)|type location]] as northern Europe but this has been restricted to Great Britain.<ref>{{ cite book | editor-last=Peters | editor-first=James Lee | editor-link=James L. Peters | year=1934 | title=Check-List of Birds of the World | volume=2 | publisher=Harvard University Press | location=Cambridge, Massachusetts  | page=325 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14483138 }}</ref> The black-legged kittiwake is now placed together with the [[red-legged kittiwake]] in the genus ''[[Rissa (bird)|Rissa]]'' that was introduced in 1826 by the English naturalist [[James Francis Stephens|James Stephens]].<ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela C. Rasmussen | date=December 2023 | title=Noddies, gulls, terns, skimmers, skuas, auks | work=IOC World Bird List Version 14.1 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/gulls/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=19 July 2024 }}</ref> The genus name is from the [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] word "rita" for a black-legged kittiwake. The specific ''tridactyla'' is from [[Ancient Greek]] ''tridaktulos'' meaning "three-toed".<ref>{{cite book | last=Jobling | first=James A. | year=2010| title=The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher=Christopher Helm | location=London | isbn=978-1-4081-2501-4 | pages=[https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n336/mode/1up 336], [https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n390/mode/1up 390]}}</ref>  The English name "kittiwake" is derived from its call, a shrill 'kittee-wa-aaake, kitte-wa-aaake'.<ref name=OED>{{Cite OED |Kittiwake }}</ref>
+Two [[subspecies]] are recognised. These are listed below together with their breeding ranges.<ref name=ioc/>
-In North America, this species is known as the black-legged kittiwake to differentiate it from the [[red-legged kittiwake]], but in Europe, where it is the only member of the genus, it is often known just as '''kittiwake'''.
+* ''R. t. tridactyla'' ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758) – high Arctic to temperate north coasts, from Greenland, Iceland, west, northwest Europe, [[Svalbard]] and northwest [[New Siberian Islands]]; Canadian high Arctic (northeast Canada), Gulf of St. Lawrence and Newfoundland (southeast Canada)
+* ''R. t. pollicaris'' [[Robert Ridgway|Ridgway]], 1884 – high Arctic to temperate north coasts, from northeast New Siberian Islands to [[Sakhalin]], [[Kamchatka Peninsula]], Kuril and [[Commander Islands]] (east Russia); [[Aleutian Islands]] and [[Bering Sea]] islands and west, southwest Alaska mainland
-== Range and distribution ==
+==Distribution and habitat==
-The black-legged kittiwake is a coastal bird of the arctic to subarctic regions of the world.<ref name=":0">del Hoyo, J; Elliott, A; Sargatal, J (1996). ''Handbook of the Birds of the World Vol. 3''. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. pp. 622–623. {{ISBN|84-87334-20-2}}.</ref> It can be found all across the northern coasts of the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], from Canada to Greenland as well as on the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] side from Alaska to the coast of Siberia.<ref name=":1">BirdLife International (2019) Species factsheet: ''Rissa tridactyla''. Downloaded from <nowiki>http://www.birdlife.org</nowiki> on 08/10/2019.</ref> Black-legged kittiwakes' wintering range extends further south from the St-Lawrence to the southern coast of New Jersey as well as in China, the Sargasso sea and of the coast of west Africa.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":5">Pearson, T. Gilbert (1936). ''Birds of America''. New York: Garden City Publishing. pp. 39–40.</ref> There are two subspecies of black-legged kittiwake. ''Rissa tridactyla tridactyla'' can be found on the Atlantic coast whereas ''Rissa tridactyla pollicaris'' is found on the Pacific coast.
+The black-legged kittiwake is a coastal bird of the arctic to subarctic regions of the world.<ref name=":0">del Hoyo, J; Elliott, A; Sargatal, J (1996). ''Handbook of the Birds of the World Vol. 3''. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. pp. 622–623. {{ISBN|84-87334-20-2}}.</ref> It can be found all across the northern coasts of the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], from Canada to Greenland as well as on the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] side from Alaska to the coast of Siberia.<ref name=":1">BirdLife International (2019) Species factsheet: ''Rissa tridactyla''. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org  on 08/10/2019.</ref> Black-legged kittiwakes' wintering range extends further south from the St-Lawrence to the southern coast of New Jersey as well as in China, the Sargasso sea and off the coast of west Africa.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":5">Pearson, T. Gilbert (1936). ''Birds of America''. New York: Garden City Publishing. pp. 39–40.</ref> There are two subspecies of black-legged kittiwake. ''Rissa tridactyla tridactyla'' can be found on the Atlantic coast whereas ''Rissa tridactyla pollicaris'' is found on the Pacific coast.
 Out of all the [[laridae]], the kittiwakes are the most [[Pelagic zone|pelagic]] ones. Kittiwakes are almost exclusively found at sea with the exception of the breeding period, from May to September, where they can be found nesting on the sheerest sea cliffs. They are rarely found inland, though they have been reported on few instances as far as 20&nbsp;km inland.<ref name=":1" /> For the rest of the year, kittiwake spend most of their time on the wing out of sight from the coast.
 ==Description==
 === Adult plumage ===
-The adult is {{convert|37|-|41|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length with a wingspan of {{convert|91|–|105|cm|in|abbr=on}} and a body mass of {{convert|305|-|525|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name="AAB" /> It has a white head and body, grey back, grey wings tipped solid black, black legs and a yellow bill. Occasional individuals have pinky-grey to reddish legs, inviting confusion with red-legged kittiwake. The inside of their mouth is also a characteristic feature of the species due to its rich red colour. Such red pigmentation is due to carotenoids pigments and vitamin A which have to be acquired through their diet.<ref name=":3">Leclaire, Sarah; White, Joël; Arnoux, Emilie; Faivre, Bruno; Vetter, Nathanaël; Hatch, Scott A.; Danchin, Étienne (2011-9). "Integument coloration signals reproductive success, heterozygosity, and antioxidant levels in chick-rearing black-legged kittiwakes". ''Naturwissenschaften''. '''98''' (9): 773–782. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:10.1007/s00114-011-0827-7. [[International Standard Serial Number|ISSN]] 0028-1042</ref> Studies show that integument coloration is associated with male's reproductive success.<ref name=":3" /> Such hypothesis would explain the behavior of couples greeting each other by opening their mouth and flashing their bright mouth it to their partner while vocalizing.<ref name=":4">Bent, A. C. (1963). ''Life histories of North American Gulls and Terns''. London: Dover Publication Inc. pp. 36–48.</ref> As their Latin name suggests, they only possess three toes since their hind toe is either extremely reduced or completely absent.<ref name=":5"/> The two subspecies being almost identical, ''R. tridactyla pollicaris'' is in general slightly larger than its counterpart ''R. tridactyle tridactyla''.
+The adult is {{convert|37|-|41|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length with a wingspan of {{convert|91|–|105|cm|in|abbr=on}} and a body mass of {{convert|305|-|525|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name="AAB" /> It has a white head and body, grey back, grey wings tipped solid black, black legs and a yellow bill. Occasional individuals have pinky-grey to reddish legs, inviting confusion with red-legged kittiwake. The inside of their mouth is also a characteristic feature of the species due to its rich red colour. Such red pigmentation is due to carotenoids pigments and vitamin A which have to be acquired through their diet.<ref name=":3">Leclaire, Sarah; White, Joël; Arnoux, Emilie; Faivre, Bruno; Vetter, Nathanaël; Hatch, Scott A.; Danchin, Étienne (2011-9). "Integument coloration signals reproductive success, heterozygosity, and antioxidant levels in chick-rearing black-legged kittiwakes". ''Naturwissenschaften''. '''98''' (9): 773–782. {{doi|10.1007/s00114-011-0827-7}} {{ISSN|0028-1042}}</ref> Studies show that integument coloration is associated with male's reproductive success.<ref name=":3" /> Such hypothesis would explain the behavior of couples greeting each other by opening their mouth and flashing their bright mouth it to their partner while vocalizing.<ref name=":4">Bent, A. C. (1963). ''Life histories of North American Gulls and Terns''. London: Dover Publication Inc. pp. 36–48.</ref> As their Latin name suggests, they only possess three toes since their hind toe is either extremely reduced or completely absent.<ref name=":5"/> The two subspecies being almost identical, ''R. tridactyla pollicaris'' is in general slightly larger than its counterpart ''R. tridactyle tridactyla''.
 In winter, this species acquires a dark grey smudge behind the eye and a grey hind-neck collar. The bill also turns a dusky-olive color.<ref name=":5" />
@@ Line 37: / Line 40: @@
 === Juvenile plumage ===
-At [[fledging]], the juveniles differ from the adults in having a black 'W' band across the length of the wings and whiter secondary and primary feathers behind the black 'W', a black hind-neck collar and a black terminal band on the tail.<ref name=":0" /> They can also be identified due to their solid black bill.<ref name=":0" /> This plumage is a hatch-year plumage and will only remain for their first year.<ref name=":6">Pennington, M.G.; Bainbridge, I.P.; Fearon, P. (1994-04). "Biometrics and primary moult of non‐breeding Kittiwakes ''Rissa tridactyla'' in Liverpool Bay, England". ''Ringing & Migration''. '''15''' (1): 33–39. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:10.1080/03078698.1994.9674069. [[International Standard Serial Number|ISSN]] 0307-8698.</ref> Kittiwakes obtain their mature plumage at 4 years old, but will gradually change their juvenile plumage over time until maturity is reached. A second-year juvenile resembles a hatch-year regarding the plumage, though the bill is no longer solid black but instead has a greenish color.<ref name=":6" /> The black marking on the [[Covert feather|coverts]] and the tail is still visible. The black marking will only molt during their third year, where the black is no longer present on the coverts, but the grey smudge on the head remains.<ref name=":6" /> A third-year bird will also exhibit a small zone of bright yellow/orange at the base of its mostly greenish bill. It is only at four years old that the bill will reach an overall colour of bright yellow and complete its mature plumage.<ref name=":6" />
+At [[fledging]], the juveniles differ from the adults in having a black 'W' band across the length of the wings and whiter secondary and primary feathers behind the black 'W', a black hind-neck collar and a black terminal band on the tail.<ref name=":0" /> They can also be identified due to their solid black bill.<ref name=":0" /> This plumage is a hatch-year plumage and will only remain for their first year.<ref name=":6">Pennington, M.G.; Bainbridge, I.P.; Fearon, P. (1994-04). "Biometrics and primary moult of non-breeding Kittiwakes ''Rissa tridactyla'' in Liverpool Bay, England". ''Ringing & Migration''. '''15''' (1): 33–39. {{doi|10.1080/03078698.1994.9674069}} {{ISSN|0307-8698}}</ref> Kittiwakes obtain their mature plumage at 4 years old, but will gradually change their juvenile plumage over time until maturity is reached. A second-year juvenile resembles a hatch-year regarding the plumage, though the bill is no longer solid black but instead has a greenish color.<ref name=":6" /> The black marking on the [[Covert feather|coverts]] and the tail is still visible. The black marking will only molt during their third year, where the black is no longer present on the coverts, but the grey smudge on the head remains.<ref name=":6" /> A third-year bird will also exhibit a small zone of bright yellow/orange at the base of its mostly greenish bill. It is only at four years old that the bill will reach an overall colour of bright yellow and complete its mature plumage.<ref name=":6" />
 The old fisherman's name of "tarrock" for juvenile kittiwakes is still occasionally used.
@@ Line 44: / Line 47: @@
 ! colspan="2" | Standard measurements<ref name=BOC /><ref name=Sibley />
 |-
-| style="padding-right: 1em;padding-left:0.35em;" | [[Bird measurement#Length|length]] || style="padding-right: 0.5em;padding-left:0.5em;" | {{convert|16|-|18|in|mm|abbr=on|order=flip}}
+| style="padding-right: 1em;padding-left:0.35em;" | [[Bird measurement#Total Body Length|length]] || style="padding-right: 0.5em;padding-left:0.5em;" | {{convert|16|-|18|in|mm|abbr=on|order=flip}}
 |-
 | style="padding-right: 1em;padding-left:0.35em;" | [[Bird measurement#Weight|weight]] || style="padding-right: 0.5em;padding-left:0.5em;" | {{convert|400|g|oz|abbr=on}}
@@ Line 58: / Line 61: @@
 | style="padding-right: 1em;padding-left:0.35em;" | [[Bird measurement#Tarsus|tarsus]] || style="padding-right: 0.5em;padding-left:0.5em;" | {{convert|32|-|36|mm|in|abbr=on}}
 |}
+=== Vocalization ===
+[[File:Kittiwake_Rissa_tridactyla_Tromsø_2023.ogg|right|Sound of kittiwake]]
+The kittiwake is named after its call that resembles a long "kit-ti-wake".<ref name=":5"/> Apart from their typical call, kittiwakes have a wide array of vocalization. Their greeting call is used by the two members of a pair when meeting at the nest after an absence of one or both members. Before and during copulation, the female will often vocalize by making a series of short high pitched "squeak".<ref name=":9" /> This call is also used by the female to beg for food from the male (courtship feeding). When predators are around, the kittiwake alarm call, an "oh oh oh oh" will be heard all across the colony.<ref name=":9" /> Kittiwake will vocalize all day for various reasons and will only stop when the sun is down.[[File:Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) in flight.jpg|thumb|280px|Black-legged kittiwake in flight]]
 === Similar species ===
-The [[red-legged kittiwake]] is the only other species in the Rissa genus and can be differentiated from its counterpart by its red legs, as the name suggests.<ref name=":7">Bent, A. C. (1963). ''Life Histories of North American Gulls and Terns''. London: Dover Publications Inc. pp. 49–51.</ref> The head of the red-legged kittiwake is slightly smaller and bears a shorter bill.<ref name=":7" /> The chicks of the Pacific black-legged kittiwake and red-legged kittiwake cannot be distinguished during their youngest downy phase.<ref name=":7" />
+The [[red-legged kittiwake]] is the only other species in the genus ''Rissa'' and can be differentiated from its counterpart by its red legs, as the name suggests.<ref name=":7">Bent, A. C. (1963). ''Life Histories of North American Gulls and Terns''. London: Dover Publications Inc. pp. 49–51.</ref> The head of the red-legged kittiwake is slightly smaller and bears a shorter bill.<ref name=":7" /> The chicks of the Pacific black-legged kittiwake and red-legged kittiwake cannot be distinguished during their youngest downy phase.<ref name=":7" />
 The juvenile black-legged kittiwake can be confused with the [[Bonaparte's gull]] juveniles although the kittiwakes' plumage has more black on the [[Primary feather|primaries]] and a different pattern going across the coverts.<ref name=":4" />
+==Behaviour and ecology==
-==Breeding==
+=== Flight ===
-[[File:Dreizehenmöwe im Flug.jpg|left|thumb|Adult in breeding plumage]]
+Kittiwake are known for their graceful flight. Unlike larger gulls, their flight is light with the wings beating in fast strokes.<ref name=":4" /> When looking at them flying around the colony, kittiwakes often look as if they are playing in the wind with their agile flips and loops. Kittiwakes are highly gregarious and therefore are rarely seen flying alone far away from the colony.<ref name=":4" />
-[[File:Rissa tridactyla MWNH 0344.JPG|left|thumb|Eggs, Collection [[Museum Wiesbaden]]]]
-[[File:Black-legged Kittiwake and Chick.jpg|right|thumb|On nest with chick]]
+===Breeding===
-[[File:Dreizehenmöwe.jpg|right|thumb|Adult and chicks]]
+[[File:Dreizehenmöwe im Flug.jpg|thumb|Adult in breeding plumage]]
-It is a coastal breeding bird around the north Pacific and north Atlantic oceans, found most commonly in [[North America]] and [[Europe]]. Kittiwakes are colonial nesters that form monogamous pairs and exhibit biparental care, meaning that both take part in nest building, incubation and chick rearing. They tend to nest in large numbers on cliffs by the sea side. It breeds in large colonies on cliffs and is very noisy on the breeding ground. Cliff nesting for gulls occurs only in the ''Rissa'' species, and the kittiwake is capable of utilizing the very sheerest of vertical cliffs, as is evident in their nesting sites on [[Staple Island]] in the outer [[Farne Islands]]. There are few instances of kittiwakes nesting on man-made structure in Europe and Alaska. Kittiwake pairs both participate in building the nest in which the female will lay their eggs. The breeding season begins in mid-June and usually end in august.<ref name=":8">Baichich, Paul J.; Harrison, Colin J. O. (2005). ''Nests, Eggs, and Nestlings of North American Birds''. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 159. {{ISBN|0-691-12295-4}}.</ref>
+It is a coastal breeding bird around the north Pacific and north Atlantic oceans, found most commonly in [[North America]] and [[Europe]]. Kittiwakes are colonial nesters that form monogamous pairs and exhibit biparental care, meaning that both take part in nest building, incubation and chick rearing. They tend to nest in large numbers on cliffs by the sea side. It breeds in large colonies on cliffs and is very noisy on the breeding ground. Cliff nesting for gulls occurs only in the ''Rissa'' species, and the kittiwake is capable of utilizing the very sheerest of vertical cliffs, as is evident in their nesting sites on [[Staple Island]] in the outer [[Farne Islands]].
+Black-legged kittiwake gulls traditionally prefer nesting on natural cliffs and ledges, and there are historically few instances of kittiwakes nesting on man-made structures. In recent years, a shift in nesting behavior has been noted, particularly in the coastal areas of Northern [[Norway]].<ref name="hdl.handle.net">{{cite journal |last1=Benjaminsen |first1=Sigurd |last2=Reiertsen |first2=Tone Kristin |last3=Jacobsen |first3=Karl-Otto |title=Urban kittiwakes in Tromsø. Effects of facilitation and mitigation. |journal=NINA Report 2235. Norwegian Institute for Nature Research. |date=2022 |hdl=11250/3044642 |isbn=9788242650313 |url=https://hdl.handle.net/11250/3044642}}</ref>
-=== Nest formation ===
-Building the nest in order to welcome their fragile eggs is a tedious task and requires time and energy. The parents begin with a layer of mud and grass in order to form a platform that will cushion and help to isolate the eggs from the cold ground.<ref name=":9">Hatch, S. A., G. J. Robertson, and P. H. Baird (2009). Black-legged Kittiwake (''Rissa tridactyla''), version 2.0. In The Birds of North America (A. F. Poole, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2173/bna.92</nowiki></ref> A cup is then built around the platform in order to keep the eggs from rolling out of the nest.<ref name=":9" /> Finally, the nest is lined with soft and dry material such as moss, grass or seaweed.<ref name=":9" /> The nest is solidified by a continuous trampling of the materials by the pair.<ref name=":8" /> Throughout this period, the male will do courtship feeding by feeding the female at their nest site.<ref name=":10">Neuman, J.; Chardine, J. W.; Porter, J. M. (1998). "Courtship Feeding and Reproductive Success in Black-Legged Kittiwakes". ''Colonial Waterbirds''. '''21''' (1): 73. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:10.2307/1521734</ref> The reasons for such behavior are not quite understood but many hypothesis have been brought up to explain the phenomenon. Hypothesis such as the "nutrition hypothesis" and the "copulation enhancement hypothesis" have shown evidence that this behavior evolved either through natural or sexual selection.<ref name=":10" /><ref>Helfenstein, Fabrice; Wagner, Richard H.; Danchin, Etienne; Rossi, Jean-Marc (2003-05-01). "Functions of courtship feeding in black-legged kittiwakes: natural and sexual selection". ''Animal Behaviour''. '''65''' (5): 1027–1033.</ref>
-=== Egg formation and incubation ===
+==== Nesting ====
+Kittiwake pairs both participate in building the nest in which the female will lay their eggs. The breeding season begins in mid-June and usually end in August.<ref name=":8">Baichich, Paul J.; Harrison, Colin J. O. (2005). ''Nests, Eggs, and Nestlings of North American Birds''. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 159. {{ISBN|0-691-12295-4}}.</ref>[[File:Black-legged Kittiwake and Chick.jpg|right|thumb|On nest with chick]]Building the nest in order to welcome their fragile eggs is a tedious task and requires time and energy. The parents begin with a layer of mud and grass in order to form a platform that will cushion and help to isolate the eggs from the cold ground.<ref name=":9">Hatch, S. A., G. J. Robertson, and P. H. Baird (2009). Black-legged Kittiwake (''Rissa tridactyla''), version 2.0. In The Birds of North America (A. F. Poole, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. {{doi|10.2173/bna.92}}</ref> A cup is then built around the platform in order to keep the eggs from rolling out of the nest.<ref name=":9" /> Finally, the nest is lined with soft and dry material such as moss, grass or seaweed.<ref name=":9" /> The nest is solidified by a continuous trampling of the materials by the pair.<ref name=":8" /> Throughout this period, the male will do courtship feeding by feeding the female at their nest site.<ref name=":10">Neuman, J.; Chardine, J. W.; Porter, J. M. (1998). "Courtship Feeding and Reproductive Success in Black-Legged Kittiwakes". ''Colonial Waterbirds''. '''21''' (1): 73. {{doi|10.2307/1521734}}</ref> The reasons for such behavior are not quite understood but many hypotheses have been brought up to explain the phenomenon. Hypothesis such as the "nutrition hypothesis" and the "copulation enhancement hypothesis" have shown evidence that this behavior evolved either through natural or sexual selection.<ref name=":10" /><ref>Helfenstein, Fabrice; Wagner, Richard H.; Danchin, Etienne; Rossi, Jean-Marc (2003-05-01). "Functions of courtship feeding in black-legged kittiwakes: natural and sexual selection". ''Animal Behaviour''. '''65''' (5): 1027–1033.</ref>
-Kittiwakes are single-brooded, meaning that the pair will only reproduce once per year. Egg formation within the female usually takes around 15 days and normal egg clutch size ranges from one to two sub-elliptical eggs, though three eggs clutches are not impossible.<ref name=":8" /> The female will lay eggs on alternate days.<ref name=":8" /> The eggs' color varies quite a bit, ranging from white, brownish to turquoise with dark brown speckles.<ref name=":9" /> Once the eggs are laid, the parents will take turns and incubate their clutch for an average period of 27 days.<ref>Hatch, Scott A.; Hatch, Martha A. (1990-08-01). "Breeding seasons of oceanic birds in a subarctic colony". ''Canadian Journal of Zoology''. '''68''' (8): 1664–1679. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:10.1139/z90-247. [[International Standard Serial Number|ISSN]] 0008-4301.</ref> In case of egg loss, the female might relay another egg within 15 days after the loss.<ref name=":9" />
-=== Chick-rearing ===
+==== Eggs and incubation ====
+[[File:Rissa tridactyla MWNH 0344.JPG|thumb|Eggs, Collection [[Museum Wiesbaden]]]]
-Chicks usually hatched through the larger end  of the egg using their [[egg tooth]].<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":11">Threlfall, William (1972-10). "The Breeding Biology of the Black-Legged Kittiwake in Newfoundland". ''The Auk''. '''89''' (4): 789–816. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:10.2307/4084109.</ref> The egg tooth usually disappear after seven days post-hatching.<ref name=":11" /> The alpha and beta chicks tend to hatch 1.3 days apart.<ref name=":9" /> Kittiwake are born [[Precociality|semi-precocia]]<nowiki/>l. The downy young of kittiwakes are white, since they have no need of camouflage from predators, and do not wander from the nest like ''[[Larus]]'' gulls for obvious safety reasons. Regardless of predation, the chicks are most vulnerable within their first week due to their incapacity to properly thermoregulate during that period.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":11" /> Kittiwake chicks also exhibit siblicide, meaning that the first-born chick may kill its sibling in order to avoid competition for food from their parents.<ref name=":11" /> If siblicide is to occur, it will most likely occur within the first 10 days of life of the smaller chick, in most cases the last born.
+Kittiwakes are single-brooded, meaning that the pair will only reproduce once per year. Egg formation within the female usually takes around 15 days and normal egg clutch size ranges from one to two sub-elliptical eggs, though three eggs clutches are not impossible.<ref name=":8" /> The female will lay eggs on alternate days.<ref name=":8" /> The eggs' color varies quite a bit, ranging from white, brownish to turquoise with dark brown speckles.<ref name=":9" /> Once the eggs are laid, the parents will take turns and incubate their clutch for an average period of 27 days.<ref>Hatch, Scott A.; Hatch, Martha A. (1990-08-01). "Breeding seasons of oceanic birds in a subarctic colony". ''Canadian Journal of Zoology''. '''68''' (8): 1664–1679. {{doi|10.1139/z90-247}} {{ISSN|0008-4301}}</ref> In case of egg loss, the female might relay another egg within 15 days after the loss.<ref name=":9" />
+==== Chick-rearing ====
+[[File:Dreizehenmöwe.jpg|right|thumb|Adult and chicks]]
+Chicks usually hatched through the larger end  of the egg using their [[egg tooth]].<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":11">Threlfall, William (1972-10). "The breeding biology of the Black-Legged Kittiwake in Newfoundland". ''The Auk''. '''89''' (4): 789–816. {{doi|10.2307/4084109}}</ref> The egg tooth usually disappear after seven days post-hatching.<ref name=":11" /> The alpha and beta chicks tend to hatch 1.3 days apart.<ref name=":9" /> Kittiwake are born [[Precociality|semi-precocial]]. The downy young of kittiwakes are white, since they have no need of camouflage from predators, and do not wander from the nest like ''[[Larus]]'' gulls for obvious safety reasons. Regardless of predation, the chicks are most vulnerable within their first week due to their incapacity to properly thermoregulate during that period.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":11" /> Kittiwake chicks also exhibit siblicide, meaning that the first-born chick may kill its sibling in order to avoid competition for food from their parents.<ref name=":11" /> If siblicide is to occur, it will most likely occur within the first 10 days of life of the smaller chick, in most cases the last born.
 The downy plumage of chicks start to be replaced by the juvenile plumage only five days after hatching and will continue to do so for about 30 days, until the juvenile plumage is complete. It is not long after the completion of their juvenile plumage that the chicks will have their first flight at 34–58 days old.<ref name=":12">Kaufman, Kenn (2017). "Black-legged Kittiwake". ''Audubon Field Guide''. Retrieved 7 October 2019.</ref> Chicks will come back to the nest for several weeks after hatching and will eventually follow the adults at sea where they spend the winter.<ref name=":12" /> Kittiwakes reach sexual maturity at around 4–5 years old.<ref name=":11" />
+=== Food and feeding ===
-==Behavior==
+Kittiwakes are primarily [[Pelagic zone|pelagic]] [[Piscivore|piscivorous]] birds. Their main food source consists of fish, though it is not unlikely to find invertebrates such as [[copepod]]s, [[Polychaete|polychete]] and squids in their diet, especially when fish is harder to find.<ref name=":12" /> Due to their wide range, kittiwake diet is quite variable. In the Gulf of Alaska, their diet is usually composed of Pacific capelin, Pacific herring, Pacific sand land and much more. Kittiwakes of the coast of the United Kingdom, in Europe, rely mostly on [[Sand eel|sandeels]].<ref>Heubeck, Martin (17 April 2019). "Black-legged Kittiwake (''Rissa tridactyla'')". ''Joint Nature Conservation Committee''. Retrieved October 8, 2019.</ref> In 2004, the kittiwake population in the Shetland islands, along with the [[murre]] (guillemot) and tern <ref name=":9" /> population, completely failed to reproduce successfully due to a collapse in sandeel stock.<ref>Well's, Jeffrey V. (2007). ''Birder's Conservation Handbook''. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 19.</ref> Like most gulls, kittiwake forage at the surface of the water where they tend to catch their prey while in flight or sitting on the water. Throughout winter, kittiwakes spend all of their time at sea where they forage. Unlike some gull species, they do not scavenge at landfills.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":12" />
-=== Feeding and diet ===
-Kittiwakes are primarily [[Pelagic zone|pelagic]] [[Piscivore|piscivorous]] birds. Their main food source consists of fish, though it is not unlikely to find invertebrates such as [[copepod]]s, [[Polychaete|polychete]] and squids in their diet, especially when fish is harder to find.<ref name=":12" /> Due to their wide range, kittiwake diet is quite variable. In the Gulf of Alaska, their diet is usually composed of Pacific capelin, Pacific herring, Pacific sand land and much more. Kittiwakes of the coast of the United Kingdom, in Europe, rely mostly on [[Sand eel|sandeels]].<ref>Heubeck, Martin (17 April 2019). "Black-legged Kittiwake (''Rissa tridactyla'')". ''Joint Nature Conservation Commettee''. Retrieved October 8, 2019.</ref> In 2004, the kittiwake population in the Shetland islands, along with the [[murre]] (guillemot) and tern <ref name=":9" /> population, completely failed to reproduce successfully due to a collapse in sandeel stock.<ref>Well's, Jeffrey V. (2007). ''Birder's Conservation Handbook''. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 19.</ref> Like most gulls, kittiwake forage at the surface of the water where they tend to catch their prey while in flight or sitting on the water. Throughout winter, kittiwakes spend all of their time at sea where they forage. Unlike some gull species, they do not scavenge at landfills.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":12" />
 The foraging style of the kittiwakes is often compared to the terns' foraging strategy due to their frequent hovering and their head diving quickly at the surface of the water.<ref name=":5"/> Instances of kittiwakes following whales are also common since they benefit from the fish fragments expelled by these huge marine mammals.<ref name=":5"/> Fishers and commercial fishing boats are also the frequent witnesses of big groups of kittiwakes, often mixed with other gull species and terns, hovering around their ship in order to benefit from the scraps rejected in their sewage water or thrown overboard.<ref name=":1" />
 There are few studies focussing on their water needs, though they seem to prefer salt water to fresh water.<ref name=":5"/><ref name=":4" /> Captive kittiwakes are known to refuse fresh water but will willingly drink salt water.<ref name=":4" />
-=== Vocalization ===
-The kittiwake is named after its call that resembles a long "kit-ti-wake".<ref name=":5"/> Apart from their typical call, kittiwakes have a wide array of vocalization. Their greeting call is used by the two members of a pair when meeting at the nest after an absence of one or both members. Before and during copulation, the female will often vocalize by making a series of short high pitched "squeak".<ref name=":9" /> This call is also used by the female to beg for food from the male (courtship feeding). When predators are around, the kittiwake alarm call, an "oh oh oh oh" will be heard all across the colony.<ref name=":9" /> Kittiwake will vocalize all day for various reasons and will only stop when the sun is down.
-=== Flight ===
-Kittiwake are known for their graceful flight. Unlike larger gulls, their flight is light with the wings beating in fast strokes.<ref name=":4" /> When looking at them flying around the colony, kittiwakes often look as if they are playing in the wind with their agile flips and loops. Kittiwakes are highly gregarious and therefore are rarely seen flying alone far away from the colony.<ref name=":4" />
 == Relationship with humans ==
@@ Line 101: / Line 105: @@
 In New England, the black-legged kittiwake is often called the "winter gull" since its arrival often signals to people that winter is coming.<ref name=":4" />
+The city of [[Tromsø]], along with other cities in the far north of Norway, has experienced a remarkable increase in the number of kittiwakes choosing to utilize city structures as nesting sites. This rise in urban nesting populations has seen the number of pairs skyrocket from a mere 13 to over 380 between 2017 and 2022. Researchers{{who|date=May 2024}} attribute{{where|date=May 2024}} this climate change related breeding failures, along with the absence of natural predators in the city, providing a safer environment for the gulls to breed and raise their young.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} The increasing nesting population has created challenges, as the gulls produce vast amounts of [[ammonia]]-smelling feces, discoloring buildings and streets, as well as the noise pollution generated by their constant vocalizations.{{according to|date=May 2024}}
+To address these challenges, innovative measures have been implemented in Tromsø. One such initiative involves the establishment of "Kittiwake hotels," which are artificial bird cliff-structures built to encourage nesting away from urban facades.<ref name="hdl.handle.net"/> The hotels have, along with mitigation measures preventing nesting on the city's structures, had success in attracting kittiwakes without having a negative impact on breeding.
 == Conservation ==
 === Population trends ===
-Since 1970s, its it believed that the global population of black-legged kittiwake has declined of about 40% in only three generations (one generation is in average 12.9 years), putting the species in a dangerous place for the future.<ref name=":13">BirdLife International 2018. ''Rissa tridactyla''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2018: e.T22694497A132556442. <nowiki>http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22694497A132556442.en</nowiki>. Downloaded on 09 October 2019.</ref> The global population is estimated at 14,600,000-15,700,000 individuals and is in constant decline. The individual distribution of kittiwakes across the world varies quite a bit, with Europe representing more than 50% of the world's kittiwake and North America representing only 20%. In their recent species assessment, the IUCN Red List pointed out that all but one populations of kittiwakes were in decline, with the exception of the small Canadian arctic population that seems to be increasing at a rate of 1% per year.<ref name=":13" /> The last IUCN Red List report in 2017, the species was moved from "least concern" to a "vulnerable" status on a global scale.<ref name=":13" />
+Since the 1970s, it has been believed that the global population of black-legged kittiwake has declined of about 40% in only three generations (one generation is in average 12.9 years), putting the species in a dangerous place for the future.<ref name="iucn status 18 November 2021" /> The global population is estimated at 14,600,000-15,700,000 individuals and is in constant decline. The individual distribution of kittiwakes across the world varies quite a bit, with Europe representing more than 50% of the world's kittiwake and North America representing only 20%. In their recent species assessment, the IUCN Red List pointed out that all but one populations of kittiwakes were in decline, with the exception of the small Canadian arctic population that seems to be increasing at a rate of 1% per year.<ref name="iucn status 18 November 2021" /> The last IUCN Red List report in 2017, the species was moved from "least concern" to a "vulnerable" status on a global scale.<ref name="iucn status 18 November 2021" />
 === Threats ===
 ==== Fisheries ====
-Since the kittiwakes are fish specialist and tend to rely on prey species, their reproductive success highly depends on fish availability. Commercial fisheries have been known to have many direct and indirect impacts on their surrounding ecosystem. Direct impacts on the fish species themselves are well known, but the presence of fisheries also has an array of impacts on marine predators that not only rely on the species harvested but also on the "bycatch" species.<ref name=":14">Frederiksen, Morten; Wanless, Sarah; Harris, Michael P.; Rothery, Peter; Wilson, Linda J. (2004). "The role of industrial fisheries and oceanographic change in the decline of North Sea black-legged kittiwakes". ''Journal of Applied Ecology''. '''41''' (6): 1129–1139. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:10.1111/j.0021-8901.2004.00966.x. [[International Standard Serial Number|ISSN]] 1365-2664.</ref> Fisheries harvesting species such as the sandeel, one of the main food source for kittiwakes in Europe, are known to have a huge impact of the reproductive success of local populations kittiwakes and other seabirds.<ref name=":14" /> Long term research on the effect of food availability on kittiwakes in the Gulf of Alaska showed a direct correlation between food availability and reproductive success, using an supplemental-feeding experiment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gill|first1=Verena A.|last2=Hatch|first2=Scott A.|s2cid=54602867|date=2002|title=Components of productivity in black-legged kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla: response to supplemental feeding|journal=Journal of Avian Biology|language=en|volume=33|issue=2|pages=113–126|doi=10.1034/j.1600-048X.2002.330201.x|issn=1600-048X}}</ref> Seabirds can also be a direct victim of fisheries. Their tendency to hang around them in hope of a good meal can lead to entanglements in fishing gear, often resulting in death by drowning.<ref>U.S. Department of Commerce. "Seabirds". ''National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration''. Retrieved October 9, 2019.</ref>
+Since the kittiwakes are fish specialist and tend to rely on prey species, their reproductive success highly depends on fish availability. Commercial fisheries have been known to have many direct and indirect impacts on their surrounding ecosystem. Direct impacts on the fish species themselves are well known, but the presence of fisheries also has an array of impacts on marine predators that not only rely on the species harvested but also on the "bycatch" species.<ref name=":14">Frederiksen, Morten; Wanless, Sarah; Harris, Michael P.; Rothery, Peter; Wilson, Linda J. (2004). "The role of industrial fisheries and oceanographic change in the decline of North Sea black-legged kittiwakes". ''Journal of Applied Ecology''. '''41''' (6): 1129–1139. {{doi|10.1111/j.0021-8901.2004.00966.x}} {{ISSN|1365-2664}}</ref> Fisheries harvesting species such as the sandeel, one of the main food source for kittiwakes in Europe, are known to have a huge impact of the reproductive success of local populations kittiwakes and other seabirds.<ref name=":14" /> Long-term research on the effect of food availability on kittiwakes in the Gulf of Alaska showed a direct correlation between food availability and reproductive success, using a supplemental-feeding experiment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gill|first1=Verena A.|last2=Hatch|first2=Scott A.|s2cid=54602867|date=2002|title=Components of productivity in black-legged kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla: response to supplemental feeding|journal=Journal of Avian Biology|language=en|volume=33|issue=2|pages=113–126|doi=10.1034/j.1600-048X.2002.330201.x|issn=1600-048X}}</ref> Seabirds can also be a direct victim of fisheries. Their tendency to hang around them in hope of a good meal can lead to entanglements in fishing gear, often resulting in death by drowning.<ref>U.S. Department of Commerce. "Seabirds". ''National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration''. Retrieved October 9, 2019.</ref>
 ==== Global warming ====
-With global warming, the rising of ocean temperature is becoming a serious concern, affecting not only the marine flora and fauna but also the species exploiting the marine environment. Kittiwake are extremely sensitive to variation in food stocks.<ref name=":15">Frederiksen, M; Edwards, M; Mavor, Ra; Wanless, S (2007-11-22). "Regional and annual variation in black-legged kittiwake breeding productivity is related to sea surface temperature". ''Marine Ecology Progress Series''. '''350''': 137–143. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:10.3354/meps07126. [[International Standard Serial Number|ISSN]] 0171-8630.</ref> Such variations can be due to over exploitation, as mentioned above, but can also be due to variations in sea surface temperature. With the rising the sea surface temperature, many fishes, such as sandeels, are negatively affected by a rise in ocean temperature.<ref name=":16">Sandvik, H; Reiertsen, Tk; Erikstad, Ke; Anker-Nilssen, T; Barrett, Rt; Lorentsen, Sh; Systad, Gh; Myksvoll, Ms (2014-06-17). "The decline of Norwegian kittiwake populations: modelling the role of ocean warming". ''Climate Research''. '''60''' (2): 91–102. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:10.3354/cr01227. [[International Standard Serial Number|ISSN]] 0936-577X.</ref> Studies show that sandeels and many copepods populations are being negatively impacted due to increasing sea surface temperature.<ref name=":15" /> Such effect on marine species can have tremendous impact on breeding kittiwakes which rely almost exclusively on pelagic fishes, making food more scarce in a time of high energetic needs.<ref name=":16" />
+With global warming, the rising of [[ocean temperature]] is becoming a serious concern, affecting not only the marine flora and fauna but also the species exploiting the marine environment. Kittiwake are extremely sensitive to variation in food stocks.<ref name=":15">Frederiksen, M; Edwards, M; Mavor, Ra; Wanless, S (2007-11-22). "Regional and annual variation in black-legged kittiwake breeding productivity is related to sea surface temperature". ''Marine Ecology Progress Series''. '''350''': 137–143. {{doi|10.3354/meps07126}} {{ISSN|0171-8630}}</ref> Such variations can be due to over exploitation, as mentioned above, but can also be due to variations in [[sea surface temperature]]. With the rising the sea surface temperature, many fishes, such as sandeels, are negatively affected by a rise in ocean temperature.<ref name=":16">Sandvik, H; Reiertsen, Tk; Erikstad, Ke; Anker-Nilssen, T; Barrett, Rt; Lorentsen, Sh; Systad, Gh; Myksvoll, Ms (2014-06-17). "The decline of Norwegian kittiwake populations: modelling the role of ocean warming". ''Climate Research''. '''60''' (2): 91–102. {{doi|10.3354/cr01227}} {{ISSN|0936-577X}}</ref> Studies show that sandeels and many copepods populations are being negatively impacted due to increasing sea surface temperature.<ref name=":15" /> Such effect on marine species can have tremendous impact on breeding kittiwakes which rely almost exclusively on pelagic fishes, making food more scarce in a time of high energetic needs.<ref name=":16" />
 === Conservation plan ===
 There are still no global conservation plans for the black-legged kittiwake though the species is closely monitored for population trends shifts. There are currently no international legislations regarding this species. However, the black-legged kittiwake is protected under the [[Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918]] that has been ratified by the US, Canada, Mexico, Russia and Japan.<ref>"Migratory Bird Treaty Act". ''U.S Fish and Wildlife Service''.</ref> As for many gull species, the kittiwake is not a species of special interest for the public, therefore there are no education plans put in place in order to inform and educate people regarding this species.
-==Subspecies==
-There are two races of black-legged kittiwake:
-* ''R. t. tridactyla'' <small>([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]])</small>: [[Nominate subspecies#Nominotypical subspecies and subspecies autonyms|nominate]], found in the North Atlantic Ocean, is unique among the Laridae in having only a very small or even no hind toe.
-* ''R. t. pollicaris'' <small>([[Robert Ridgway|Ridgway]], 1884)</small>: found in the north [[Pacific Ocean]], has a normally developed hind toe (as the name ''pollex'', meaning thumb, suggests).
 ==Gallery==
@@ Line 144: / Line 147: @@
 <ref name=BOC>{{cite book |last=Godfrey |first=W. Earl |date=1966 |title=The Birds of Canada |location=Ottawa |publisher=National Museum of Canada |page=186}}</ref>
+<ref name=Sibley>{{cite book |last=Sibley |first=David Allen |author-link=David Allen Sibley |date=2000 |title=The Sibley Guide to Birds |location=New York |publisher=Knopf |page=[https://archive.org/details/sibleyguidetobir00sibl_0/page/229 229] |isbn=978-0-679-45122-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/sibleyguidetobir00sibl_0/page/229}}</ref>
-<ref name=Linnaeus1758>{{Cite book|last=Linnaeus |first=C. |authorlink=Carl Linnaeus |title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata |location=Holmiae [Stockholm] |publisher=(Laurentii Salvii) |year=1758 |quote=L, albicans dorso canescente, rectricibus excepto extimo nigris, pedibus tridaclylis. |pages=136 |language=la}}</ref>
-<ref name=Sibley>{{cite book |last=Sibley |first=David Allen |authorlink=David Allen Sibley |date=2000 |title=The Sibley Guide to Birds |location=New York |publisher=Knopf |page=[https://archive.org/details/sibleyguidetobir00sibl_0/page/229 229] |isbn=978-0-679-45122-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/sibleyguidetobir00sibl_0/page/229}}</ref>
 }}
 == External links ==
 {{Wikispecies|Rissa tridactyla}}
+* {{Commons category-inline}}
 * {{BirdLife|22694497|Rissa tridactyla}}
 * {{Avibase|name=Rissa tridactyla}}
@@ Line 162: / Line 164: @@
 {{Gulls}}
 {{Taxonbar |from=Q26612}}
 {{Authority control}}
-{{DEFAULTSORT:kittiwake, black-legged}}
 [[Category:Kittiwakes]]
 [[Category:Birds of the Arctic]]
@@ Line 174: / Line 174: @@
 [[Category:Native birds of the Eastern United States]]
 [[Category:Native birds of the West Coast of the United States]]
-[[Category:Non-larid gulls]]
 [[Category:Birds described in 1758|black-legged kittiwake]]
 [[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus|black-legged kittiwake]]
+[[Category:Holarctic birds]]

v t e Gulls (family: Laridae)
Genus	Species († indicates a species confirmed to be extinct)
Larus	Pacific gull Belcher's gull Olrog's gull Black-tailed gull Heermann's gull Common gull Short-billed gull Ring-billed gull California gull Great black-backed gull Kelp gull (or Cape gull) Glaucous-winged gull Western gull Yellow-footed gull Glaucous gull Iceland gull Thayer's gull European herring gull American herring gull Yellow-legged gull Caspian gull Vega gull (or East Siberian gull / Mongolian gull) Armenian gull Slaty-backed gull Lesser black-backed gull Heuglin's gull
Ichthyaetus	White-eyed gull Sooty gull Great black-headed gull (or Pallas's gull) Audouin's gull Mediterranean gull Relict gull
Leucophaeus	Dolphin gull Laughing gull Franklin's gull Lava gull Grey gull
Chroicocephalus	Silver gull Red-billed gull Huahine gull † Hartlaub's gull Brown-hooded gull Grey-headed gull (or grey-hooded gull) Andean gull Black-billed gull Brown-headed gull Black-headed gull Slender-billed gull Bonaparte's gull Saunders's gull
Hydrocoloeus	Little gull
Rhodostethia	Ross's gull
Rissa	Black-legged kittiwake Red-legged kittiwake
Pagophila	Ivory gull
Xema	Sabine's gull
Creagrus	Swallow-tailed gull
Gull eggs as food Hybridisation in gulls