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{{Short description|Structure to channel water past an obstacle}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
[[File:Leocrain Thunderbolt SuDS culvert.jpg | thumb| Culvert with secure headwall in [[Bromsgrove]], [[England]]]]
{{short description|Structure that allows the passage of water or organisms under an obstruction}}
[[File:Maakividest truup.JPG|thumb|Stone culvert in [[Haapsalu]], [[Estonia]]]]
[[File:Culvert Picture.jpg|thumb|Steel culvert with a [[plunge pool]] below]]
[[File:Culvert Picture.jpg|thumb|Steel culvert with a [[plunge pool]] below]]
[[File:Feccia Culvert 2011 SE.jpg|thumb|A multiple culvert assembly in Italy]]
[[File:Feccia Culvert 2011 SE.jpg|thumb|A multiple culvert assembly in Italy]]
[[File:Culvert on Fordingbridge to Alderholt Road - geograph.org.uk - 155781.jpg|thumb|Concrete ''box culverts''.]]
[[File:Pre-cast concrete box culvert.jpg|thumb|[[Precast concrete]] box culvert]]
[[File:Worlds largest culvert.png | thumb | 220x124px | right | alt= Worlds largest culvert. |
[[File:Largest culvert in the world at 1.16 kilometres long river monterroso.png | thumb| Large box culvert on [[Rio Monterroso]]]]
The largest culvert in the world, Arroyo de Monterroso culvert.]]


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A '''culvert''' is a structure that channels water past an obstacle or to a subterranean waterway. Typically embedded so as to be surrounded by soil, a culvert may be made from a [[pipe (fluid conveyance)|pipe]], [[reinforced concrete]] or other material. In the [[United Kingdom]], the word can also be used for a longer artificially buried [[watercourse]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://library.thehumanjourney.net/2322/|title=Thacka Beck Flood Alleviation Scheme, Penrith, Cumbria – Measured Building Survey of Culverts|last=Taylor|first=Karl|year=2010|publisher=[[Oxford Archaeology North]]}}</ref>


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Culverts are commonly used both as cross-drains to relieve drainage of [[ditch]]es at the roadside, and to pass water under a road at natural drainage and stream crossings. When they are found beneath roads, they are frequently empty. A culvert may also be a bridge-like structure designed to allow vehicle or pedestrian traffic to cross over the waterway while allowing adequate passage for the water. Dry culverts are used to channel a [[fire hose]] beneath a [[noise barrier]] for the ease of [[firefighter|firefighting]] along a highway without the need or danger of placing hydrants along the roadway itself.
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A '''culvert''' is a channel that allows water to flow under a road, railroad, trail, or similar obstruction from one side to the other. Typically embedded so as to be surrounded by soil, a culvert may be made from a [[pipe (fluid conveyance)|pipe]], [[reinforced concrete]] or other material. In the [[United Kingdom]], the word can also be used for a longer artificially buried [[watercourse]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://library.thehumanjourney.net/2322/|title=Thacka Beck Flood Alleviation Scheme, Penrith, Cumbria- Measured Building Survey of Culverts|last=Taylor|first=Karl|year=2010|publisher=[[Oxford Archaeology North]]}}</ref>


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Culverts come in many sizes and shapes including round, elliptical, flat-bottomed, open-bottomed, pear-shaped, and box-like constructions. The culvert type and shape selection is based on a number of factors including requirements for hydraulic performance, limitations on upstream water surface elevation, and roadway embankment height.<ref name="Center 1998">Turner-Fairbank Highway research Center (1998). "Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts" (PDF), Report #FHWA-IP-85-15 US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, McLean, Virginia.</ref>
The largest culvert in the world Is the Rio Monterroso Culvert In [[Estepona]] Malaga. It is rectangular and has a 36 foot (11 metre) span, has a 8'6" rise and is measured at 1.16km long. It is made entirely out of concrete and construction started in April 1965, ended January 12 1973.

⚫
Culverts are commonly used both as cross-drains to relieve drainage of [[ditch]]es at the roadside, and to pass water under a road at natural drainage and stream crossings. A culvert may be a bridge-like structure designed to allow vehicle or pedestrian traffic to cross over the waterway while allowing adequate passage for the water.

⚫
Culverts come in many sizes and shapes including round, elliptical, flat-bottomed, open-bottomed, pear-shaped, and box-like constructions. The culvert type and shape selection is based on a number of factors including requirements for hydraulic performance, limitations on upstream water surface elevation, and roadway embankment height.<ref name="Center 1998">Turner-Fairbank Highway research Center (1998). "Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts" (PDF), Report #FHWA-IP-85-15 U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, McLean, Virginia.</ref>


The process of removing culverts to restore an open-air watercourse is known as [[Daylighting (streams)|daylighting]]. In the UK, the practice is also known as deculverting.<ref>
The process of removing culverts to restore an open-air watercourse is known as [[Daylighting (streams)|daylighting]]. In the UK, the practice is also known as deculverting.<ref>
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==Materials==
==Materials==
[[File:Culvert with a drop.jpg|thumb|Steel corrugated culvert with a drop on the exhaust end, Northern Vermont]]
[[File:Culvert with a drop.jpg|thumb|Steel corrugated culvert with a drop on the exhaust end, northern Vermont]]

Culverts can be constructed of a variety of materials including [[Cast in place concrete|cast-in-place]] or [[Precast concrete|precast]] concrete (reinforced or non-reinforced), [[Hot-dip galvanization|galvanized steel]], aluminum, or plastic (typically [[high-density polyethylene]]). Two or more materials may be combined to form [[Composite material|composite]] structures. For example, open-bottom corrugated steel structures are often built on concrete footings.
Culverts can be constructed of a variety of materials including [[Cast in place concrete|cast-in-place]] or [[Precast concrete|precast]] concrete (reinforced or non-reinforced), [[Hot-dip galvanization|galvanized steel]], aluminum, or plastic (typically [[high-density polyethylene]]). Two or more materials may be combined to form [[Composite material|composite]] structures. For example, open-bottom corrugated steel structures are often built on concrete footings.


==Design and engineering==
==Design and engineering==
[[File:Kanał Nowa Ulga, Wał Miedzeszyński, Warszawa 004.jpg|thumb|A culvert under the [[Vistula]] river [[levee]] and a street in [[Warsaw]].]]
[[File:Kanał Nowa Ulga, Wał Miedzeszyński, Warszawa 004.jpg|thumb|A culvert under the [[Vistula]] river [[levee]] and a street in [[Warsaw]]]]


Construction or installation at a culvert site generally results in disturbance of the site's soil, [[stream banks]], or [[stream bed]], and can result in the occurrence of unwanted problems such as [[Hydrodynamic scour|scour]] holes or slumping of banks adjacent to the culvert structure.<ref name="Center 1998"/><ref name="Alberta Transportation 2004">Alberta Transportation (2004). "DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR BRIDGE SIZE CULVERTS" (PDF), Original Document 1995 Alberta Transportation, Technical Standards Branch, Government of the Province of Alberta</ref>
Construction or installation at a culvert site generally results in disturbance of the site's soil, [[stream banks]], or [[stream bed]], and can result in the occurrence of unwanted problems such as [[Hydrodynamic scour|scour]] holes or slumping of banks adjacent to the culvert structure.<ref name="Center 1998"/><ref name="Alberta Transportation 2004">Alberta Transportation (2004). "DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR BRIDGE SIZE CULVERTS" (PDF), Original Document 1995 Alberta Transportation, Technical Standards Branch, Government of the Province of Alberta</ref>


Culverts must be properly sized and installed, and protected from [[erosion]] and scour. Many U.S. agencies such as the [[Federal Highway Administration]], [[Bureau of Land Management]],<ref>Department of Interior Bureau of Land Management (2006). "Culvert Use, Installation, and Sizing" Chapter 8 (PDF), Low Volume Engineering J Chapter 8, blm.gov/bmp.</ref> and [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]],<ref>Environmental Protection Agency EPA Management (2003-7-24). "Culverts-Water" NPS Unpaved Roads Chapter 3 (PDF), "CULVERTS" epa.gov.</ref> as well as state or local authorities,<ref name="Alberta Transportation 2004"/> require that culverts be designed and engineered to meet specific federal, state, or local regulations and guidelines to ensure proper function and to protect against culvert failures.
Culverts must be properly sized and installed, and protected from [[erosion]] and scour. Many US agencies such as the [[Federal Highway Administration]], [[Bureau of Land Management]],<ref>Department of Interior Bureau of Land Management (2006). "Culvert Use, Installation, and Sizing" Chapter{{spaces}}8 (PDF), Low Volume Engineering J Chapter 8, blm.gov/bmp.</ref> and [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]],<ref>Environmental Protection Agency EPA Management (2003-07-24). "Culverts-Water" NPS Unpaved Roads Chapter{{spaces}}3 (PDF), "CULVERTS" epa.gov.</ref> as well as state or local authorities,<ref name="Alberta Transportation 2004"/> require that culverts be designed and engineered to meet specific federal, state, or local regulations and guidelines to ensure proper function and to protect against culvert failures.


Culverts are classified by standards for their load capacities, water flow capacities, life spans, and installation requirements for bedding and backfill.<ref name="Center 1998"/> Most agencies adhere to these standards when designing, engineering, and specifying culverts.
Culverts are classified by standards for their load capacities, water flow capacities, life spans, and installation requirements for bedding and backfill.<ref name="Center 1998"/> Most agencies adhere to these standards when designing, engineering, and specifying culverts.
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Ongoing culvert function without failure depends on proper design and engineering considerations being given to load, hydraulic flow, surrounding soil analysis, backfill and bedding compaction, and erosion protection. Improperly designed backfill support around culverts can result in material collapse or failure from inadequate load support.<ref name="Architectural Record CEU ENR 2013"/><ref name="Center 1998"/>
Ongoing culvert function without failure depends on proper design and engineering considerations being given to load, hydraulic flow, surrounding soil analysis, backfill and bedding compaction, and erosion protection. Improperly designed backfill support around culverts can result in material collapse or failure from inadequate load support.<ref name="Architectural Record CEU ENR 2013"/><ref name="Center 1998"/>


For existing culverts which have experienced degradation, loss of structural integrity or need to meet new codes or standards, rehabilitation using a reline pipe may be preferred versus replacement. Sizing of a reline culvert uses the same hydraulic flow design criteria as that of a new culvert however as the reline culvert is meant to be inserted into an existing culvert or host pipe, reline installation requires the grouting of the annular space between the host pipe and the surface of reline pipe (typically using a low compression strength [[grout]]) so as to prevent or reduce [[seepage]] and soil migration. Grouting also serves as a means in establishing a structural connection between the liner, host pipe and soil. Depending on the size and annular space to be filled as well as the pipe elevation between the inlet and outlet, grouting maybe required to be performed in multiple stages or "lifts". If multiple lifts are required, then a grouting plan is required which defines the placement of grout feed tubes, air tubes, type of grout to be used and if injecting or pumping grout then the required developed pressure for injection. As the diameter of the reline pipe will be smaller than the host pipe, the cross-sectional flow area will be smaller. By selecting a reline pipe with a very smooth internal surface, with an approximate Hazen-Williams Friction Factor, C, value of between 140–150, the decreased flow area can be offset and hydraulic flow rates potentially increased by way of reduced surface flow resistance. Examples of pipe materials with high C-factors are high-density polyethylene (150) and [[polyvinyl chloride]] (140).<ref>Plastic Pipe Institute-Handbook of Polyethylene Pipe, First Edition Copy 2006</ref>
For existing culverts which have experienced degradation, loss of structural integrity or need to meet new codes or standards, rehabilitation using a reline pipe may be preferred versus replacement. Sizing of a reline culvert uses the same hydraulic flow design criteria as that of a new culvert however as the reline culvert is meant to be inserted into an existing culvert or host pipe, reline installation requires the grouting of the annular space between the host pipe and the surface of reline pipe (typically using a low compression strength [[grout]]) so as to prevent or reduce [[seepage]] and soil migration. Grouting also serves as a means in establishing a structural connection between the liner, host pipe and soil. Depending on the size and annular space to be filled as well as the pipe elevation between the inlet and outlet, it may be necessary to add grout in multiple stages or "lifts". If multiple lifts are required, then a grouting plan is required, which should define the placement of grout feed tubes, air tubes, type of grout to be used, and if injecting or pumping grout, then the required developed pressure for injection. As the diameter of the reline pipe will be smaller than the host pipe, the cross-sectional flow area will be smaller. By selecting a reline pipe with a very smooth internal surface with an approximate Hazen-Williams Friction Factor ''C'' value of between 140–150, the decreased flow area can be offset, and hydraulic flow rates potentially increased by way of reduced surface flow resistance. Examples of pipe materials with high C-factors are high-density polyethylene (150) and [[polyvinyl chloride]] (140).<ref>Plastic Pipe Institute-Handbook of Polyethylene Pipe, First Edition Copy 2006</ref>


==Environmental impacts==
==Environmental impacts==
[[File:Aquatic Organism Passage Culvert.jpg|thumb|right|This culvert has a natural surface bottom connecting wildlife habitat.]]
[[File:Aquatic Organism Passage Culvert.jpg|thumb|right|This culvert has a natural surface bottom connecting wildlife habitat.]]

Safe and stable stream crossings can accommodate wildlife and protect stream health, while reducing expensive erosion and structural damage. Undersized and poorly placed culverts can cause problems for water quality and aquatic organisms. Poorly designed culverts can degrade water quality via scour and erosion, as well as restrict the movement of aquatic organisms between upstream and downstream habitat. Fish are a common victim in the [[loss of habitat]] due to poorly designed crossing structures.
Safe and stable stream crossings can accommodate wildlife and protect stream health, while reducing expensive erosion and structural damage. Undersized and poorly placed culverts can cause problems for water quality and aquatic organisms. Poorly designed culverts can degrade water quality via scour and erosion, as well as restrict the movement of aquatic organisms between upstream and downstream habitat. Fish are a common victim in the [[loss of habitat]] due to poorly designed crossing structures.


Culverts that offer adequate aquatic organism passage reduce impediments to movement of fish, wildlife, and other aquatic life that require instream passage. Poorly designed culverts are also more apt to become jammed with sediment and debris during medium to large scale rain events. If the culvert cannot pass the water volume in the stream, then the water may overflow over the road embankment. This may cause significant erosion, ultimately washing out the culvert. The embankment material that is washed away can clog other structures downstream, causing them to fail as well. It can also damage crops and property. A properly sized structure and hard bank armoring can help to alleviate this pressure.[[File:Aquatic Organsim Passage Culvert Replacement.jpg|thumb|right|Aquatic organism passage compatible culvert replacement in Franklin, Vermont, just upstream from Lake Carmi]]
Culverts that offer adequate aquatic organism passage reduce impediments to movement of fish, wildlife, and other aquatic life that require instream passage. Poorly designed culverts are also more apt to become jammed with sediment and debris during medium to large scale rain events. If the culvert cannot pass the water volume in the stream, then the water may overflow the road embankment. This may cause significant erosion, ultimately washing out the culvert. The embankment material that is washed away can clog other structures downstream, causing them to fail as well. It can also damage crops and property. A properly sized structure and hard bank armoring can help to alleviate this pressure.


[[File:Aquatic Organsim Passage Culvert Replacement.jpg|thumb|right|Aquatic organism passage compatible culvert replacement in Franklin, Vermont, just upstream from Lake Carmi]]
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Culvert style replacement is a widespread practice in stream restoration. Long-term benefits of this practice include reduced risk of catastrophic failure and improved fish passage. If best management practices are followed, short-term impacts on the aquatic biology are minimal.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lawrence, J.E., M.R. Cover, C.L. May, and V.H. Resh. |title=Replacement of Culvert Styles has Minimal Impact on Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Forested, Mountainous Streams of Northern California |journal=Limnologica |year=2014 |volume=47 |doi=10.1016/j.limno.2014.02.002 |pages=7–20 |arxiv=1308.0904 }}</ref>

⚫
Culvert style replacement is a widespread practice in stream restoration. Long-term benefits of this practice include reduced risk of catastrophic failure and improved fish passage. If best management practices are followed, short-term impacts on the aquatic biology are minimal.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lawrence, JE, Cover MR, May CL, Resh VH |title=Replacement of Culvert Styles has Minimal Impact on Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Forested, Mountainous Streams of Northern California |journal=Limnologica |year=2014 |volume=47 |doi=10.1016/j.limno.2014.02.002 |pages=7–20 |arxiv=1308.0904}}</ref>


==Fish passage==
==Fish passage==
{{See|Fish ladder}}
{{Further|Fish ladder}}
While the culvert discharge capacity derives from hydrological and hydraulic engineering considerations,<ref name="Chanson_book2004">{{cite book|author=Chanson, H. |title= The Hydraulics of Open Channel Flow: An Introduction |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann, 2nd edition, Oxford, UK |year=2004 |isbn= 978-0-7506-5978-9|author-link= Hubert Chanson }}</ref> this results often in large velocities in the barrel, creating a possible fish passage barrier. Critical culvert parameters in terms of fish passage are the dimensions of the barrel, particularly its length, cross-sectional shape, and invert slope. The behavioural response by fish species to culvert dimensions, light conditions, and flow turbulence may play a role in their swimming ability and culvert passage rate. There is no simple technical means to ascertain the turbulence characteristics most relevant to fish passage in culverts, but it is understood that the flow turbulence plays a key role in fish behaviour.<ref name="Nikora2003">{{cite journal|author=Nikora, V.I., Aberle, J., Biggs, B.J.F., Jowett, I.G., Sykes, J.R.E. |title= Effects of Fish Size, Time-to-Fatigue and Turbulence on Swimming Performance: a Case Study of Galaxias Maculatus |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=63 |issue= 6 |pages= 1365–1382 |year=2003 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.2003.00241.x}}</ref><ref name="Wang2017">{{cite journal|author=Wang, H., [[Hubert Chanson|Chanson, H.]] |title= How a better understanding of Fish-Hydrodynamics Interactions might enhance upstream fish passage in culverts |url= http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:696033 |journal=Civil Engineering Research Report No. CE162 |pages= 1–43 |year=2017 }}</ref>
While the culvert discharge capacity derives from hydrological and hydraulic engineering considerations,<ref name="Chanson_book2004">{{cite book|author=Chanson, H. |title= The Hydraulics of Open Channel Flow: An Introduction |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann, 2nd edition, Oxford, UK |year=2004 |isbn= 978-0-7506-5978-9|author-link= Hubert Chanson}}</ref> this results often in large velocities in the barrel, creating a possible fish passage barrier. Critical culvert parameters in terms of fish passage are the dimensions of the barrel, particularly its length, cross-sectional shape, and invert slope. The behavioural response by fish species to culvert dimensions, light conditions, and flow turbulence may play a role in their swimming ability and culvert passage rate. There is no simple technical means to ascertain the turbulence characteristics most relevant to fish passage in culverts, but it is understood that the flow turbulence plays a key role in fish behaviour.<ref name="Nikora2003">{{cite journal|vauthors=Nikora VI, Aberle J, Biggs BJ, Jowett IG, Sykes JR |title= Effects of Fish Size, Time-to-Fatigue and Turbulence on Swimming Performance: a Case Study of Galaxias Maculatus |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=63 |issue= 6 |pages= 1365–1382 |year=2003 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.2003.00241.x}}</ref><ref name="Wang2017">{{cite journal|last1=Wang |first=H. |last2=Chanson |first2=H. |author-link2=Hubert Chanson |title= How a better understanding of Fish-Hydrodynamics Interactions might enhance upstream fish passage in culverts |url= http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:696033 |journal=Civil Engineering Research Report No. CE162 |pages= 1–43 |year=2017}}</ref>

The interactions between swimming fish and [[vortical]] structures involve a broad range of relevant length and tine scales.<ref name="Lupandin2005">{{cite journal|author=Lupandin, A.I. |title= Effect of flow turbulence on swimming speed of fish |journal=Biology Bulletin |volume=32|issue=5 |pages= 461–466 |year=2005 |doi=10.1007/s10525-005-0125-z}}</ref> Recent discussions emphasised the role of [[secondary flow]] motion, considerations of fish dimensions in relation to the spectrum of turbulence scales, and the beneficial role of turbulent structures provided that fish are able to exploit them.<ref name="Nikora2003" /><ref name="Papanicolaou2002">{{cite journal|author=Papanicolaou, A.N., Talebbeydokhti, N. |title= Discussion of Turbulent open-channel flow in circular corrugated culverts |journal=Journal of Hydraulic Engineering |volume=128|issue=5 |pages= 548–549 |year=2002 }}</ref><ref name="Plew2007">{{cite journal|author=Plew, D.R., Nikora, V.I., Larne, S.T., Sykes, J.R.E., Cooper, G.G. |title= Fish swimming speed variability at constant flow: Galaxias maculatus |journal=New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research |volume=41 |issue= 2 |pages= 185–195 |year=2007 |doi=10.1080/00288330709509907}}</ref><ref name="Wang2016">{{cite journal|author=Wang, H., [[Hubert Chanson|Chanson, H.]], Kern, P., Franklin, C. |title= Culvert Hydrodynamics to enhance Upstream Fish Passage: Fish Response to Turbulence |url= https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:413734 |journal=20th Australasian Fluid Mechanics Conference, Perth, Australia |volume=Paper 682 |pages= 1–4 |year=2016 }}</ref><ref name="Cabonce2017">{{cite book|author=Cabonce, J., Fernando, R., Wang, H., [[Hubert Chanson|Chanson, H.]] |title= Using Triangular Baffles to Facilitate Upstream Fish Passage in Box Culverts: Physical Modelling |url= http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:653838 |publisher= Hydraulic Model Report No. CH107/17, School of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, 130 pages |year=2017 |isbn= 978-1-74272-186-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Wang, H., [[Hubert Chanson|Chanson, H.]] |title= Baffle Systems to Facilitate Upstream Fish Passage in Standard Box Culverts: How About Fish-Turbulence Interplay? |url= http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:678859 |journal=37th IAHR World Congress, IAHR & USAINS, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia |volume=3 |pages= 2586–2595 |year=2017 }}</ref><ref name="WangChanson2018">{{cite journal|author=Wang, H., [[Hubert Chanson|Chanson, H.]] |title= Modelling Upstream Fish Passage in Standard Box Culverts: Interplay between Turbulence, Fish Kinematics, and Energetics |journal=River Research and Applications |volume=34|issue=3 |pages= 244–252 |year=2018 |doi=10.1002/rra.3245|url= http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:719818/UQ719818_preprint_OA.pdf }}</ref>
The interactions between swimming fish and [[vortical]] structures involve a broad range of relevant length and time scales.<ref name="Lupandin2005">{{cite journal|author=Lupandin, A.I. |title= Effect of flow turbulence on swimming speed of fish |journal=Biology Bulletin |volume=32|issue=5 |pages= 461–466 |year=2005 |doi=10.1007/s10525-005-0125-z|s2cid= 28258800}}</ref> Recent discussions emphasised the role of [[secondary flow]] motion, considerations of fish dimensions in relation to the spectrum of turbulence scales, and the beneficial role of turbulent structures provided that fish are able to exploit them.<ref name="Nikora2003" /><ref name="Papanicolaou2002">{{cite journal|vauthors=Papanicolaou AN, Talebbeydokhti N |title= Discussion of Turbulent open-channel flow in circular corrugated culverts |journal=Journal of Hydraulic Engineering |volume=128|issue=5 |pages= 548–549 |year=2002}}</ref><ref name="Plew2007">{{cite journal|vauthors=Plew DR, Nikora VI, Larne ST, Sykes JR, Cooper GG |title= Fish swimming speed variability at constant flow: Galaxias maculatus |journal=New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research |volume=41 |issue= 2 |pages= 185–195 |year=2007 |doi=10.1080/00288330709509907|s2cid= 83942063}}</ref><ref name="Wang2016">{{cite journal|vauthors=Wang H, Chanson H, Kern P, Franklin C |title= Culvert Hydrodynamics to enhance Upstream Fish Passage: Fish Response to Turbulence |url= https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:413734 |journal=20th Australasian Fluid Mechanics Conference, Perth, Australia |volume=Paper 682 |pages= 1–4 |year=2016}}</ref><ref name="Cabonce2017">{{cite book|vauthors=Cabonce J, Fernando R, Wang H, Chanson H |title= Using Triangular Baffles to Facilitate Upstream Fish Passage in Box Culverts: Physical Modelling |url= http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:653838 |publisher= Hydraulic Model Report No. CH107/17, School of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia |year=2017 |isbn= 978-1-74272-186-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wang |first=H. |last2=Chanson |first2=H. |author-link2=Hubert Chanson |title= Baffle Systems to Facilitate Upstream Fish Passage in Standard Box Culverts: How About Fish-Turbulence Interplay? |url= http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:678859 |journal=37th IAHR World Congress, IAHR & USAINS, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia |volume=3 |pages= 2586–2595 |year=2017}}</ref><ref name="WangChanson2018">{{cite journal|last1=Wang |first=H. |last2=Chanson |first2=H. |author-link2=Hubert Chanson |title= Modelling Upstream Fish Passage in Standard Box Culverts: Interplay between Turbulence, Fish Kinematics, and Energetics |journal=River Research and Applications |volume=34|issue=3 |pages= 244–252 |year=2018 |doi=10.1002/rra.3245|url= http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:719818/UQ719818_preprint_OA.pdf |doi-access=free}}</ref>
⚫
The current literature on culvert fish passage focused mostly on fast-swimming fish species, but a few studies argued for better guidelines for small-bodied fish including juveniles.<ref name="Wang2016" /> Finally, a solid understanding of turbulence typology is a basic requirement to any successful hydraulic structure design conducive of upstream fish passage.<ref name="Chanson2019">{{cite journal|author=[[Hubert Chanson|Chanson, H.]] |title= Utilising the Boundary Layer to Help Restore the Connectivity of Fish Habitats and Populations. An Engineering Discussion |journal=Ecological Engineering |volume=141|issue=105613 |pages= 1–5 |year=2019 |doi=10.1016/j.ecoleng.2019.105613}}</ref>

⚫
The current literature on culvert fish passage focuses mostly on fast-swimming fish species, but a few studies have argued for better guidelines for small-bodied fish including juveniles.<ref name="Wang2016" /> Finally, a solid understanding of turbulence typology is a basic requirement to any successful hydraulic structure design conducive of upstream fish passage.<ref name="Chanson2019">{{cite journal|author=Chanson, H.|author-link=Hubert Chanson|title= Utilising the Boundary Layer to Help Restore the Connectivity of Fish Habitats and Populations. An Engineering Discussion |journal=Ecological Engineering |volume=141|issue=105613 |pages= 1–5 |year=2019 |doi=10.1016/j.ecoleng.2019.105613|s2cid=207901913|url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8e04f63/UQ8e04f63_graphical.pdf}}</ref>


==Minimum energy loss culverts==
==Minimum energy loss culverts==
[[File:Culvert pipe (8242090899).jpg|thumb|Culvert size relative to a person]]
[[File:Culvert pipe (8242090899).jpg|thumb|Corrugated metal culvert]]

In the coastal plains of [[Queensland]], Australia, torrential rains during the wet season place a heavy demand on culverts. The natural slope of the flood plains is often very small, and little fall (or [[hydraulic head|head loss]]) is permissible in the culverts. Researchers developed and patented the design procedure of minimum energy loss culverts which yield small afflux.<ref>Apelt, C.J. (1983). "Hydraulics of minimum energy culverts and bridge waterways," ''Australian Civil Engineering Transactions'', '''CE25''' (2) : 89-95. Available on-line at: [http://staff.civil.uq.edu.au/h.chanson/reprints/apelt_83.pdf University of Queensland].</ref><ref>Apelt, C.J. (1994). "The Minimum Energy Loss Culvert" (videocassette VHS colour), Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Queensland, Australia.</ref><ref>Apelt, Colin. (2011). "The Minimum Energy Loss Culvert, Redcliffe" (prepared speech: Award of Engineering Heritage National Landmark By Engineering Heritage Australia on 29 June 2011). https://www.engineersaustralia.org.au/sites/default/files/shado/Learned%20Groups/Interest%20Groups/Engineering%20Heritage/EHA%20Queensland/McKay%20Landmark/CJA%20Speech-MEL%20Redcliffe.pdf</ref>
In the coastal plains of [[Queensland]], Australia, torrential rains during the wet season place a heavy demand on culverts. The natural slope of the flood plains is often very small, and little fall (or [[hydraulic head|head loss]]) is permissible in the culverts. Researchers developed and patented the design procedure of minimum energy loss culverts which yield small afflux.<ref>Apelt, C.J. (1983). "Hydraulics of minimum energy culverts and bridge waterways". ''Australian Civil Engineering Transactions'', '''CE25''' (2) : 89–95. Available on-line at: [http://staff.civil.uq.edu.au/h.chanson/reprints/apelt_83.pdf University of Queensland].</ref><ref>Apelt, C.J. (1994). "The Minimum Energy Loss Culvert" (videocassette VHS colour), Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Queensland, Australia.</ref><ref>Apelt, Colin. (2011). [https://www.engineersaustralia.org.au/sites/default/files/shado/Learned%20Groups/Interest%20Groups/Engineering%20Heritage/EHA%20Queensland/McKay%20Landmark/CJA%20Speech-MEL%20Redcliffe.pdf "The Minimum Energy Loss Culvert, Redcliffe"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220122706/https://www.engineersaustralia.org.au/sites/default/files/shado/Learned%20Groups/Interest%20Groups/Engineering%20Heritage/EHA%20Queensland/McKay%20Landmark/CJA%20Speech-MEL%20Redcliffe.pdf |date=20 December 2016}} (prepared speech: Award of Engineering Heritage National Landmark By Engineering Heritage Australia on 29 June 2011).</ref>


A minimum energy loss culvert or waterway is a structure designed with the concept of minimum head loss. The flow in the approach channel is contracted through a streamlined inlet into the barrel where the channel width is minimum, and then it is expanded in a streamlined outlet before being finally released into the downstream natural channel. Both the inlet and outlet must be streamlined to avoid significant form losses. The barrel invert is often lowered to increase the discharge capacity.
A minimum energy loss culvert or waterway is a structure designed with the concept of minimum head loss. The flow in the approach channel is contracted through a streamlined inlet into the barrel where the channel width is minimum, and then it is expanded in a streamlined outlet before being finally released into the downstream natural channel. Both the inlet and the outlet must be streamlined to avoid significant form losses. The barrel invert is often lowered to increase the discharge capacity.


The concept of minimum energy loss culverts was developed by a shire engineer in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and a professor at the University of Queensland during the late 1960s.<ref>See:
The concept of minimum energy loss culverts was developed by a shire engineer in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and a professor at the [[University of Queensland]] during the late 1960s.<ref>See:
*CHANSON, H. (2003). "History of Minimum Energy Loss Weirs and Culverts. 1960-2002." ''Proc. 30th IAHR'' [The International Association for Hydro-Environment Engineering and Research] ''Biennial Congress, Thessaloniki, Greece'', J. GANOULIS and P. PRINOS, ed.s, vol. E, pp. 379-387. Available on-line at: [http://staff.civil.uq.edu.au/h.chanson/reprints/iahrss1.pdf University of Queensland].
*Chanson, H. (2003). "History of Minimum Energy Loss Weirs and Culverts". 1960–2002. ''Proc. 30th IAHR'' [The International Association for Hydro-Environment Engineering and Research] ''Biennial Congress, Thessaloniki, Greece'', J. GANOULIS and P. PRINOS, ed.s, vol. E, pp. 379–387. Available online at: [http://staff.civil.uq.edu.au/h.chanson/reprints/iahrss1.pdf University of Queensland].
* Chanson, Hubert, Web page: [http://staff.civil.uq.edu.au/h.chanson/mel_culv.html Hydraulics of Minimum Energy Loss (MEL) culverts and bridge waterways].</ref> While a number of small-size structures were designed and built in Victoria, some major structures were designed, tested and built in south-east Queensland. <!-- and the rest of the world? -->
*Chanson, Hubert, Web page: [http://staff.civil.uq.edu.au/h.chanson/mel_culv.html Hydraulics of Minimum Energy Loss (MEL) culverts and bridge waterways] ''staff.civil.uq.edu.au'', accessed 15 January 2022</ref> While a number of small-size structures were designed and built in Victoria, some major structures were designed, tested and built in south-east Queensland.
<!-- The largest minimum energy loss waterway is the Nudgee Road MEL waterway near the Brisbane airport with a design discharge capacity of __. Built between 1968 and 1970, the waterway design tested in laboratory with a 1:48 scale model. Since completion, the structure passed successfully floods up to __. An unusual construction feature is the grass-lined channel bed. Several minimum energy loss culverts were built in Southern Brisbane during the construction of the South-East Freeway, along Norman Cr\\
eek in 1974-1975. The design discharge capacity range from 200 to __. All the structures are still in use today. -->


==Forestry==
==Forestry==
Line 88: Line 92:
*{{annotated link|Low water crossing}}
*{{annotated link|Low water crossing}}
*{{annotated link|Sanitary sewer}}
*{{annotated link|Sanitary sewer}}
*{{annotated link|Sough}}
*{{annotated link|Subterranean river}}
*{{annotated link|Subterranean river}}


==Notes==
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


==References==
==References==
*[[Oxford English Dictionary]], {{ISBN|0-19-861212-5}}
*[[Oxford English Dictionary]], {{ISBN|0-19-861212-5}}
*[[Oxford English Dictionary]], {{ISBN|0-19-861212-5}} http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/hydraulics/pubs/11008/hif11008.pdf
*[https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/hydraulics/pubs/11008/hif11008.pdf Culvert Design for Aquatic Organism Passage]. US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration
* [http://staff.civil.uq.edu.au/h.chanson/reprints.html#YouTube ''Fish-friendly waterways and culverts - Integration of hydrodynamics and fish turbulence interplay''] (2017) The University of Queensland.


==External links==
==External links==
⚫
{{sister project links|d=Q4168092|n=no|c=Category:Culverts|wikt=culvert|s=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|species=no|q=no}}
{{external links|date=July 2018}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20040706050324/http://www.battelle.org/environment/publications/envupdates/Spring2003/article5.stm Impact of culverts on salmon]
⚫
{{sisterlinks|d=Q4168092|n=no|c=Category:Culverts|wikt=culvert|s=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|species=no|q=no}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20040706050324/http://www.battelle.org/environment/publications/envupdates/Spring2003/article5.stm Culvert Technology May Help Young Salmon Muscle Their Way Upstream]&nbsp;– Article about the impact of culverts on salmon migration
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060427021044/http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/canwaters-eauxcan/infocentre/guidelines-conseils/factsheets-feuillets/nfld/fact26_e.asp Culvert fact sheet]
*[https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo41724 Culvert analysis tool]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060427021044/http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/canwaters-eauxcan/infocentre/guidelines-conseils/factsheets-feuillets/nfld/fact26_e.asp Culvert fact sheet]&nbsp;– Information produced by Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans
*[https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/infrastructure/hydraulics/02078/ Bottomless Culvert Scour Study]
*[https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo41724 Culvert Analysis Program Graphical User Interface 1.0: A Preprocessing and Postprocessing Tool for Estimating Flow through Culverts] [[United States Geological Survey]]
*[http://wdfw.wa.gov/hab/engineer/cm/ Culverts for Fish Passage] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100725075709/http://wdfw.wa.gov/hab/engineer/cm/ |date=25 July 2010}}
*[http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/hydraulics/pubs/02078/index.cfm Bottomless Culvert Scour Study]&nbsp;– [[Federal Highway Administration|FHWA]] culvert research
⚫
*[http://www.uq.edu.au/~e2hchans/mel_culv.html Hydraulics of Minimum Energy Loss (MEL)]
*[http://wdfw.wa.gov/hab/engineer/cm/ Design of Road Culverts for Fish Passage] Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife guide to designing and constructing fish migration friendly culverts
⚫
*[https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/hydraulics/pubs/11008/hif11008.pdf Hydraulics engineering circular]
*[http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/list.php?browse=author&author_id=193 More than 50, freely available, published research articles on culvert design, culvert hydraulics and related topics] by Professor [[Hubert Chanson]], School of Civil Engineering, [[University of Queensland]]
*[http://www.blm.gov/bmp/low%20volume%20engineering/J_Ch8_Culvert_Use_Installation_&_Sizing.pdf Culvert use, installation, and sizing] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811085531/http://www.blm.gov/bmp/low%20volume%20engineering/J_Ch8_Culvert_Use_Installation_%26_Sizing.pdf |date=11 August 2017}}
⚫
*[http://www.uq.edu.au/~e2hchans/mel_culv.html Hydraulics of Minimum Energy Loss (MEL) culverts and bridge waterways]
⚫
*[http://www.transportation.alberta.ca/Content/docType30/Production/DsnGdlClvNov04.pdf Design guidelines for culverts]
⚫
*[http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/hydraulics/pubs/11008/hif11008.pdf Federal Highway Administration Hydraulics Engineering Circular No. 26 First Edition]
*[http://staff.civil.uq.edu.au/h.chanson/fish_culvert.html Upstream fish passage in box culverts]
*[http://www.blm.gov/bmp/low%20volume%20engineering/J_Ch8_Culvert_Use_Installation_&_Sizing.pdf Bureau of Land Management Culvert Use, Installation, and Sizing]

⚫
*[http://www.transportation.alberta.ca/Content/docType30/Production/DsnGdlClvNov04.pdf Alberta Transportation Technical Standards Branch, Design Guidelines for Bridge Size Culverts]
{{Authority control}}
*[http://staff.civil.uq.edu.au/h.chanson/fish_culvert.html Upstream fish passage in box culverts: how do fish and turbulence interplay?] by Dr Hang Wang and Professor [[Hubert Chanson]], School of Civil Engineering, [[University of Queensland]]


[[Category:Bridges]]
[[Category:Bridges]]

Latest revision as of 13:51, 6 September 2024

Culvert with secure headwall in Bromsgrove, England
Stone culvert in Haapsalu, Estonia
Steel culvert with a plunge pool below
A multiple culvert assembly in Italy
Precast concrete box culvert
Large box culvert on Rio Monterroso

A culvert is a structure that channels water past an obstacle or to a subterranean waterway. Typically embedded so as to be surrounded by soil, a culvert may be made from a pipe, reinforced concrete or other material. In the United Kingdom, the word can also be used for a longer artificially buried watercourse.[1]

Culverts are commonly used both as cross-drains to relieve drainage of ditches at the roadside, and to pass water under a road at natural drainage and stream crossings. When they are found beneath roads, they are frequently empty. A culvert may also be a bridge-like structure designed to allow vehicle or pedestrian traffic to cross over the waterway while allowing adequate passage for the water. Dry culverts are used to channel a fire hose beneath a noise barrier for the ease of firefighting along a highway without the need or danger of placing hydrants along the roadway itself.

Culverts come in many sizes and shapes including round, elliptical, flat-bottomed, open-bottomed, pear-shaped, and box-like constructions. The culvert type and shape selection is based on a number of factors including requirements for hydraulic performance, limitations on upstream water surface elevation, and roadway embankment height.[2]

The process of removing culverts to restore an open-air watercourse is known as daylighting. In the UK, the practice is also known as deculverting.[3]

Materials

[edit]
Steel corrugated culvert with a drop on the exhaust end, northern Vermont

Culverts can be constructed of a variety of materials including cast-in-place or precast concrete (reinforced or non-reinforced), galvanized steel, aluminum, or plastic (typically high-density polyethylene). Two or more materials may be combined to form composite structures. For example, open-bottom corrugated steel structures are often built on concrete footings.

Design and engineering

[edit]
A culvert under the Vistula river levee and a street in Warsaw

Construction or installation at a culvert site generally results in disturbance of the site's soil, stream banks, or stream bed, and can result in the occurrence of unwanted problems such as scour holes or slumping of banks adjacent to the culvert structure.[2][4]

Culverts must be properly sized and installed, and protected from erosion and scour. Many US agencies such as the Federal Highway Administration, Bureau of Land Management,[5] and Environmental Protection Agency,[6] as well as state or local authorities,[4] require that culverts be designed and engineered to meet specific federal, state, or local regulations and guidelines to ensure proper function and to protect against culvert failures.

Culverts are classified by standards for their load capacities, water flow capacities, life spans, and installation requirements for bedding and backfill.[2] Most agencies adhere to these standards when designing, engineering, and specifying culverts.

Failures

[edit]

Culvert failures can occur for a wide variety of reasons including maintenance, environmental, and installation-related failures, functional or process failures related to capacity and volume causing the erosion of the soil around or under them, and structural or material failures that cause culverts to fail due to collapse or corrosion of the materials from which they are made.[7]

If the failure is sudden and catastrophic, it can result in injury or loss of life. Sudden road collapses are often the result of poorly designed and engineered culvert crossing sites or unexpected changes in the surrounding environment cause design parameters to be exceeded. Water passing through undersized culverts will scour away the surrounding soil over time. This can cause a sudden failure during medium-sized rain events. Accidents from culvert failure can also occur if a culvert has not been adequately sized and a flood event overwhelms the culvert, or disrupts the road or railway above it.

Ongoing culvert function without failure depends on proper design and engineering considerations being given to load, hydraulic flow, surrounding soil analysis, backfill and bedding compaction, and erosion protection. Improperly designed backfill support around culverts can result in material collapse or failure from inadequate load support.[7][2]

For existing culverts which have experienced degradation, loss of structural integrity or need to meet new codes or standards, rehabilitation using a reline pipe may be preferred versus replacement. Sizing of a reline culvert uses the same hydraulic flow design criteria as that of a new culvert however as the reline culvert is meant to be inserted into an existing culvert or host pipe, reline installation requires the grouting of the annular space between the host pipe and the surface of reline pipe (typically using a low compression strength grout) so as to prevent or reduce seepage and soil migration. Grouting also serves as a means in establishing a structural connection between the liner, host pipe and soil. Depending on the size and annular space to be filled as well as the pipe elevation between the inlet and outlet, it may be necessary to add grout in multiple stages or "lifts". If multiple lifts are required, then a grouting plan is required, which should define the placement of grout feed tubes, air tubes, type of grout to be used, and if injecting or pumping grout, then the required developed pressure for injection. As the diameter of the reline pipe will be smaller than the host pipe, the cross-sectional flow area will be smaller. By selecting a reline pipe with a very smooth internal surface with an approximate Hazen-Williams Friction Factor C value of between 140–150, the decreased flow area can be offset, and hydraulic flow rates potentially increased by way of reduced surface flow resistance. Examples of pipe materials with high C-factors are high-density polyethylene (150) and polyvinyl chloride (140).[8]

Environmental impacts

[edit]
This culvert has a natural surface bottom connecting wildlife habitat.

Safe and stable stream crossings can accommodate wildlife and protect stream health, while reducing expensive erosion and structural damage. Undersized and poorly placed culverts can cause problems for water quality and aquatic organisms. Poorly designed culverts can degrade water quality via scour and erosion, as well as restrict the movement of aquatic organisms between upstream and downstream habitat. Fish are a common victim in the loss of habitat due to poorly designed crossing structures.

Culverts that offer adequate aquatic organism passage reduce impediments to movement of fish, wildlife, and other aquatic life that require instream passage. Poorly designed culverts are also more apt to become jammed with sediment and debris during medium to large scale rain events. If the culvert cannot pass the water volume in the stream, then the water may overflow the road embankment. This may cause significant erosion, ultimately washing out the culvert. The embankment material that is washed away can clog other structures downstream, causing them to fail as well. It can also damage crops and property. A properly sized structure and hard bank armoring can help to alleviate this pressure.

Aquatic organism passage compatible culvert replacement in Franklin, Vermont, just upstream from Lake Carmi

Culvert style replacement is a widespread practice in stream restoration. Long-term benefits of this practice include reduced risk of catastrophic failure and improved fish passage. If best management practices are followed, short-term impacts on the aquatic biology are minimal.[9]

Fish passage

[edit]
Further information: Fish ladder

While the culvert discharge capacity derives from hydrological and hydraulic engineering considerations,[10] this results often in large velocities in the barrel, creating a possible fish passage barrier. Critical culvert parameters in terms of fish passage are the dimensions of the barrel, particularly its length, cross-sectional shape, and invert slope. The behavioural response by fish species to culvert dimensions, light conditions, and flow turbulence may play a role in their swimming ability and culvert passage rate. There is no simple technical means to ascertain the turbulence characteristics most relevant to fish passage in culverts, but it is understood that the flow turbulence plays a key role in fish behaviour.[11][12]

The interactions between swimming fish and vortical structures involve a broad range of relevant length and time scales.[13] Recent discussions emphasised the role of secondary flow motion, considerations of fish dimensions in relation to the spectrum of turbulence scales, and the beneficial role of turbulent structures provided that fish are able to exploit them.[11][14][15][16][17][18][19]

The current literature on culvert fish passage focuses mostly on fast-swimming fish species, but a few studies have argued for better guidelines for small-bodied fish including juveniles.[16] Finally, a solid understanding of turbulence typology is a basic requirement to any successful hydraulic structure design conducive of upstream fish passage.[20]

Minimum energy loss culverts

[edit]
Corrugated metal culvert

In the coastal plains of Queensland, Australia, torrential rains during the wet season place a heavy demand on culverts. The natural slope of the flood plains is often very small, and little fall (or head loss) is permissible in the culverts. Researchers developed and patented the design procedure of minimum energy loss culverts which yield small afflux.[21][22][23]

A minimum energy loss culvert or waterway is a structure designed with the concept of minimum head loss. The flow in the approach channel is contracted through a streamlined inlet into the barrel where the channel width is minimum, and then it is expanded in a streamlined outlet before being finally released into the downstream natural channel. Both the inlet and the outlet must be streamlined to avoid significant form losses. The barrel invert is often lowered to increase the discharge capacity.

The concept of minimum energy loss culverts was developed by a shire engineer in Victoria and a professor at the University of Queensland during the late 1960s.[24] While a number of small-size structures were designed and built in Victoria, some major structures were designed, tested and built in south-east Queensland.

Forestry

[edit]

In forestry, proper use of cross-drainage culverts can improve water quality while allowing forestry operations to continue.[citation needed]

See also

[edit]
  • Bridge – Structure built to span physical obstacles
  • Clapper bridge – Bridge formed by large flat slabs of stone
  • Drainage – Removal of water from an area of land
  • Fish ladder – Structure to allow fish to migrate upriver around barriers
  • Low water crossing – Roadway usable only at low water levels
  • Sanitary sewer – Underground pipe for transporting sewage
  • Sough – Underground channel for water drainage
  • Subterranean river – River that runs wholly or partly beneath the ground surface

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Taylor, Karl (2010). "Thacka Beck Flood Alleviation Scheme, Penrith, Cumbria – Measured Building Survey of Culverts". Oxford Archaeology North.
  2. ^ a b c d Turner-Fairbank Highway research Center (1998). "Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts" (PDF), Report #FHWA-IP-85-15 US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, McLean, Virginia.
  3. ^ Wild, Thomas C. (2011). "Deculverting: reviewing the evidence on the 'daylighting' and restoration of culverted rivers". Water and Environment Journal. 25 (3): 412–421. doi:10.1111/j.1747-6593.2010.00236.x. S2CID 111280203.
  4. ^ a b Alberta Transportation (2004). "DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR BRIDGE SIZE CULVERTS" (PDF), Original Document 1995 Alberta Transportation, Technical Standards Branch, Government of the Province of Alberta
  5. ^ Department of Interior Bureau of Land Management (2006). "Culvert Use, Installation, and Sizing" Chapter 8 (PDF), Low Volume Engineering J Chapter 8, blm.gov/bmp.
  6. ^ Environmental Protection Agency EPA Management (2003-07-24). "Culverts-Water" NPS Unpaved Roads Chapter 3 (PDF), "CULVERTS" epa.gov.
  7. ^ a b Architectural Record CEU ENR (2013). "Stormwater Management Options and How They Can Fail" (Online Education Course), McGraw Hill Construction Architectural Record-engineering News Record.
  8. ^ Plastic Pipe Institute-Handbook of Polyethylene Pipe, First Edition Copy 2006
  9. ^ Lawrence, JE, Cover MR, May CL, Resh VH (2014). "Replacement of Culvert Styles has Minimal Impact on Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Forested, Mountainous Streams of Northern California". Limnologica. 47: 7–20. arXiv:1308.0904. doi:10.1016/j.limno.2014.02.002.
  10. ^ Chanson, H. (2004). The Hydraulics of Open Channel Flow: An Introduction. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2nd edition, Oxford, UK. ISBN 978-0-7506-5978-9.
  11. ^ a b Nikora VI, Aberle J, Biggs BJ, Jowett IG, Sykes JR (2003). "Effects of Fish Size, Time-to-Fatigue and Turbulence on Swimming Performance: a Case Study of Galaxias Maculatus". Journal of Fish Biology. 63 (6): 1365–1382. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2003.00241.x.
  12. ^ Wang, H.; Chanson, H. (2017). "How a better understanding of Fish-Hydrodynamics Interactions might enhance upstream fish passage in culverts". Civil Engineering Research Report No. CE162: 1–43.
  13. ^ Lupandin, A.I. (2005). "Effect of flow turbulence on swimming speed of fish". Biology Bulletin. 32 (5): 461–466. doi:10.1007/s10525-005-0125-z. S2CID 28258800.
  14. ^ Papanicolaou AN, Talebbeydokhti N (2002). "Discussion of Turbulent open-channel flow in circular corrugated culverts". Journal of Hydraulic Engineering. 128 (5): 548–549.
  15. ^ Plew DR, Nikora VI, Larne ST, Sykes JR, Cooper GG (2007). "Fish swimming speed variability at constant flow: Galaxias maculatus". New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 41 (2): 185–195. doi:10.1080/00288330709509907. S2CID 83942063.
  16. ^ a b Wang H, Chanson H, Kern P, Franklin C (2016). "Culvert Hydrodynamics to enhance Upstream Fish Passage: Fish Response to Turbulence". 20th Australasian Fluid Mechanics Conference, Perth, Australia. Paper 682: 1–4.
  17. ^ Cabonce J, Fernando R, Wang H, Chanson H (2017). Using Triangular Baffles to Facilitate Upstream Fish Passage in Box Culverts: Physical Modelling. Hydraulic Model Report No. CH107/17, School of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. ISBN 978-1-74272-186-6.
  18. ^ Wang, H.; Chanson, H. (2017). "Baffle Systems to Facilitate Upstream Fish Passage in Standard Box Culverts: How About Fish-Turbulence Interplay?". 37th IAHR World Congress, IAHR & USAINS, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 3: 2586–2595.
  19. ^ Wang, H.; Chanson, H. (2018). "Modelling Upstream Fish Passage in Standard Box Culverts: Interplay between Turbulence, Fish Kinematics, and Energetics" (PDF). River Research and Applications. 34 (3): 244–252. doi:10.1002/rra.3245.
  20. ^ Chanson, H. (2019). "Utilising the Boundary Layer to Help Restore the Connectivity of Fish Habitats and Populations. An Engineering Discussion" (PDF). Ecological Engineering. 141 (105613): 1–5. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2019.105613. S2CID 207901913.
  21. ^ Apelt, C.J. (1983). "Hydraulics of minimum energy culverts and bridge waterways". Australian Civil Engineering Transactions, CE25 (2) : 89–95. Available on-line at: University of Queensland.
  22. ^ Apelt, C.J. (1994). "The Minimum Energy Loss Culvert" (videocassette VHS colour), Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Queensland, Australia.
  23. ^ Apelt, Colin. (2011). "The Minimum Energy Loss Culvert, Redcliffe" Archived 20 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine (prepared speech: Award of Engineering Heritage National Landmark By Engineering Heritage Australia on 29 June 2011).
  24. ^ See:
    • Chanson, H. (2003). "History of Minimum Energy Loss Weirs and Culverts". 1960–2002. Proc. 30th IAHR [The International Association for Hydro-Environment Engineering and Research] Biennial Congress, Thessaloniki, Greece, J. GANOULIS and P. PRINOS, ed.s, vol. E, pp. 379–387. Available online at: University of Queensland.
    • Chanson, Hubert, Web page: Hydraulics of Minimum Energy Loss (MEL) culverts and bridge waterways staff.civil.uq.edu.au, accessed 15 January 2022

References

[edit]
[edit]
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