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{{Short description|Art movement}} |
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{{distinguish|Abstract Expressionism}} |
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{{distinguish|Abstract expressionism}} |
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{{Infobox art movement |
{{Infobox art movement |
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| name = Abstract |
| name = Abstract impressionism |
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| image = Danilo Soligo - Pittura "en plein air"- Foto - (1976).jpg |
| image = Danilo Soligo - Pittura "en plein air"- Foto - (1976).jpg |
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| caption = Painting |
| caption = Painting [[en plein air]], a traditionally abstract impressionist technique |
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| yearsactive = 1940s-Present |
| yearsactive = 1940s-Present |
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| country = [[United States]] |
| country = Mainly [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]] |
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| majorfigures = [[Bernard Cohen (painter)|Bernard Cohen]], [[Harold Cohen (artist)|Harold Cohen]], [[Sam Francis]], [[Patrick Heron]], [[Nicolas de |
| majorfigures = [[Bernard Cohen (painter)|Bernard Cohen]], [[Harold Cohen (artist)|Harold Cohen]], [[Sam Francis]], [[Patrick Heron]], [[Nicolas de Staël]] |
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| influences = [[Impressionism]] |
| influences = [[Impressionism]] |
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}} |
}} |
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[[Image:Jean-Paul Riopelle, Untitled, 1953, oil on canvas, 114 x 145 cm, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Rennes.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Jean-Paul Riopelle]], 1953, ''Untitled'', oil on canvas, 114 x 145 cm (44.9 by 57 in.), [[Museum of Fine Arts of Rennes]], France]] |
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'''Abstract |
'''Abstract impressionism''' is an art movement that originated in New York City, in the 1940s.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Chilvers|first=Ian|title=The Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780198604761|location=Oxford|chapter=Abstract Impressionism}}</ref><ref name=":1">Eduoard Malingue Gallery. ''Impressionism to Modern Art.'' Hong Kong: Eduard Malingue Gallery, 2011. 10.</ref> It involves the painting of a subject such as real-life scenes, objects, or people (portraits) in an [[Impressionist]] style, but with an emphasis on varying measures of [[abstract art|abstraction]].<ref name=":1" /> The paintings are often painted ''[[en plein air]],'' an artistic style involving painting outside with the landscape directly in front of the artist.<ref name=":1" /> The movement works delicately between the lines of pure abstraction (the extent of which varies greatly) and the allowance of an impression of reality in the painting.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Callen|first=Anthe|title=Techniques of the Impressionists|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2000|isbn=9781870461368|location=New Haven|pages=29}}</ref> |
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== History == |
== History == |
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The first coining of the term “Abstract Impressionism” has been attributed to painter and critic [[Elaine de Kooning]] in the 1950s.<ref name=":5" /> The introduction of this term and the associated artworks both preceded and legitimised its first exhibition in 1958, curated by [[Lawrence Alloway]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Hall|first=Lee|title=Elaine and Bill, Portrait of a Marriage: The Lives of Willem and Elaine de Kooning|publisher=Cooper Square Publishing|year=2000|isbn=9780060183059|location=Michigan|pages=}}</ref> |
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=== Terminology === |
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The term, after being coined by de Elaine Kooning,<ref name=":5" /> is considered to have been popularised by art critic [[Louis Finkelstein (artist)]] to describe the works of [[Philip Guston]], in order to distinguish his art from that of the growing [[abstract expressionism|Abstract Expressionism]].<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|last=Elderfield|first=John|title=Morris Louis: The Museum of Modern Art, New York.|last2=Louis|first2=Morris|publisher=Little Brown & Co.|year=1986|isbn=0870704184|location=Boston|pages=}}</ref> |
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{{See also|Abstract expressionism|Impressionism}} |
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The coining of the term ''abstract impressionism'' has been attributed to painter and critic [[Elaine de Kooning]] in the 1950s.<ref name=":5" /> The introduction of this term and the associated artworks both preceded and legitimised its first exhibition in 1958, curated by [[Lawrence Alloway]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Hall|first=Lee|title=Elaine and Bill, Portrait of a Marriage: The Lives of Willem and Elaine de Kooning|publisher=Cooper Square Publishing|year=2000|isbn=9780060183059|location=Michigan}}</ref> |
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=== Alloway's Exhibition === |
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Lawrence Alloway's exhibition, the first of its kind for Abstract Impressionism, featured 26 paintings by 23 artists.<ref name=":11" /> The idea for the exhibition came from the Fine Art Department of the University of Nottingham, and took place at the Arts Council Gallery in St. James' Square.<ref name=":11" /> |
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The term, after being coined by Elaine de Kooning,<ref name=":5" /> is considered to have been popularised by artist and critic [[Louis Finkelstein (artist)|Louis Finkelstein]] to describe the works of [[Philip Guston]], in order to distinguish his art from that of the growing field of [[abstract expressionism|Abstract Expressionism]].<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|last=Elderfield|first=John|title=Morris Louis: The Museum of Modern Art, New York.|last2=Louis|first2=Morris|publisher=Little Brown & Co.|year=1986|isbn=0870704184|location=Boston}}</ref> Phillip Guston's rise within artistic and social spheres in the mid 1950s was a determining factor in the development and profiling of abstract impressionism.<ref name=":0" /> His paintings were considered by Finkelstein to be simultaneously extensions of Abstract Expressionism and also oppositions of, or alternatives to, the aggressiveness of Abstract Expressionism.<ref name=":0" /> |
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The artists featured were from England, France, and America, and their various works were prefaced by a "lengthy catalogue"<ref name=":11" /> written by Alloway himself. Alan Bowness, a critic of the show, recalled [[Nicolas de Staël]], [[Peter Lanyon]], and [[Sam Francis]] to be participating in the exhibition.<ref name=":11" /> |
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After applying the term to Guston, Finkelstein continued to use "abstract impressionism" to describe new artworks and artistic practices in the 1950s, in [[New York City|New York]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /> He believed and purported that emerging forms of artmaking provided a unique opportunity to redefine and re-evaluate a series of artists who, despite being raised around the ideals and norms of Abstract Expressionism, were moving more towards reinvigorating the ideals of the traditional [[Impressionism|Impressionist movement]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /> |
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<br /> |
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=== Alloway's exhibition === |
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[[Image:Jean-Paul Riopelle, Untitled, 1953, oil on canvas, 114 x 145 cm, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Rennes.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Jean-Paul Riopelle]], 1953, ''Untitled'', oil on canvas, 114 x 145 cm (44.9 by 57 in.), [[Museum of Fine Arts of Rennes]], France]] |
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Lawrence Alloway's exhibition, the first of its kind for abstract impressionism, featured 26 paintings by 23 artists.<ref name=":11" /> The idea for the exhibition came from the Fine Art Department of the [[University of Nottingham]], and took place at the Arts Council Gallery in St. James' Square.<ref name=":11" /> |
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The artists featured were from [[England]], [[France]], and the [[United States]], with their various works prefaced by a ''"lengthy catalogue"''<ref name=":11" /> written by Alloway himself. [[Alan Bowness]], a critic of the show, recalled [[Nicolas de Staël]], [[Peter Lanyon]], and [[Sam Francis]] to be participating artists in the exhibition.<ref name=":11" /> |
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=== Differentiation === |
=== Differentiation === |
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{{See also|Cubism|Futurism|Abstract art|Impressionism}} |
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Both the exhibition and the movement in general were considered by many to highlight a distinct differentiation from preceding movements<ref name=":1" />- although, some critics, like Bowness, argued the works of the movement were not differentiated enough from previous works.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":12" /> |
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Both the exhibition and the movement in general were considered by many to highlight a distinct differentiation from preceding movements,<ref name=":1" /> despite some critics, like Alan Bowness, arguing the works of the movement were not differentiated enough from previous works.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":12" /> |
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Despite controversy |
Despite this controversy, abstract impressionism has been considered an ideological opposition to the other post-war movements of the era- specifically its growing countermovements, [[Cubism]] and [[Futurism]].<ref name=":2" /> Whilst Futurism focussed on rejecting the art of the past,<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|title=Futurism {{!}} Definition, Manifesto, Artists, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Futurism|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref> abstract impressionism sought to incorporate techniques from numerous movements before it.<ref name=":2" /> This included both the [[Abstract art|Abstract]] and [[Impressionism|Impressionist]] movements of the early 1900s and the 1860s respectively.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last=Denvir|first=Bernard|title=The Chronicle of Impressionism: A Timeline History of Impressionist Art|publisher=Bulfinch Press|year=1993|isbn=082122042X|location=Boston}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite book|last=Gaff|first=Jackie|title=1910-1920 The Birth of Abstract Art: A History of Modern Art|publisher=Heinemann Library|year=2000|isbn=0836828496|location=Oxford}}</ref> Additionally, abstract impressionists were unwilling to subscribe to the rationality and mathematic precision of Cubism.<ref name=":0" /> They rejected the idea of creating an image out of divided parts, and instead sought to create a mass of colour and imagery, that would only be recognisable as a whole.<ref name=":0" /> |
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Abstract impressionism has been considered a result from an artist deviation from the ''“expressionistic aggressiveness of the forties”'', and the simultaneous embracing of both new abstraction techniques and more traditional roots of nature and lyrical appreciation.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Seitz|first=William|date=1956-10-01|title=Monet and Abstract Painting|journal=College Art Journal|volume=16|pages=34–46|via=JSTOR}}</ref> |
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In terms of distinguishing themselves from traditional Impressionist works, |
In terms of distinguishing themselves from traditional Impressionist works, abstract impressionists deviate in a way that Elaine de Kooning describes as ''“keep[ing] the Impressionist manner of looking at a scene, but [leaving] out the scene… thereby giving an old style a new subject”''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=De Kooning|first=Elaine|title=The Spirit of Abstract Expressionism: Selected Writings|publisher=George Braziller|year=1955|isbn=978-0807613375|location=New York|pages=62}}</ref> Simply put, they add abstraction onto Impressionism and take away the reliance on specificity and exactness. |
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----[[Abstract impressionism#%20ftnref1|[1]]] Elaine de Kooning, ''The Spirit of Abstract Expressionism,'' 62. |
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== Criticism == |
== Criticism == |
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{{See also|Abstract |
{{See also|Abstract expressionism|Lyrical abstraction|Post-Impressionism}} |
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=== Stylistic |
=== Stylistic criticism === |
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Abstract |
Abstract impressionism has been criticised for its legitimacy, and its inability to distinguish itself from other movements, by many art critics.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite news|last=Bowness|first=Alan|date=1958-06-15|title=Abstract Impressionism?|page=15|work=The Observer: At the Galleries}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite book|last=Watney|first=Simon|title=English Post-Impressionism|publisher=Studio Vista|year=1980|isbn=9780289708880|location=Great Britain|pages=93–108|chapter=Bloomsbury Abstraction}}</ref> After one of its early exhibitions at the Arts Gallery Council in St. James Square, [[Alan Bowness]] (a highly regarded art critic and historian) described abstract impressionism as "just another 'ism",<ref name=":11" /> without "the catalogue for the adoption of this new term [being] very convincing".<ref name=":11" /> The main point of contention regards a difficulty separating the movement from other art periods, such as [[abstract expressionism]], [[lyrical abstraction]], or [[Post-Impressionism]].<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":12" /> Bowness says that in trying to discern ''"particular qualities these pictures have in common, qualities that differentiate them from other paintings of a roughly similar type... the result is all together inconclusive"''.<ref name=":11" /> |
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A further issue has been the widely varying degrees of abstraction in the movement, that may make visual uniformity difficult.<ref name=":11" /> Bowness notes that he finds it difficult to comprehend any unity between the artworks, and concludes that there is no movement that could rightfully claim all of them.<ref name=":11" /> |
A further issue has been the widely varying degrees of abstraction in the movement, that may make visual uniformity difficult.<ref name=":11" /> Bowness notes that he finds it difficult to comprehend any unity between the artworks, and concludes that there is no movement that could rightfully claim all of them.<ref name=":11" /> |
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=== Categorisation |
=== Categorisation criticism === |
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Another element of controversy within |
Another element of controversy within abstract impressionism comes in attempting to categorise its style within other movements.<ref name=":12" /> Art historians [[Simon Watney]] and [[Roger Fry]]<ref name=":12" /> debate over two places in which abstract impressionism may fit. They conclude to be unsure of whether it is a further development of [[Post-Impressionism]], or if it is perhaps more related to the period of Bloomsbury Abstraction within the Abstract movement.<ref name=":12" /> |
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Additionally, many artists that the |
Additionally, many artists that the abstract impressionist movement has claimed- such as [[Milton Resnick]], [[Sam Francis]], [[Nicolas de Staël]], or [[Jackson Pollock]]<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Gooding|first=Mel|title=Patrick Heron|publisher=Phaidon Press|year=1994|isbn=9780714834443|location=New York|pages=4}}</ref>- are simultaneously considered to be members of other more widely recognised movements, such as Abstract Expressionism,<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Solomon|first=R.|title=American Abstract Expressionists and Imagists|publisher=Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum|year=1961|location=New York|pages=85–95}}</ref> whether by their own definition or the labelling of other art critics. |
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== Style == |
== Style == |
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The style of |
The style of abstract impressionism focusses on the portrayal of real life subjects- typically situated close to the artist themselves- through simplification and abstraction.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":8" /> This creates a work of art that lends itself towards the traditions of both [[Impressionism]] and [[Abstract art]] movements.<ref name=":2" /> The amount of abstraction varies greatly from painting to painting,<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":11" /> which has been seen as a point of controversy in the movement as it disallows visual conformity between works.<ref name=":11" /> |
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=== Painting |
=== Painting techniques === |
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[[File:Guillaumin SoleilCouchantAIvry.jpg|thumb|Armand Guillaumin's '' |
[[File:Guillaumin SoleilCouchantAIvry.jpg|thumb|[[Armand Guillaumin]]'s ''Sunset at Ivry'', 1873. Demonstrates the Impressionist technique of "loading" paint onto the canvas to create a layered impact. |alt=|left]] |
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Like Impressionism, the artworks feature short brushstrokes with paint “loaded” onto the painting instrument.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":2" /> This technique involves piling paint onto an art tool, such as a brush or a palette knife, and layering the paint onto the canvas or paper to create a multi-layered and textured effect- or, an "impression".<ref name=":2" /> |
Like Impressionism, the artworks feature short brushstrokes with paint “loaded” onto the painting instrument.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":2" /> This technique involves piling paint onto an art tool, such as a brush or a palette knife, and layering the paint onto the canvas or paper to create a multi-layered and textured effect- or, an "impression".<ref name=":2" /> |
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Abstract impressionists paintings have been described to resemble late-Impressionist pictures in their technique, like those of [[Monet]],<ref name=":4" /> but without the representative content that usually defines Impressionism.<ref name=":4" /> |
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Abstract |
Abstract impressionist style also relies largely on the painting embracing the concept of [[en plein air]].<ref name=":1" /> ''En plein air'' painting is an artistic style involving painting outdoors, with the landscape or subject directly in front of the artist.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Callen|first=Anthe|title=The Art of Impressionism: Painting Technique & The Making of Modernity|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2000|isbn=9780300084023|location=New Haven|pages=5}}</ref> This technique is used primarily by Impressionists.<ref name=":2" /> However, abstract impression deviates from traditional ''en plain air'' artworks<ref name=":1" /> as the level of exactness or realism in the painting is seen to be less important than overall atmospheric effect.<ref name=":1" /> |
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=== Deviations from |
=== Deviations from similar movements === |
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Abstract |
Abstract impressionists have been described to be largely inspired by modern advances in and changing attitudes towards [[color theory]].<ref name=":1" /> Traditional Impressionist work, in its reflection of reality, often used gentle, bright, and complementary colours to mirror the outdoor setting and light sources.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Webster|first=J. Carson|date=1944|title=The Technique of Impressionism: A Reappraisal|journal=College Art Journal|volume=4|pages=3–22|doi=10.1080/15436322.1944.10795065}}</ref> Abstract impressionists, however, "did not hesitate to apply innovative techniques to their painting, considered revolutionary at the time".<ref name=":1" /> |
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== Notable |
== Notable artists and artworks == |
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[[File:Act by Antoni Karwowski.jpg|thumb|Antoni Karwowski, ''Act'' (2008). Karwowski's work entails the Abstract Impressionist style of depicting an object- in this case, a woman's body- with a degree of abstraction that allows it to still be recongisable.|alt=|388x388px]] |
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=== Notable |
=== Notable artists === |
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As aforementioned, notable artists and artworks of this movement are subject to controversy and possible subjectivity.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":11" /><ref name=":12" /> |
As aforementioned, notable artists and artworks of this movement are subject to controversy and possible subjectivity.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":11" /><ref name=":12" /> |
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The first abstract impressionist exhibition, curated by Lawrence Alloway, took place in London.''The Oxford Dictionary of Art'' ''and Artists'' lists the following artists as its subjects:<ref name=":4" /> |
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* |
*[[Bernard Cohen (painter)]] |
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* |
*[[Harold Cohen (artist)]] |
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*[[Sam Francis]] |
*[[Sam Francis]] |
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* |
*[[Patrick Heron]] |
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*[[Nicolas de Staël]] |
*[[Nicolas de Staël]] |
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Art historian and critic Alan Bowness, in his critique of the first exhibition, also mentions [[Peter Lanyon]]'s presence, and confirmed Sam Francis and Nicolas de Staël to be there. |
Art historian and critic Alan Bowness, in his critique of the first exhibition, also mentions [[Peter Lanyon]]'s presence, and confirmed Sam Francis and Nicolas de Staël to be there. |
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The following is a comprehensive list of artists who have been associated with the movement.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite book|last=Gooding|first=Mel|title=Patrick Heron|publisher=Phaidon Press|year=1994|isbn=9780714834443|location=New York |
The following is a comprehensive list of artists who have been associated with the movement.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite book|last=Gooding|first=Mel|title=Patrick Heron|publisher=Phaidon Press|year=1994|isbn=9780714834443|location=New York}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Sandler|first=Irving|title=The New York School: Painters and Sculptors of the Fifties|publisher=Westview Press|year=1979|isbn=9780429708756|location=Colorado}}</ref> |
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{{Div col|colwidth=18em}} |
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* Bernard Cohen |
* Bernard Cohen |
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* Harold Cohen |
* Harold Cohen |
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| Line 87: | Line 95: | ||
*[[Richard Pousette-Dart]] |
*[[Richard Pousette-Dart]] |
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*[[Jean-Paul Riopelle]] |
*[[Jean-Paul Riopelle]] |
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* William Duvall |
* William Duvall |
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* Phillip Guston |
* [[Phillip Guston]] |
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*[[Jackson Pollock]] |
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*[[Jackson Pollock]] (despite Pollock identifying and labelling himself as an Abstract Expressionist Action-Painter)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jackson Pollock {{!}} Biography & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jackson-Pollock|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-05-26}}</ref> |
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*[[Willem de Kooning]] |
*[[Willem de Kooning]] |
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*[[Joan Mitchell]] |
*[[Joan Mitchell]] |
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*[[Ad Reinhardt]] |
*[[Ad Reinhardt]] |
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*[[Bradley Walker Tomlin]] |
*[[Bradley Walker Tomlin]] |
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*[[Janet Sobel]] |
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{{div col end}} |
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=== Notable |
=== Notable artworks === |
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* Sam Francis: ''Black and Red''<ref name=":15">{{Cite web|title=Black and Red|url=https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/1343|last=Francis|first=Sam|date=1954|website=Guggenheim Museum|access-date=2020-04-05}}</ref> |
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[[File:Cohen Spotlight, Tate Britain, 2017 25.jpg|thumb|A photograph of the Tate Museum in which various Bernard Cohen paintings are presented. ''In That Moment'' is depicted to the far right of the gallery.]] |
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* Julius Reque: ''Abstract Impressionism in Photography''<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|title=Abstract Impressionism in Photography|url=https://www.flickriver.com/photos/juliusreque/4774230853/|last=Reque|first=Julius|date=2009|website=FlickRiver|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref> |
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* Sam Francis: ''Black and Red''<ref name=":15">{{Cite web|title=Black and Red|url=https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/1343|last=Francis|first=Sam|date=1954|website=Guggenheim Museum|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-04-05}}</ref> |
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* Julius Reque: ''Abstract Impressionism in Photography''<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|title=Abstract Impressionism in Photography|url=https://www.flickriver.com/photos/juliusreque/4774230853/|last=Reque|first=Julius|date=2009|website=FlickRiver|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref> |
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* Bernard Cohen: ''In That Moment''<ref name=":17">{{Cite web|title=‘In That Moment’, Bernard Cohen, 1965|url=https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/cohen-in-that-moment-t00800|last=Tate|website=Tate|language=en-GB|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref> |
* Bernard Cohen: ''In That Moment''<ref name=":17">{{Cite web|title=‘In That Moment’, Bernard Cohen, 1965|url=https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/cohen-in-that-moment-t00800|last=Tate|website=Tate|language=en-GB|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref> |
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* Nicolas de Staël: ''Etude de Paysage'' (Landscape Study)<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|title=‘Landscape Study’, Nicolas de Stael, 1952|url=https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/stael-landscape-study-t00607|last=Tate|website=Tate|language=en-GB|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref> |
* Nicolas de Staël: ''Etude de Paysage'' (Landscape Study)<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|title=‘Landscape Study’, Nicolas de Stael, 1952|url=https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/stael-landscape-study-t00607|last=Tate|website=Tate|language=en-GB|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref> |
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| Line 109: | Line 117: | ||
* Patrick Heron: ''Azalea Garden''<ref name=":20">{{Cite web|title=‘Azalea Garden : May 1956’, Patrick Heron, 1956|url=https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/heron-azalea-garden-may-1956-t03107|last=Tate|website=Tate|language=en-GB|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref> |
* Patrick Heron: ''Azalea Garden''<ref name=":20">{{Cite web|title=‘Azalea Garden : May 1956’, Patrick Heron, 1956|url=https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/heron-azalea-garden-may-1956-t03107|last=Tate|website=Tate|language=en-GB|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref> |
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== |
== See also == |
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{{reflist}} |
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=== Related art styles and movements === |
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| list1 = [[Abstract Expressionism]] |
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| list2 = *[[Bernard Cohen (painter)|Bernard Cohen]] |
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| list2 = |
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* [[Italian Renaissance painting|Italian Renaissance]] <!-- late 13th–late 16th c. --> |
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* [[Early Netherlandish painting|Early Netherlandish]] <!-- 1420–1520 --> |
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* [[German Renaissance]] <!-- 15th & 16th c. --> |
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* [[Antwerp Mannerism|Antwerp Mannerists]] <!-- 1500–1530 --> |
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* [[Danube school]] <!-- 1500–1530 de at --> |
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* [[High Renaissance]] |
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* [[Venetian painting]] |
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* [[Romanism (painting)|Romanism]] <!-- 16th c. nl --> |
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* [[Mannerism]] <!-- 1520–1580 Italy --> |
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* [[School of Fontainebleau|Fontainebleau]] <!-- 1530–1610 fr --> |
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* [[Northern Mannerism]] <!-- 1530–1580 fr cz nl--> |
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| group3 = 17th century |
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| list3 = |
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* [[Baroque]] |
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* [[Caravaggisti]] |
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* [[Classicism]] |
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* [[Dutch Golden Age painting|Dutch Golden Age]] <!-- 17th c. --> |
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* [[Flemish Baroque painting|Flemish Baroque]] <!-- end of 16th c. nl --> |
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| group4 = 18th century |
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| list4 = |
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* [[Rocaille]] |
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* [[Rococo]] |
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* [[Neoclassicism]] |
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* [[Romanticism]] |
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| group5 = 19th century |
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| list5 = |
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* [[Naïve art|Naïve]] <!-- 18th–20th c. --> |
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* [[Nazarene movement|Nazarene]] |
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* [[Realism (arts)|Realism]] / [[Realism (art movement)|Realism]] |
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* [[Historicism (art)|Historicism]] |
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* [[Biedermeier]] |
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* [[Barbizon school]] |
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* [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood|Pre-Raphaelites]] |
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* [[Academic art|Academic]] |
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* [[Hudson River School]] |
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* [[Aestheticism]] |
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* [[Art pottery]] |
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* [[Macchiaioli]] |
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* [[Peredvizhniki]] |
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* [[Impressionism]] |
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* [[Heidelberg School]] |
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* [[Decadent movement|Decadent]] |
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* [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]] |
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* [[Art Nouveau]] |
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* [[Post-Impressionism]] |
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* [[Neo-Impressionism]] |
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* [[Pointillism]] |
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* [[Cloisonnism]] |
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* [[Les Nabis]] |
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* [[Synthetism]] |
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* [[Costumbrismo]] |
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| group6 = [[20th-century art|20th century]] |
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| list6 = |
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<!-- 1900 --> |
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* [[Arts and Crafts movement|Arts and Crafts]] <!-- 1880–1910 --> |
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* [[Incoherents]] <!-- 1882-mid 1890s --> |
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* [[Fauvism]] <!-- 1904-1908 --> |
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* [[Die Brücke]] <!-- 1905–13 --> |
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* [[Cubism]] <!-- early 20th c. --> |
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* [[Expressionism]] <!-- early 20th c. --> |
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* [[Neue Künstlervereinigung München]] <!-- 1909–12 --> |
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* [[Futurism]] <!-- 1909–14 --> |
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* [[Metaphysical art]] <!-- 1911–20 --> |
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* [[Rayonism]] <!-- 1911–14 --> |
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* [[Der Blaue Reiter]] <!-- 1911–14 --> |
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* [[Orphism (art)|Orphism]] <!-- 1912–3 --> |
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* [[Synchromism]] <!-- 1912–3 --> |
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* [[Vorticism]] <!-- 1913–15 --> |
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* [[Suprematism]] <!-- 1913–15 --> |
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* [[Ashcan School|Ashcan]] <!-- 19 teens --> |
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* [[Dada]] <!-- 1915–20+ --> |
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* [[De Stijl]] <!-- 1917 --> |
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* [[Australian tonalism]] <!-- 1918-30+ --> |
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* [[Purism]] <!-- 1918–25 --> |
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* [[Bauhaus]] <!-- 1919–33 --> |
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* [[Kinetic art]] <!-- c. 1919–60+ --> |
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* [[New Objectivity]] <!-- 1920s --> |
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* [[Grosvenor School of Modern Art|Grosvenor School]] <!-- school itself during 1920s-1940s; artists up to 1992 and very early 2000s at the latest --> |
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* [[Neues Sehen]] <!-- 1920s and 30s --> |
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* [[Surrealism]] <!-- 1920s --> |
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* [[Neo-Fauvism]] <!-- mid 1920s --> |
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* [[Precisionism]] <!-- 1920s and 30s --> |
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* [[Scuola Romana]] <!-- 1928–45, 50+ --> |
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* [[Art Deco]] <!-- chiefly 20s and 30s --> |
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* [[International Typographic Style]] <!-- 1920s–50s --> |
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* [[Social realism]] <!-- 1920s and 30s, to 60s --> |
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* [[Abstract expressionism]] <!-- 1940s --> |
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* [[Vienna School of Fantastic Realism]] <!-- 1946–? --> |
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* [[Color Field]] <!-- 1940s and 50s --> |
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* [[Lyrical abstraction]] <!-- 1945–47 (Europe); 60s–70s (U.S.); revival 1970s–2000+ --> |
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* [[Tachisme]] <!-- 40s–50s --> |
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* [[COBRA (avant-garde movement)|COBRA]] <!-- 1948–51 --> |
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* [[Action painting]] <!-- 1940s–early 60s --> |
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* [[New media art]] <!-- chiefly 2nd half 20th c. --> |
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* [[Letterist International]] <!-- 1952–57 --> |
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* [[Pop art]] <!-- 1955–1960s --> |
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* [[Situationist International]] <!-- 1957–72 --> |
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* [[Lettrism]] <!-- 50s–70s+ --> |
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* [[Neo-Dada]] <!-- 1960s --> |
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* [[Op art]] <!-- chiefly 1960s --> |
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* [[Nouveau réalisme]] <!-- 1960–70 --> |
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* [[Art & Language]] <!-- 1960s–70s --> |
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* [[Conceptual art]] <!-- 1960s–70s --> |
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* [[Land art]] <!-- 1968–80s+ --> |
|||
* [[Systems art]] <!-- 1960s–70s --> |
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* [[Video art]] <!-- 1960s–70s+ --> |
|||
* [[Minimalism (visual arts)|Minimalism]] <!-- 60s and 70s --> |
|||
* [[Fluxus]] <!-- 1960s–70s --> |
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* [[Photorealism]] <!-- late 60s to 70s and beyond --> |
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* [[Performance art]] <!-- 1960s–200s+ --> |
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* [[Installation art]] <!-- 1970s–90s --> |
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* [[Endurance art]] <!-- 1971–2012+ --> |
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* [[Outsider art]] <!-- 1972–90s+ --> |
|||
* [[Neo-expressionism]] <!-- late 1970s–mid 80s --> |
|||
* [[Lowbrow (art movement)|Lowbrow]] <!-- late 70s–2000+ --> |
|||
* [[Young British Artists]] <!-- 1988–1990s+ --> |
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* [[Amazonian pop art]] <!-- 1990+ --> |
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| group7 = 21st century |
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| list7 = |
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* [[Art intervention]] |
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* [[Hyperrealism (visual arts)|Hyperrealism]] |
|||
* [[Neo-futurism]] |
|||
* [[Stuckism]] |
|||
* [[Sound art]] |
|||
* [[Superstroke]] |
|||
* [[Superflat]] |
|||
* [[Relational art]] |
|||
* [[Walking Artists Network|Walking art]] |
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| group8 = Related |
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| list8 = |
|||
* [[Avant-garde]] |
|||
* [[Feminist art movement]] ([[Feminist art movement in the United States|in the US]]) |
|||
* [[Modern art]] |
|||
* [[Modern sculpture]] |
|||
* [[Modernism]] |
|||
* [[Late modernism]] |
|||
* [[Postmodern art]] |
|||
* [[Western painting]] |
|||
| below = |
|||
{{icon|List}} [[:List of art movements]] |
|||
{{icon|Category}} [[:Category:Art movements]] |
|||
}}<noinclude></noinclude> |
|||
{{Navbox |
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| name = Avant-garde |
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| title = [[Avant-garde]] movements |
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| state = {{{state|autocollapse}}} |
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| bodyclass = hlist |
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| group1 = Visual art |
|||
| list1 = |
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* [[Abstract expressionism]] |
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* [[Art Nouveau]] |
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* [[Art & Language]] |
|||
* [[Conceptual art]] |
|||
* [[Constructivism (art)|Constructivism]] |
|||
* [[Cubism]] |
* [[Cubism]] |
||
* [[ |
* [[Futurism]] |
||
* [[ |
* [[History of Painting]] |
||
* [[Cubo-Futurism]] |
|||
* [[De Stijl]] |
|||
* [[Devětsil]] |
|||
* [[Divisionism]] |
|||
* [[Fauvism]] |
|||
* [[Impressionism]] |
* [[Impressionism]] |
||
* [[Informalism]] |
|||
* [[Neo-impressionism|Neo-Impressionism]] |
|||
* [[ |
* [[Lyrical Abstraction]] |
||
* [[ |
* [[Representation (arts)]] |
||
* [[ |
* [[Western Painting]] |
||
* [[Lyrical abstraction|Lyrical Abstraction]] |
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* [[Mail art]] |
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* [[Minimalism (visual arts)|Minimalism]] |
|||
* [[Mir iskusstva]] |
|||
* [[Multidimensional art]] |
|||
* [[Neue Slowenische Kunst]] |
|||
* [[Soviet Nonconformist Art|Nonconformism]] |
|||
* [[Performance art]] |
|||
* [[Pop art]] |
|||
* [[Process art]] |
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* [[Rayonism]] |
|||
* [[Suprematism]] |
|||
* [[Vorticism]] |
|||
* [[Nouveau réalisme]] |
|||
{{div col end}} |
|||
| group3 = [[Avant-garde music|Music]] |
|||
| list3 = |
|||
{{Navbox|subgroup |
|||
| group1 = By style |
|||
| list1 = |
|||
* [[Avant-funk|Funk]] |
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* [[Avant-garde jazz|Jazz]] |
|||
* [[Avant-garde metal|Metal]] |
|||
* [[Avant-pop|Pop]] |
|||
* [[Experimental rock|Rock]] |
|||
** [[Avant-prog|Prog]] |
|||
** [[Avant-punk|Punk]] |
|||
== References == |
|||
| group2 = Others |
|||
{{reflist}} |
|||
| list2 = |
|||
* [[Aleatoric music]] |
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* [[Ars subtilior]] |
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* [[atonality|Atonal music]] |
|||
* [[Electroacoustic music]] |
|||
* [[Electronic music]] |
|||
** [[Industrial music]] |
|||
* [[Experimental pop]] |
|||
* [[Free jazz]] |
|||
** [[Free improvisation]] |
|||
* [[Futurism (music)|Futurism]] |
|||
* [[Microtonal music]] |
|||
* [[Minimal music]] |
|||
** [[Drone music]] |
|||
* [[Music theatre]] |
|||
* [[Musique concrète]] |
|||
* [[New Complexity]] |
|||
* [[No wave]] |
|||
* [[Noise music]] |
|||
* [[Post-rock]] |
|||
* [[Rock in Opposition]] |
|||
* [[Second Viennese School]] |
|||
* [[Serialism]] |
|||
* [[Spectral music]] |
|||
* [[Stochastic#Music|Stochastic music]] |
|||
* [[sound mass|Textural music]] |
|||
* [[Totalism]] |
|||
* [[Twelve-tone technique]] |
|||
}} |
|||
| group2 = Literature<br />and poetry |
|||
| list2 = |
|||
* [[Acmeist poetry|Acmeism]] |
|||
* [[Angry Penguins]] |
|||
* [[Asemic writing]] |
|||
* [[Conceptual writing|Conceptual poetry]] |
|||
* [[Cyberpunk]] |
|||
* [[Ego-Futurism]] |
|||
* [[Experimental literature]] |
|||
* [[Flarf poetry]] |
|||
* [[Hungry generation]] |
|||
* [[Imaginism]] |
|||
* [[Language poets]] |
|||
* [[Neoavanguardia]] |
|||
* [[Neoteric]] |
|||
* [[Nouveau roman]] |
|||
* [[Oberiu]] |
|||
* [[Oulipo]] |
|||
* [[Slam poetry]] |
|||
* [[Ultraist movement|Ultraísmo]] |
|||
* [[Visual poetry]] |
|||
* [[Zaum]] |
|||
| group4 = Cinema<br />and theatre |
|||
| list4 = |
|||
* [[Cinéma pur]] |
|||
* [[Dogme 95]] |
|||
* [[Drop Art]] |
|||
* [[Epic theatre]] |
|||
* [[Experimental film]] |
|||
* [[Experimental theatre]] |
|||
* [[Postdramatic theatre]] |
|||
* [[Remodernist film]] |
|||
* [[Structural film]] |
|||
* [[Theatre of the Absurd]] |
|||
* [[Theatre of Cruelty]] |
|||
| group5 = General |
|||
| list5 = |
|||
* [[Bauhaus]] |
|||
* [[Constructivism (art)|Constructivism]] |
|||
* [[Dada]] |
|||
* [[Expressionism]] |
|||
* [[Fluxus]] |
|||
* [[Futurism]] |
|||
* [[Lettrism]] |
|||
* [[Modernism]] |
|||
* [[Minimalism]] |
|||
* [[Postminimalism]] |
|||
* [[Neo-minimalism]] |
|||
* [[Neo-Dada]] |
|||
* [[Neoism]] |
|||
* [[Postmodernism]] |
|||
* [[Late modernism]] |
|||
* [[Primitivism]] |
|||
* [[Russian Futurism]] |
|||
* [[Russian symbolism]] |
|||
* [[Situationist International]] |
|||
* [[Social realism]] |
|||
* [[Socialist realism]] |
|||
* [[Surrealism]] |
|||
* [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]] |
|||
* [[Abstract Impressionism]] |
|||
| below = {{Icon|Book}} '''[[Book:Avant-garde|Book]]''' |
|||
}} |
|||
[[Category:Impressionism]] |
[[Category:Impressionism]] |
||
[[Category:Visual arts]] |
|||
[[Category:Art movements]] |
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Latest revision as of 13:25, 10 September 2024
.jpg) Painting en plein air, a traditionally abstract impressionist technique | |
| Years active | 1940s-Present |
|---|---|
| Location | Mainly United States, United Kingdom |
| Major figures | Bernard Cohen, Harold Cohen, Sam Francis, Patrick Heron, Nicolas de Staël |
| Influences | Impressionism |
Abstract impressionism is an art movement that originated in New York City, in the 1940s.[1][2] It involves the painting of a subject such as real-life scenes, objects, or people (portraits) in an Impressionist style, but with an emphasis on varying measures of abstraction.[2] The paintings are often painted en plein air, an artistic style involving painting outside with the landscape directly in front of the artist.[2] The movement works delicately between the lines of pure abstraction (the extent of which varies greatly) and the allowance of an impression of reality in the painting.[3]
History
[edit]Terminology
[edit]The coining of the term abstract impressionism has been attributed to painter and critic Elaine de Kooning in the 1950s.[4] The introduction of this term and the associated artworks both preceded and legitimised its first exhibition in 1958, curated by Lawrence Alloway.[4]
The term, after being coined by Elaine de Kooning,[4] is considered to have been popularised by artist and critic Louis Finkelstein to describe the works of Philip Guston, in order to distinguish his art from that of the growing field of Abstract Expressionism.[5] Phillip Guston's rise within artistic and social spheres in the mid 1950s was a determining factor in the development and profiling of abstract impressionism.[6] His paintings were considered by Finkelstein to be simultaneously extensions of Abstract Expressionism and also oppositions of, or alternatives to, the aggressiveness of Abstract Expressionism.[6]
After applying the term to Guston, Finkelstein continued to use "abstract impressionism" to describe new artworks and artistic practices in the 1950s, in New York.[6][7] He believed and purported that emerging forms of artmaking provided a unique opportunity to redefine and re-evaluate a series of artists who, despite being raised around the ideals and norms of Abstract Expressionism, were moving more towards reinvigorating the ideals of the traditional Impressionist movement.[6][7]
Alloway's exhibition
[edit]
Lawrence Alloway's exhibition, the first of its kind for abstract impressionism, featured 26 paintings by 23 artists.[8] The idea for the exhibition came from the Fine Art Department of the University of Nottingham, and took place at the Arts Council Gallery in St. James' Square.[8]
The artists featured were from England, France, and the United States, with their various works prefaced by a "lengthy catalogue"[8] written by Alloway himself. Alan Bowness, a critic of the show, recalled Nicolas de Staël, Peter Lanyon, and Sam Francis to be participating artists in the exhibition.[8]
Differentiation
[edit]Both the exhibition and the movement in general were considered by many to highlight a distinct differentiation from preceding movements,[2] despite some critics, like Alan Bowness, arguing the works of the movement were not differentiated enough from previous works.[8][9]
Despite this controversy, abstract impressionism has been considered an ideological opposition to the other post-war movements of the era- specifically its growing countermovements, Cubism and Futurism.[3] Whilst Futurism focussed on rejecting the art of the past,[10] abstract impressionism sought to incorporate techniques from numerous movements before it.[3] This included both the Abstract and Impressionist movements of the early 1900s and the 1860s respectively.[11][12] Additionally, abstract impressionists were unwilling to subscribe to the rationality and mathematic precision of Cubism.[6] They rejected the idea of creating an image out of divided parts, and instead sought to create a mass of colour and imagery, that would only be recognisable as a whole.[6]
Abstract impressionism has been considered a result from an artist deviation from the “expressionistic aggressiveness of the forties”, and the simultaneous embracing of both new abstraction techniques and more traditional roots of nature and lyrical appreciation.[7]
In terms of distinguishing themselves from traditional Impressionist works, abstract impressionists deviate in a way that Elaine de Kooning describes as “keep[ing] the Impressionist manner of looking at a scene, but [leaving] out the scene… thereby giving an old style a new subject”.[13] Simply put, they add abstraction onto Impressionism and take away the reliance on specificity and exactness.
Criticism
[edit]Stylistic criticism
[edit]Abstract impressionism has been criticised for its legitimacy, and its inability to distinguish itself from other movements, by many art critics.[4][8][9] After one of its early exhibitions at the Arts Gallery Council in St. James Square, Alan Bowness (a highly regarded art critic and historian) described abstract impressionism as "just another 'ism",[8] without "the catalogue for the adoption of this new term [being] very convincing".[8] The main point of contention regards a difficulty separating the movement from other art periods, such as abstract expressionism, lyrical abstraction, or Post-Impressionism.[8][9] Bowness says that in trying to discern "particular qualities these pictures have in common, qualities that differentiate them from other paintings of a roughly similar type... the result is all together inconclusive".[8]
A further issue has been the widely varying degrees of abstraction in the movement, that may make visual uniformity difficult.[8] Bowness notes that he finds it difficult to comprehend any unity between the artworks, and concludes that there is no movement that could rightfully claim all of them.[8]
Categorisation criticism
[edit]Another element of controversy within abstract impressionism comes in attempting to categorise its style within other movements.[9] Art historians Simon Watney and Roger Fry[9] debate over two places in which abstract impressionism may fit. They conclude to be unsure of whether it is a further development of Post-Impressionism, or if it is perhaps more related to the period of Bloomsbury Abstraction within the Abstract movement.[9]
Additionally, many artists that the abstract impressionist movement has claimed- such as Milton Resnick, Sam Francis, Nicolas de Staël, or Jackson Pollock[1][14]- are simultaneously considered to be members of other more widely recognised movements, such as Abstract Expressionism,[1][15] whether by their own definition or the labelling of other art critics.
Style
[edit]The style of abstract impressionism focusses on the portrayal of real life subjects- typically situated close to the artist themselves- through simplification and abstraction.[1][11] This creates a work of art that lends itself towards the traditions of both Impressionism and Abstract art movements.[3] The amount of abstraction varies greatly from painting to painting,[11][8] which has been seen as a point of controversy in the movement as it disallows visual conformity between works.[8]
Painting techniques
[edit]
Like Impressionism, the artworks feature short brushstrokes with paint “loaded” onto the painting instrument.[1][3] This technique involves piling paint onto an art tool, such as a brush or a palette knife, and layering the paint onto the canvas or paper to create a multi-layered and textured effect- or, an "impression".[3]
Abstract impressionists paintings have been described to resemble late-Impressionist pictures in their technique, like those of Monet,[1] but without the representative content that usually defines Impressionism.[1]
Abstract impressionist style also relies largely on the painting embracing the concept of en plein air.[2] En plein air painting is an artistic style involving painting outdoors, with the landscape or subject directly in front of the artist.[2][3][16] This technique is used primarily by Impressionists.[3] However, abstract impression deviates from traditional en plain air artworks[2] as the level of exactness or realism in the painting is seen to be less important than overall atmospheric effect.[2]
Deviations from similar movements
[edit]Abstract impressionists have been described to be largely inspired by modern advances in and changing attitudes towards color theory.[2] Traditional Impressionist work, in its reflection of reality, often used gentle, bright, and complementary colours to mirror the outdoor setting and light sources.[3][17] Abstract impressionists, however, "did not hesitate to apply innovative techniques to their painting, considered revolutionary at the time".[2]
Notable artists and artworks
[edit]Notable artists
[edit]As aforementioned, notable artists and artworks of this movement are subject to controversy and possible subjectivity.[4][11][8][9]
The first abstract impressionist exhibition, curated by Lawrence Alloway, took place in London.The Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists lists the following artists as its subjects:[1]
Art historian and critic Alan Bowness, in his critique of the first exhibition, also mentions Peter Lanyon's presence, and confirmed Sam Francis and Nicolas de Staël to be there.
The following is a comprehensive list of artists who have been associated with the movement.[1][18][6]
- Bernard Cohen
- Harold Cohen
- Sam Francis
- Patrick Heron
- Nicolas de Staël
- Milton Resnick
- Richard Pousette-Dart
- Jean-Paul Riopelle
- William Duvall
- Phillip Guston
- Jackson Pollock
- Willem de Kooning
- Joan Mitchell
- Nell Blaine
- Robert Goodnough
- Jan Müller
- Ray Parker
- Ad Reinhardt
- Bradley Walker Tomlin
- Janet Sobel
Notable artworks
[edit]- Sam Francis: Black and Red[19]
- Julius Reque: Abstract Impressionism in Photography[20]
- Bernard Cohen: In That Moment[21]
- Nicolas de Staël: Etude de Paysage (Landscape Study)[22]
- Harold Cohen: Before the Event[23]
- Patrick Heron: Azalea Garden[24]
See also
[edit]Related art styles and movements
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e f g h i Chilvers, Ian (2004). "Abstract Impressionism". The Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198604761.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Eduoard Malingue Gallery. Impressionism to Modern Art. Hong Kong: Eduard Malingue Gallery, 2011. 10.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Callen, Anthe (2000). Techniques of the Impressionists. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 29. ISBN 9781870461368.
- ^ a b c d e Hall, Lee (2000). Elaine and Bill, Portrait of a Marriage: The Lives of Willem and Elaine de Kooning. Michigan: Cooper Square Publishing. ISBN 9780060183059.
- ^ Elderfield, John; Louis, Morris (1986). Morris Louis: The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Boston: Little Brown & Co. ISBN 0870704184.
- ^ a b c d e f g Sandler, Irving (1979). The New York School: Painters and Sculptors of the Fifties. Colorado: Westview Press. ISBN 9780429708756.
- ^ a b c Seitz, William (1956-10-01). "Monet and Abstract Painting". College Art Journal. 16: 34–46 – via JSTOR.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Bowness, Alan (1958-06-15). "Abstract Impressionism?". The Observer: At the Galleries. p. 15.
- ^ a b c d e f g Watney, Simon (1980). "Bloomsbury Abstraction". English Post-Impressionism. Great Britain: Studio Vista. pp. 93–108. ISBN 9780289708880.
- ^ "Futurism | Definition, Manifesto, Artists, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-05-04.
- ^ a b c d Denvir, Bernard (1993). The Chronicle of Impressionism: A Timeline History of Impressionist Art. Boston: Bulfinch Press. ISBN 082122042X.
- ^ Gaff, Jackie (2000). 1910-1920 The Birth of Abstract Art: A History of Modern Art. Oxford: Heinemann Library. ISBN 0836828496.
- ^ De Kooning, Elaine (1955). The Spirit of Abstract Expressionism: Selected Writings. New York: George Braziller. p. 62. ISBN 978-0807613375.
- ^ Gooding, Mel (1994). Patrick Heron. New York: Phaidon Press. p. 4. ISBN 9780714834443.
- ^ Solomon, R. (1961). American Abstract Expressionists and Imagists. New York: Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. pp. 85–95.
- ^ Callen, Anthe (2000). The Art of Impressionism: Painting Technique & The Making of Modernity. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 5. ISBN 9780300084023.
- ^ Webster, J. Carson (1944). "The Technique of Impressionism: A Reappraisal". College Art Journal. 4: 3–22. doi:10.1080/15436322.1944.10795065.
- ^ Gooding, Mel (1994). Patrick Heron. New York: Phaidon Press. ISBN 9780714834443.
- ^ Francis, Sam (1954). "Black and Red". Guggenheim Museum. Retrieved 2020-04-05.
- ^ Reque, Julius (2009). "Abstract Impressionism in Photography". FlickRiver. Retrieved 2020-05-04.
- ^ Tate. "'In That Moment', Bernard Cohen, 1965". Tate. Retrieved 2020-05-04.
- ^ Tate. "'Landscape Study', Nicolas de Stael, 1952". Tate. Retrieved 2020-05-04.
- ^ Tate. "'Before the Event', Harold Cohen, 1963". Tate. Retrieved 2020-05-04.
- ^ Tate. "'Azalea Garden : May 1956', Patrick Heron, 1956". Tate. Retrieved 2020-05-04.