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Carybdea rastonii is not found in California. The cubozoan found in California is Carybdea confusa.
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m →Species: grammar fix - there are 10 species fall under -> there are 10 species that fall under
 
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| image = Carybdea marsupialis.jpg
| image = Carybdea marsupialis.jpg
| image_caption = ''[[Carybdea marsupialis]]''
| image_caption = ''[[Carybdea marsupialis]]''
| parent_authority = Gegenbaur, 1857<ref name=I>Gegenbaur, C. (1856) Versuch eines Systemes der Medusen, mit Beschreibung neuer oder wenig gekannter Formen; zugleich ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Fauna des Mittelmeeres. ''Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, Leipzig'', 8, 202–273.</ref>
| parent_authority = Gegenbaur, 1857<ref name="I">{{Cite journal |last=Gegenbaur |first=C. |date=1856 |title=Versuch eines Systemes der Medusen, mit Beschreibung neuer oder wenig gekannter Formen; zugleich ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Fauna des Mittelmeeres |journal=Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, Leipzig |volume=8 |pages=202–273}}</ref>
| taxon = Carybdea
| taxon = Carybdea
| authority = Péron & Lesueur, 1810<ref name=II>Péron F. & Lesueur C. (1810). Tableau des caractères génériques et spécifiques de toutes les espèces de méduses connues jusqu'à ce jour. ''Annales du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris'', 14, 325–366.</ref>
| authority = Péron & Lesueur, 1810<ref name="II">{{Cite journal |last=Péron |first=F. |last2=Lesueur |first2=C. |date=1810 |title=Tableau des caractères génériques et spécifiques de toutes les espèces de méduses connues jusqu'à ce jour |journal=Annales du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris |volume=14 |pages=325–366}}</ref>
| subdivision = See text
| subdivision = See text
}}
}}


'''''Carybdea''''' is a genus of venomous [[box jellyfish]] within the family [[Carybdeidae]] that currently consists of a total of 8 species. This genus of [[jellyfish]] are often found in warm waters around the world in waters such as the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the [[Pacific Ocean]], and off the coast of [[Africa]]. Their sting can cause a range of effects depending on the species. These [[Invertebrate|invertebrates]] will go through both [[Sexual reproduction|sexual]] and [[Asexual reproduction|asexual]] reproduction as they transform from a polyp to medusa. Carybdea have a box-shaped bell with four tentacles and eye-like sensory structures. There are distinct physical markings that differentiate many species within the genus. While Carybdea use their venom to act as predators, they are also preyed on by [[Turtle|turtles]] and various fish. They feed on [[plankton]], invertebrates, [[fish]], and some [[Crustacean|crustaceans]].
'''''Carybdea''''' is a genus of venomous [[box jellyfish]] within the family [[Carybdeidae]] that currently consists of a total of 8 species. This genus of [[jellyfish]] are often found in warm waters around the world in waters such as the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the [[Pacific Ocean]], and off the coast of [[Africa]]. Their sting can cause a range of effects depending on the species. These [[invertebrate]]s will go through both [[Sexual reproduction|sexual]] and [[Asexual reproduction|asexual]] reproduction as they transform from a polyp to medusa. Carybdea have a box-shaped bell with four tentacles and eye-like sensory structures. There are distinct physical markings that differentiate many species within the genus. While Carybdea use their venom to act as predators, they are also preyed on by [[turtle]]s and various fish. They feed on [[plankton]], invertebrates, [[fish]], and some [[crustacean]]s.


==Classification==
==Classification==
[[File:アンドンクラゲ.jpg|thumb|''Carybdea brevipedalia'']]
[[File:アンドンクラゲ.jpg|thumb|''[[Carybdea brevipedalia]]'']]


=== Class ===
=== Class ===
This genus of venomous box jellyfish is categorized in the class [[Box jellyfish|Cubozoa]]. Cubozoans are referred to as box jellyfish due to the fact that when viewing the [[Transverse plane|transverse section]] of the bells they appear to be in the shape of a square.<ref name=":0">Myers, P., & Burch, J. (2001). Cubozoa. Retrieved March 29, 2021, from https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Cubozoa/</ref> At each corner of the square, there are clusters of tentacles. A specific feature of the Cubozoan tentacles is their flatted base at the end of each tentacle.<ref name=":0" />
This genus of venomous box jellyfish is categorized in the class [[Box jellyfish|Cubozoa]]. Cubozoans are referred to as box jellyfish due to the fact that when viewing the [[Transverse plane|transverse section]] of the bells they appear to be in the shape of a square. At each corner of the square, there are clusters of tentacles. A specific feature of the Cubozoan tentacles is their flatted base at the end of each tentacle.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Myers |first1=Phil |last2=Burch |first2=John B. |year=2001 |title=Cubozoa |url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Cubozoa/ |access-date=March 29, 2021 |website=Animal Diversity Web |language=en}}</ref>


=== Family ===
=== Family ===
This genus of species can further be classified into the family Carybdeidae which requires the species to have four tentacles or four groups of two or three that are separately attached to its own unbranched Pedalium.<ref>Boltovskoy, D. (n.d.). Family Carybdeidae. Retrieved March 29, 2021, from http://species-identification.org/species.php?species_group=zsao&amp;selected=beschrijving&amp;menuentry=groepen&amp;record=Carybdeida</ref>
This genus of species can further be classified into the family Carybdeidae which requires the species to have four tentacles or four groups of two or three that are separately attached to its own unbranched Pedalium.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boltovskoy |first=D. |title=Family Carybdeidae |url=http://species-identification.org/species.php?species_group=zsao&amp;selected=beschrijving&amp;menuentry=groepen&amp;record=Carybdeida |access-date=March 29, 2021}}</ref>


=== Genus ===
=== Genus ===
The genus itself must have a few qualifications to fall under Carybdea. The stomach cannot be suspended from [[Mesentery (zoology)|mesenteries]], and the [[Stomach|gastric cirri]] are found at the corners of the stomach or in crescentic areas.<ref name=":1">Boltovskoy, D. (n.d.). Genus Carybdea. Retrieved March 29, 2021, from http://species-identification.org/species.php?species_group=zsao&selected=beschrijving&menuentry=groepen&record=Carybdea</ref> The velarial canals, which are extensions of the gut, and have only 2-4 branches.<ref name=":1" /> Currently, Carybdea is the only genus with Carybdeidae that has a distinct feature of a heart-shaped rhopaliar niche ostium with a single, upper covering scale and no lower scales.<ref name=":2">Acevedo, Melissa & Straehler-Pohl, Ilka & Morandini, André & Stampar, Sergio & Bentlage, Bastian & MATSUMOTO, GEORGE & Yanagihara, Angel & Toshino, Sho & Bordehore, Cesar & Fuentes, Veronica. (2019). Revision of the genus Carybdea (Cnidaria: Cubozoa: Carybdeidae): Clarifying the identity of its type species Carybdea marsupialis. Zootaxa. 4543. 515. 10.11646/zootaxa.4543.4.3.</ref>
The genus itself must have a few qualifications to fall under Carybdea. The stomach cannot be suspended from [[Mesentery (zoology)|mesenteries]], and the [[Stomach|gastric cirri]] are found at the corners of the stomach or in crescentic areas.<ref name="Boltovskoy">{{Cite web |last=Boltovskoy |first=D. |title=Genus Carybdea |url=http://species-identification.org/species.php?species_group=zsao&selected=beschrijving&menuentry=groepen&record=Carybdea |access-date=March 29, 2021}}</ref> The velarial canals, which are extensions of the gut, and have only 2-4 branches.<ref name="Boltovskoy" /> Currently, Carybdea is the only genus with Carybdeidae that has a distinct feature of a heart-shaped rhopaliar niche ostium with a single, upper covering scale and no lower scales.<ref name=":2">Acevedo, Melissa & Straehler-Pohl, Ilka & Morandini, André & Stampar, Sergio & Bentlage, Bastian & MATSUMOTO, GEORGE & Yanagihara, Angel & Toshino, Sho & Bordehore, Cesar & Fuentes, Veronica. (2019). Revision of the genus Carybdea (Cnidaria: Cubozoa: Carybdeidae): Clarifying the identity of its type species Carybdea marsupialis. Zootaxa. 4543. 515. 10.11646/zootaxa.4543.4.3.</ref>


=== Species ===
=== Species ===
A recent study posed the question of whether or not the species ''C. marsupialis'', found in [[Caribbean]] waters, is part of the genus ''Carybdea''. The studies showed some differences that were concluded between medusae of ''C. marsupialis'' from two different locations, Mediterranean and [[Puerto Rico]]. This hypothesis is still under review.<ref name=":2" /> Currently, there are 10 species fall under this genus.
A recent study posed the question of whether or not the species ''C. marsupialis'', found in [[Caribbean]] waters, is part of the genus ''Carybdea''. The studies showed some differences that were concluded between medusae of ''C. marsupialis'' from two different locations, Mediterranean and [[Puerto Rico]]. This hypothesis is still under review.<ref name=":2" /> Currently, there are 10 species that fall under this genus.


* ''[[Carybdea arborifera]]''
* ''[[Carybdea arborifera]]''
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* ''[[Carybdea xaymacana]]''
* ''[[Carybdea xaymacana]]''
* ''[[Copula sivickisi|Carybdea sivickisi]]''.<ref name=":2" />
* ''[[Copula sivickisi|Carybdea sivickisi]]''.<ref name=":2" />
* ''[[Carybdea wayamba]]'' <ref>{{Cite web |last=Karunarathne |first=Krishan D. |last2=Croos |first2=M. D. S. T. de |date=2020 |title=A new species of box jellyfish, Carybdea wayamba sp. nov. (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa: Cubomedusae: Carybdeidae) from Sri Lanka |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/pbr/15/4/15_P150408/_article |access-date=2021-08-22 |website=Plankton and Benthos Research |pages=317–326 |doi=10.3800/pbr.15.317}}</ref>
* ''[[Carybdea wayamba]]''<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Karunarathne |first1=Krishan D. |last2=Croos |first2=M. D. S. T. de |date=2020 |title=A new species of box jellyfish, Carybdea wayamba sp. nov. (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa: Cubomedusae: Carybdeidae) from Sri Lanka |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/pbr/15/4/15_P150408/_article |access-date=2021-08-22 |website=Plankton and Benthos Research |pages=317–326 |doi=10.3800/pbr.15.317|doi-access=free }}</ref>


== Geographic range ==
== Geographic range ==
Most species of ''Carybdea'' are found in warm waters around the world.<ref name=":3">Wikimedia Foundation. (2021, March 11). Carybdea marsupialis. Wikipedia. [[Carybdea marsupialis|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carybdea_marsupialis]].{{circular reference|date=November 2021}}</ref> The species ''Carybdea marsupialis'' is the only box jellyfish found in the Mediterranean Sea and is often found living within [[Kelp forest|kelp beds]].<ref name=":3" /> ''C. marsupialis'' are often found close to the [[Seabed|sea floor]].<ref>Scripps Institution of Oceanography. (n.d.). Carybdea marsupialis. Carybdea marsupialis | Zooplankton Guide. http://sio-legacy.ucsd.edu/zooplanktonguide/species/carybdea-marsupialis</ref> The species ''Carybdea branchi'', which is also known as the South African Box Jellyfish, is found in areas spanning from [[Namibia]] to [[South Africa]].<ref name=":4">Wikimedia Foundation. (2020, November 19). Carybdea branchi. Wikipedia.       [[Carybdea branchi|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carybdea_branchi]].</ref> This species lives near the surface but can swim down to at least 115 feet deep.<ref name=":4" /> There are some species that are more widespread such as the species ''Carybdea sivickisi''.<ref name=":5">Patel, R., & Rutledge, K. (2013). Carybdea sivickisi. Animal Diversity Web. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Carybdea_sivickisi/#:~:text=mainly%20lives%20in%20oceans%2C%20seas,other%20bodies%20of%20salt%20water.&text=animal%20constituent%20of%20plankton%3B%20mainly%20small%20crustaceans%20and%20fish%20larvae</ref> This species can be found in temperate, tropical, and subtropical locations during the warmer months of the year for [[mating]]<ref name=":5" />.  More specifically, ''Carybdea sivickisi'' are commonly found in warm waters of the [[Pacific Ocean|Western Pacific Ocean]] ranging from [[Japan]] to [[New Zealand]].<ref name=":5" /> Another common species known as the ''Carybdea rastoni'' is known to inhabit warm shallow waters.<ref name=":6">Scripps Institution of Oceanography. (n.d.). Carybdea rastoni. Carybdea rastoni | Zooplankton Guide. http://sio-legacy.ucsd.edu/zooplanktonguide/species/carybdea-rastoni</ref> It is commonly found in the warm waters of [[Hawaii]], [[Australia]], Japan, and the [[Philippines]].<ref name=":6" /> Carybdea swim to deeper waters in search of food.<ref name=":5" />
Some species are widespread such as the species ''Carybdea sivickisi''. This species can be found in temperate, tropical, and subtropical locations during the warmer months of the year for [[mating]]. More specifically, ''Carybdea sivickisi'' are commonly found in warm waters of the [[Pacific Ocean|Western Pacific Ocean]] ranging from [[Japan]] to [[New Zealand]].<ref name=":53">Patel, R., & Rutledge, K. (2013). Carybdea sivickisi. Animal Diversity Web. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Carybdea_sivickisi/#:~:text=mainly%20lives%20in%20oceans%2C%20seas,other%20bodies%20of%20salt%20water.&text=animal%20constituent%20of%20plankton%3B%20mainly%20small%20crustaceans%20and%20fish%20larvae</ref> ''Carybdea rastoni'', another common species, is known to inhabit warm shallow waters. It is commonly found in the warm waters of [[Hawaii]], [[Australia]], Japan, and the [[Philippines]].<ref name=":62">Scripps Institution of Oceanography. (n.d.). Carybdea rastoni. Carybdea rastoni | Zooplankton Guide. http://sio-legacy.ucsd.edu/zooplanktonguide/species/carybdea-rastoni</ref> ''Carybdea'' swim to deeper waters in search of food.<ref name=":53"/>


== Life cycle ==
== Life cycle ==
The life cycle of a box jellyfish consists first of sexual reproduction through a medusa (adult jellyfish) releasing [[sperm]] or eggs into the open water to [[Fertilisation|fertilize]] the egg.<ref name=":7">Box Jellyfish: Life Cycle, Habitat & Predators. (2021, January 4). Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/lesson/box-jellyfish-life-cycle-habitat-predators.html</ref> The fertilized egg will then form into a [[planula]] (jellyfish larvae) that will travel around until it colonizes on the seafloor. At this stage, it will attach to [[coral]] or rock and develop into a polyp.<ref name=":7" /> There are two ways that a polyp can produce the medusa.<ref name=":7" /> The polyp can go through an asexual reproduction process called [[budding]], where the jellyfish will make small clone growths that separate and develop into a medusa, or the original polyp can develop into the medusa.<ref name=":7" /> These jellyfish live for about one year.<ref name=":7" />
The life cycle of a box jellyfish consists first of sexual reproduction through a medusa (adult jellyfish) releasing [[sperm]] or eggs into the open water to [[Fertilisation|fertilize]] the egg.<ref name=":7">Box Jellyfish: Life Cycle, Habitat & Predators. (2021, January 4). Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/lesson/box-jellyfish-life-cycle-habitat-predators.html</ref> The fertilized egg will then form into a [[planula]] (jellyfish larvae) that will travel around until it colonizes on the seafloor. At this stage, it will attach to [[coral]] or rock and develop into a polyp.<ref name=":7" /> There are two ways that a polyp can produce the medusa.<ref name=":7" /> The polyp can go through an asexual reproduction process called [[budding]], where the jellyfish will make small clone growths that separate and develop into a medusa, or the original polyp can develop into the medusa.<ref name=":7" /> These jellyfish live for about one year.<ref name=":7" />


A study conducted in 2005 reveals an additional stage that the species ''Carybdea marsupialis'' carries out. I. Straehler-Pohl and G. Jarms describe the second type of [[metamorphosis]] that results in a regenerative remnant.<ref name=":8">Straehler-Pohl, I., Jarms, G. Life cycle of Carybdea marsupialis Linnaeus, 1758 (Cubozoa, Carybdeidae) reveals metamorphosis to be a modified strobilation. Marine Biology 147, 1271–1277 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-005-0031-4</ref> This medusa form is thought to be from [[strobilation]] known from [[scyphozoa]].<ref name=":8" /> The results of this study show that nearly 45% of the ''C. marsupialis'' studied had this regenerative remnant and those that did had a higher rate of asexual propagation.<ref name=":8" />
A study conducted in 2005 reveals an additional stage that the species ''Carybdea marsupialis'' carries out. I. Straehler-Pohl and G. Jarms describe the second type of [[metamorphosis]] that results in a regenerative remnant.<ref name=":8">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1007/s00227-005-0031-4 | title = Life cycle of Carybdea marsupialis Linnaeus, 1758 (Cubozoa, Carybdeidae) reveals metamorphosis to be a modified strobilation | date = 2005 | last1 = Straehler-Pohl | first1 = I. | last2 = Jarms | first2 = G. | journal = Marine Biology | volume = 147 | issue = 6 | pages = 1271–1277 | bibcode = 2005MarBi.147.1271S | s2cid = 89427492 }}</ref> This medusa form is thought to be from [[strobilation]] known from [[scyphozoa]].<ref name=":8" /> The results of this study show that nearly 45% of the ''C. marsupialis'' studied had this regenerative remnant and those that did had a higher rate of asexual propagation.<ref name=":8" />


In 2014, researchers investigated the increase in the density of the ''C. marsupialis'' species. The study concluded that the proliferation could be from a couple of factors such as [[climate change]], food availability, and [[overfishing]].<ref name=":9">S. K. M. Gueroun, M. J. Acevedo, O. Kéfi-Daly Yahia, A. Deidun, V. L. Fuentes, S. Piraino & M. N. Daly Yahia (2015) First records of Carybdea marsupialis proliferation (Cnidaria: Cubozoa) along the eastern Tunisian coast (Central Mediterranean), Italian Journal of Zoology, 82:3, 430-435, DOI: 10.1080/11250003.2015.1045945</ref> Another possible component is the man-made structures such as docks, [[Marina|marinas]], and [[Breakwater (structure)|breakwaters]] that allow for more planula settlement and asexual reproduction of the polyp stage.<ref name=":9" />
In 2014, researchers investigated the increase in the density of the ''C. marsupialis'' species. The study concluded that the proliferation could be from a couple of factors such as [[climate change]], food availability, and [[overfishing]].<ref name=":9">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1080/11250003.2015.1045945 | title = First records of ''Carybdea marsupialis'' proliferation (Cnidaria: Cubozoa) along the eastern Tunisian coast (Central Mediterranean) | date = 2015 | last1 = Gueroun | first1 = S. K. M. | last2 = Acevedo | first2 = M. J. | last3 = Kéfi-Daly Yahia | first3 = O. | last4 = Deidun | first4 = A. | last5 = Fuentes | first5 = V. L. | last6 = Piraino | first6 = S. | last7 = Daly Yahia | first7 = M. N. | journal = Italian Journal of Zoology | volume = 82 | issue = 3 | pages = 430–435 | s2cid = 83658553 }}</ref> Another possible component is the man-made structures such as docks, [[marina]]s, and [[Breakwater (structure)|breakwaters]] that allow for more planula settlement and asexual reproduction of the polyp stage.<ref name=":9" />


== Venom and treatment ==
== Venom and treatment ==
The severity of [[Venom|venomous]] jellyfish stings varies between species and can cause many different effects on humans, however, the correlation of these effects is not related to tentacle size or the morphology of the jellyfish.<ref name=":10">Bailey, P. M., Bakker, A. J., Seymour, J. E., & Wilce, J. A. (2005). A functional comparison of the venom of three Australian JELLYFISH—CHIRONEX FLECKERI, chiropsalmus sp., and Carybdea xaymacana—on cytosolic CA2+, Haemolysis AND Artemia Sp. lethality. Toxicon, 45(2), 233-242. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.10.013</ref> Even within the genus Carybdea the effects of the stings can differ from species to species. The jellyfish, ''C. xaymacana'' is known only to cause local irritation,<ref name=":10" /> whereas ''C. marsupialis'' has toxins that can cause a burning sensation and local [[edema]].<ref name=":11">Lazcano-Pérez, F., Arellano, R. O., Garay, E., Arreguín-Espinosa, R., & Sánchez-Rodríguez, J. (2017). Electrophysiological activity of a Neurotoxic fraction from the venom of box jellyfish Carybdea marsupialis. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology, 191, 177-182. doi:10.1016/j.cbpc.2016.10.010</ref> ''C. rastoni'' can be painful upon impact and result in linear and frequently four in number, ranging from 10 to 20 cm long.<ref name=":12">Tibballs, J. (2006). Australian venomous jellyfish, Envenomation syndromes, toxins and therapy. Toxicon, 48(7), 830-859. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.07.020 Wikimedia Foundation. (2020, November 19). Carybdea branchi. Wikipedia.</ref> A study done to evaluate the [[neurotoxicity]] of the ''C. marsupialis'' showed that this species stings can be harmful since the venom encompasses molecules that target [[Ion channel|ion channels]] and [[G protein-coupled receptor|G protein-coupled receptors]] expressed in the [[nervous system]] of [[Vertebrate|vertebrates]].<ref name=":11" /> Carybdea is one of three genera that provoke can the [[Irukandji syndrome]] which includes delayed pain due to severe muscle [[Cramp|cramping]], [[vomiting]], [[anxiety]], restlessness, [[Perspiration|sweating]], and [[prostration]].<ref name=":12" /> However, the research of the venom in this genus needs to be studied further.
The severity of [[venom]]ous jellyfish stings varies between species and can cause many different effects on humans, however, the correlation of these effects is not related to tentacle size or the morphology of the jellyfish.<ref name=":10">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.10.013 | title = A functional comparison of the venom of three Australian jellyfish—Chironex fleckeri, Chiropsalmus sp., and Carybdea xaymacana—on cytosolic Ca2+, haemolysis and Artemia sp. Lethality | date = 2005 | last1 = Bailey | first1 = Paul M. | last2 = Bakker | first2 = Anthony J. | last3 = Seymour | first3 = Jamie E. | last4 = Wilce | first4 = Jacqueline A. | journal = Toxicon | volume = 45 | issue = 2 | pages = 233–242 | pmid = 15626372 }}</ref> Even within the genus Carybdea the effects of the stings can differ from species to species. The jellyfish, ''C. xaymacana'' is known only to cause local irritation,<ref name=":10" /> whereas ''C. marsupialis'' has toxins that can cause a burning sensation and local [[edema]].<ref name=":11">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.cbpc.2016.10.010 | title = Electrophysiological activity of a neurotoxic fraction from the venom of box jellyfish Carybdea marsupialis | date = 2017 | last1 = Lazcano-Pérez | first1 = Fernando | last2 = Arellano | first2 = Rogelio O. | last3 = Garay | first3 = Edith | last4 = Arreguín-Espinosa | first4 = Roberto | last5 = Sánchez-Rodríguez | first5 = Judith | journal = Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology | volume = 191 | pages = 177–182 | pmid = 27815048 }}</ref> ''C. rastoni'' can be painful upon impact and result in linear and frequently four in number, ranging from 10 to 20&nbsp;cm long.<ref name=":12">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.07.020 | title = Australian venomous jellyfish, envenomation syndromes, toxins and therapy | date = 2006 | last1 = Tibballs | first1 = James | journal = Toxicon | volume = 48 | issue = 7 | pages = 830–859 | pmid = 16928389 }}</ref> A study done to evaluate the [[neurotoxicity]] of the ''C. marsupialis'' showed that this species stings can be harmful since the venom encompasses molecules that target [[ion channel]]s and [[G protein-coupled receptor]]s expressed in the [[nervous system]] of [[vertebrate]]s.<ref name=":11" /> Carybdea is one of three genera whose sting can result in [[Irukandji syndrome]] which includes delayed pain due to severe muscle [[cramp]]ing, [[vomiting]], [[anxiety]], restlessness, [[Perspiration|sweating]], and [[prostration]].<ref name=":12" /> However, the research of the venom in this genus needs to be studied further.


A popular remedy for the pain, [[inflammation]], and any remaining tentacle pieces from the sting is [[vinegar]]. When stings occur vinegar can come to the rescue by inactivating the [[Cnidocyte|nematocyst]] (specialized cells in the tentacles of jellyfish).<ref name=":12" /> A controversial topic surrounding the treatment of jellyfish stings is whether or not to apply a pressure-immobilization bandage. There is some evidence that shows applying pressure can cause the discharge of additional venom from partial nematocysts and vinegar-soaked nematocyst.<ref name=":12" /> Currently, the Australian Resuscitation Council suggests that the most effective treatment is to soak the area in vinegar and transport it to a healthcare facility as needed until further research is conducted.<ref name=":12" />
A popular remedy for the pain, [[inflammation]], and any remaining tentacle pieces from the sting is [[vinegar]]. When stings occur vinegar can come to the rescue by inactivating the [[Cnidocyte|nematocyst]] (specialized cells in the tentacles of jellyfish).<ref name=":12" /> A controversial topic surrounding the treatment of jellyfish stings is whether or not to apply a pressure-immobilization bandage. There is some evidence that shows applying pressure can cause the discharge of additional venom from partial nematocysts and vinegar-soaked nematocyst.<ref name=":12" /> Currently, the Australian Resuscitation Council suggests that the most effective treatment is to soak the area with vinegar and transport it to a healthcare facility as needed until further research is conducted.<ref name=":12" />


== Predators and prey ==
== Predators and prey ==
Carybdea use the nematocysts on their [[Tentacle|tentacles]] to sting, kill, and capture their prey.<ref name=":13">Matsumoto, G. I. (1995). Observations on the anatomy and behaviour of the cubozoan Carybdea rastonii haacke. Marine and Freshwater Behaviour and Phsyiology, 26(2-4), 139–148.</ref> The genus Carybdea are predators, and eat a variety of things.<ref name=":32">Wikimedia Foundation. (2021, March 11). Carybdea marsupialis. Wikipedia. [[Carybdea marsupialis|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carybdea_marsupialis]].</ref> Many species within the genus feed on [[zooplankton]], such as ''Carybdea marsupialis''.<ref>Acevedo, M. J., Fuentes, V. L., Olariaga, A., Canepa, A., Belmar, M. B., Bordehore, C., & Calbet, A. (2013). Maintenance, feeding and growth of Carybdea marsupialis (Cnidaria: Cubozoa) in the laboratory. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 439, 84–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2012.10.007</ref> Carybdea commonly feed on plankton and [[Mysida|mysids]] that are found in deeper waters.<ref name=":14">Baker, N., & Wood., J. (n.d.). Sea Wasp, Carybdea alata. http://www.thecephalopodpage.org/MarineInvertebrateZoology/Carybdeaalata.html#:~:text=Besides%20plankton%20and%20mysids%2C%20Cubozoa,and%20crustaceans%20(Larson%201976)</ref> However, due to their powerful stinging abilities, some species of Carybdea are known to capture and kill various small invertebrates, including [[shrimp]], and fish.<ref name=":14" /> Worms are also a source of food for Carybdea.<ref name=":15">Collins, A. (2000). More on Morphology of Cubozoa, by UCMP. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/cnidaria/cubozoamm.html#:~:text=Like%20other%20cnidarians%2C%20cubozoans%20are,four%20sensory%20structures%20called%20rhopalia</ref> In some species, crustaceans and [[Polychaete|polychaetes]] are also prey.<ref name=":14" />
Carybdea use the nematocysts on their [[tentacle]]s to sting, kill, and capture their prey.<ref name=":132">Matsumoto, G. I. (1995). Observations on the anatomy and behaviour of the cubozoan Carybdea rastonii haacke. Marine and Freshwater Behaviour and Phsyiology, 26(2-4), 139–148.</ref> The genus Carybdea are predators, and eat a variety of things.<ref name=":33">Wikimedia Foundation. (2021, March 11). Carybdea marsupialis. Wikipedia. [[Carybdea marsupialis|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carybdea_marsupialis]].</ref> Many species within the genus feed on [[zooplankton]], such as ''Carybdea marsupialis''.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jembe.2012.10.007 | title = Maintenance, feeding and growth of Carybdea marsupialis (Cnidaria: Cubozoa) in the laboratory | date = 2013 | last1 = Acevedo | first1 = Melissa J. | last2 = Fuentes | first2 = Verónica L. | last3 = Olariaga | first3 = Alejandro | last4 = Canepa | first4 = Antonio | last5 = Belmar | first5 = Mar B. | last6 = Bordehore | first6 = Cesar | last7 = Calbet | first7 = Albert | journal = Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology | volume = 439 | pages = 84–91 }}</ref> Carybdea commonly feed on plankton and [[Mysida|mysids]] that are found in deeper waters.<ref name=":14">Baker, N., & Wood., J. (n.d.). Sea Wasp, Carybdea alata. http://www.thecephalopodpage.org/MarineInvertebrateZoology/Carybdeaalata.html#:~:text=Besides%20plankton%20and%20mysids%2C%20Cubozoa,and%20crustaceans%20(Larson%201976)</ref> However, due to their powerful stinging abilities, some species of Carybdea are known to capture and kill various small invertebrates, including [[shrimp]], and fish.<ref name=":14" /> Worms are also a source of food for Carybdea.<ref name=":152">Collins, A. (2000). More on Morphology of Cubozoa, by UCMP. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/cnidaria/cubozoamm.html#:~:text=Like%20other%20cnidarians%2C%20cubozoans%20are,four%20sensory%20structures%20called%20rhopalia</ref> In some species, crustaceans and [[polychaete]]s are also prey.<ref name=":14" />


To defend themselves, ''Carybdea'' also use their stinging tentacles and venom to ward off predators.<ref name=":14" /> These nematocysts are arranged in a ring formation, and it is believed so that the surface area of the [[Predation|predator]] to the nematocysts is greater and therefore causes greater harm.<ref name=":13" /> Predators may vary from species to species depending on what body of water each species lives in. For example, some of the most prominent predators of ''Carybdea'' ''alata'' include [[Sea turtle|sea turtles]], batfish, butterfish, and [[Crab|crabs]].<ref name=":16">Feye, E., & Kelsey Micech. (2014). Carybdea alata: A Box Jellyfish with a Painful Sting. UWL Website. http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2014/feye_emil/interactions.htm#:~:text=Hawaiian%20Box%20Jellyfish%20sting%20humans,Marsh%2C%20et%20al%202010.</ref> It is important to note that not all predators are affected by the Carybdea's sting.<ref name=":16" /> Sea turtles that eat ''C. alata'' are affected by the venom as other predators would be.<ref name=":16" /> Humans are often unintentional predators of Carybdea. Owing to the transparency of many species' bells, swimmers often do not see the organisms in the water.<ref name=":13" /> When a human comes in contact with one of the tentacles of the Carybdea, its natural instinct to defend itself and sting the human occurs.<ref name=":16" /> The severity of the sting and its side effects varies from species to species.<ref name=":13" /> Some species, such as ''Carybdea sivickisi'', swim near the surface to avoid predators below.<ref name=":52">Patel, R., & Rutledge, K. (2013). Carybdea sivickisi. Animal Diversity Web. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Carybdea_sivickisi/#:~:text=mainly%20lives%20in%20oceans%2C%20seas,other%20bodies%20of%20salt%20water.&text=animal%20constituent%20of%20plankton%3B%20mainly%20small%20crustaceans%20and%20fish%20larvae</ref>
To defend themselves, ''Carybdea'' also use their stinging tentacles and venom to ward off predators.<ref name=":14" /> These nematocysts are arranged in a ring formation, and it is believed so that the surface area of the [[Predation|predator]] to the nematocysts is greater and therefore causes greater harm.<ref name=":132"/> Predators may vary from species to species depending on what body of water each species lives in. For example, some of the most prominent predators of ''Carybdea'' ''alata'' include [[sea turtle]]s, batfish, butterfish, and [[crab]]s.<ref name=":16">Feye, E., & Kelsey Micech. (2014). Carybdea alata: A Box Jellyfish with a Painful Sting. UWL Website. http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2014/feye_emil/interactions.htm#:~:text=Hawaiian%20Box%20Jellyfish%20sting%20humans,Marsh%2C%20et%20al%202010.</ref> It is important to note that not all predators are affected by the Carybdea's sting.<ref name=":16" /> Sea turtles that eat ''C. alata'' are affected by the venom as other predators would be.<ref name=":16" /> Humans are often unintentional predators of Carybdea. Owing to the transparency of many species' bells, swimmers often do not see the organisms in the water.<ref name=":132"/> When a human comes in contact with one of the tentacles of the Carybdea, its natural instinct to defend itself and sting the human occurs.<ref name=":16" /> The severity of the sting and its side effects varies from species to species.<ref name=":132"/>


== Anatomy and physiology ==
== Anatomy and physiology ==
While there are many species within the genus ''Carybdea'', the anatomy and physiology of each species is generally the same with some minor differences to distinguish between the species. As the name suggests, Carybdea exist as a cube shaped bell.<ref name=":17">Straehler-Pohl, I., & Jarms, G. (2011). Morphology and life cycle of Carybdea morandinii, sp. nov. (Cnidaria), a cubozoan with zooxanthellae and peculiar polyp anatomy. Zootaxa, 2755(1), 36–56. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.2755.1.2</ref> The bell is composed of two layers, the [[ectoderm]] and the [[endoderm]].<ref name=":152">Collins, A. (2000). More on Morphology of Cubozoa, by UCMP. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/cnidaria/cubozoamm.html#:~:text=Like%20other%20cnidarians%2C%20cubozoans%20are,four%20sensory%20structures%20called%20rhopalia</ref> On the inside of the bell is the gut.<ref name=":152" /> Carybdea also have sophisticated eyes with lenses that can detect light.<ref name=":17" /> These sensory structures are known as [[Rhopalium|rhopalia]], and can be found within the bell of the organism.<ref name=":152" /> The rhopalia contain lenses, corneas, and retinas.<ref name=":152" /> Within these eye-like structures are two ocelli, lens eyes, and a statolith.<ref name=":18">Dudley, M. (2016). Biology, ecology and ecophysiology of the box jellyfish Carybdea marsupialis (Cnidaria: Cubozoa), 1–138. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/95222541.pdf</ref> Looking up through the Carybdea you will see the mouth.<ref name=":152" /> Most species rage in size anywhere from 15 mm to 40 mm in their adult life.<ref name=":17" /> Attached to each corner of the box shaped ball are four tentacles that range in length from species to species.<ref name=":17" /> These tentacles are attached to the bell through the pedalium.<ref name=":18" /> On these tentacles are specialized cells known as nematocysts <ref name=":132">Matsumoto, G. I. (1995). Observations on the anatomy and behaviour of the cubozoan Carybdea rastonii haacke. Marine and Freshwater Behaviour and Phsyiology, 26(2-4), 139–148.</ref>.  These cells contain a coiled barb that when in contact with something will uncoil and fire, and release venom.<ref name=":152" /> Nematocysts are arranged in rings on the tentacles.<ref name=":152" /> A common characteristic of Carybdea is tan spots on the bell.<ref name=":17" />
While there are many species within the genus ''Carybdea'', the anatomy and physiology of each species is generally the same with some minor differences to distinguish between the species. As the name suggests, Carybdea exist as a cube shaped bell.<ref name=":17">{{cite journal | doi = 10.11646/zootaxa.2755.1.2 | title = Morphology and life cycle of Carybdea morandinii, sp. Nov. (Cnidaria), a cubozoan with zooxanthellae and peculiar polyp anatomy | date = 2011 | last1 = Straehler-Pohl | first1 = Ilka | last2 = Jarms | first2 = Gerhard | journal = Zootaxa | volume = 2755 | page = 36 }}</ref> The bell is composed of two layers, the [[ectoderm]] and the [[endoderm]].<ref name=":152"/> On the inside of the bell is the gut.<ref name=":152" /> Carybdea also have sophisticated eyes with lenses that can detect light.<ref name=":17" /> These sensory structures are known as [[Rhopalium|rhopalia]], and can be found within the bell of the organism.<ref name=":152" /> The rhopalia contain lenses, corneas, and retinas.<ref name=":152" /> Within these eye-like structures are two ocelli, lens eyes, and a statolith.<ref name=":18">Dudley, M. (2016). Biology, ecology and ecophysiology of the box jellyfish Carybdea marsupialis (Cnidaria: Cubozoa), 1–138. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/95222541.pdf</ref> Looking up through the Carybdea you will see the mouth.<ref name=":152" /> Most species rage in size anywhere from 15&nbsp;mm to 40&nbsp;mm in their adult life.<ref name=":17" /> Attached to each corner of the box shaped ball are four tentacles that range in length from species to species.<ref name=":17" /> These tentacles are attached to the bell through the pedalium.<ref name=":18" /> On these tentacles are specialized cells known as nematocysts.<ref name=":132"/> These cells contain a coiled barb that when in contact with something will uncoil and fire, and release venom.<ref name=":152" /> Nematocysts are arranged in rings on the tentacles.<ref name=":152" /> A common characteristic of Carybdea is tan spots on the bell.<ref name=":17" />


Many of the species within the genus spend the majority of their lives in the medusa stage, however a few species have the ability to attach and exist in the polyp stage.<ref name=":132" /> Because they are almost always in their medusa stage, they are almost constantly swimming.<ref name=":17" />
Many of the species within the genus spend the majority of their lives in the medusa stage, however a few species have the ability to attach and exist in the polyp stage.<ref name=":132" /> Because they are almost always in their medusa stage, they are almost constantly swimming.<ref name=":17" />


However, there are some physical differences amongst species within the Genus Carybdea. For example, the species ''Carybdea marsupialis'' can be distinguished from other species by the red banding on their tentacles.<ref name=":33">Wikimedia Foundation. (2021, March 11). Carybdea marsupialis. Wikipedia. [[Carybdea marsupialis|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carybdea_marsupialis]].</ref> Additionally, female Carybdea marsupialis have orange spots on their bells, but males do not.<ref name=":53">Patel, R., & Rutledge, K. (2013). Carybdea sivickisi. Animal Diversity Web. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Carybdea_sivickisi/#:~:text=mainly%20lives%20in%20oceans%2C%20seas,other%20bodies%20of%20salt%20water.&text=animal%20constituent%20of%20plankton%3B%20mainly%20small%20crustaceans%20and%20fish%20larvae</ref> The species ''Carybdea sivickisi'' have yellow-colored tentacles, and similarly to Carybdea marsupialis only the females have orange spots on the bell.<ref name=":53" /> ''Carybdea branchi'' commonly have brown spots on their bell.<ref name=":42">Wikimedia Foundation. (2020, November 19). Carybdea branchi. Wikipedia.       [[Carybdea branchi|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carybdea_branchi]].</ref> ''Carybdea rastoni'' are often difficult to see in the water but are distinguishable by their pinkish [[Gonad|gonads]] that are able to be seen through the bell.<ref name=":62">Scripps Institution of Oceanography. (n.d.). Carybdea rastoni. Carybdea rastoni | Zooplankton Guide. http://sio-legacy.ucsd.edu/zooplanktonguide/species/carybdea-rastoni</ref>
However, there are some physical differences amongst species within the Genus Carybdea. For example, the species ''Carybdea marsupialis'' can be distinguished from other species by the red banding on their tentacles.<ref name=":33"/> Additionally, female Carybdea marsupialis have orange spots on their bells, but males do not.<ref name=":53"/> The species ''Carybdea sivickisi'' have yellow-colored tentacles, and similarly to Carybdea marsupialis only the females have orange spots on the bell.<ref name=":53" /> ''Carybdea rastoni'' are often difficult to see in the water but are distinguishable by their pinkish [[gonad]]s that are able to be seen through the bell.<ref name=":62"/>


==References==
==References==

Latest revision as of 21:00, 15 September 2024

Carybdea
Carybdea marsupialis
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Cnidaria
Class: Cubozoa
Order: Carybdeida
Family: Carybdeidae
Gegenbaur, 1857[2]
Genus: Carybdea
Péron & Lesueur, 1810[1]
Species

See text

Carybdea is a genus of venomous box jellyfish within the family Carybdeidae that currently consists of a total of 8 species. This genus of jellyfish are often found in warm waters around the world in waters such as the Mediterranean Sea, the Pacific Ocean, and off the coast of Africa. Their sting can cause a range of effects depending on the species. These invertebrates will go through both sexual and asexual reproduction as they transform from a polyp to medusa. Carybdea have a box-shaped bell with four tentacles and eye-like sensory structures. There are distinct physical markings that differentiate many species within the genus. While Carybdea use their venom to act as predators, they are also preyed on by turtles and various fish. They feed on plankton, invertebrates, fish, and some crustaceans.

Classification

[edit]
Carybdea brevipedalia

Class

[edit]

This genus of venomous box jellyfish is categorized in the class Cubozoa. Cubozoans are referred to as box jellyfish due to the fact that when viewing the transverse section of the bells they appear to be in the shape of a square. At each corner of the square, there are clusters of tentacles. A specific feature of the Cubozoan tentacles is their flatted base at the end of each tentacle.[3]

Family

[edit]

This genus of species can further be classified into the family Carybdeidae which requires the species to have four tentacles or four groups of two or three that are separately attached to its own unbranched Pedalium.[4]

Genus

[edit]

The genus itself must have a few qualifications to fall under Carybdea. The stomach cannot be suspended from mesenteries, and the gastric cirri are found at the corners of the stomach or in crescentic areas.[5] The velarial canals, which are extensions of the gut, and have only 2-4 branches.[5] Currently, Carybdea is the only genus with Carybdeidae that has a distinct feature of a heart-shaped rhopaliar niche ostium with a single, upper covering scale and no lower scales.[6]

Species

[edit]

A recent study posed the question of whether or not the species C. marsupialis, found in Caribbean waters, is part of the genus Carybdea. The studies showed some differences that were concluded between medusae of C. marsupialis from two different locations, Mediterranean and Puerto Rico. This hypothesis is still under review.[6] Currently, there are 10 species that fall under this genus.

Geographic range

[edit]

Some species are widespread such as the species Carybdea sivickisi. This species can be found in temperate, tropical, and subtropical locations during the warmer months of the year for mating. More specifically, Carybdea sivickisi are commonly found in warm waters of the Western Pacific Ocean ranging from Japan to New Zealand.[8] Carybdea rastoni, another common species, is known to inhabit warm shallow waters. It is commonly found in the warm waters of Hawaii, Australia, Japan, and the Philippines.[9] Carybdea swim to deeper waters in search of food.[8]

Life cycle

[edit]

The life cycle of a box jellyfish consists first of sexual reproduction through a medusa (adult jellyfish) releasing sperm or eggs into the open water to fertilize the egg.[10] The fertilized egg will then form into a planula (jellyfish larvae) that will travel around until it colonizes on the seafloor. At this stage, it will attach to coral or rock and develop into a polyp.[10] There are two ways that a polyp can produce the medusa.[10] The polyp can go through an asexual reproduction process called budding, where the jellyfish will make small clone growths that separate and develop into a medusa, or the original polyp can develop into the medusa.[10] These jellyfish live for about one year.[10]

A study conducted in 2005 reveals an additional stage that the species Carybdea marsupialis carries out. I. Straehler-Pohl and G. Jarms describe the second type of metamorphosis that results in a regenerative remnant.[11] This medusa form is thought to be from strobilation known from scyphozoa.[11] The results of this study show that nearly 45% of the C. marsupialis studied had this regenerative remnant and those that did had a higher rate of asexual propagation.[11]

In 2014, researchers investigated the increase in the density of the C. marsupialis species. The study concluded that the proliferation could be from a couple of factors such as climate change, food availability, and overfishing.[12] Another possible component is the man-made structures such as docks, marinas, and breakwaters that allow for more planula settlement and asexual reproduction of the polyp stage.[12]

Venom and treatment

[edit]

The severity of venomous jellyfish stings varies between species and can cause many different effects on humans, however, the correlation of these effects is not related to tentacle size or the morphology of the jellyfish.[13] Even within the genus Carybdea the effects of the stings can differ from species to species. The jellyfish, C. xaymacana is known only to cause local irritation,[13] whereas C. marsupialis has toxins that can cause a burning sensation and local edema.[14] C. rastoni can be painful upon impact and result in linear and frequently four in number, ranging from 10 to 20 cm long.[15] A study done to evaluate the neurotoxicity of the C. marsupialis showed that this species stings can be harmful since the venom encompasses molecules that target ion channels and G protein-coupled receptors expressed in the nervous system of vertebrates.[14] Carybdea is one of three genera whose sting can result in Irukandji syndrome which includes delayed pain due to severe muscle cramping, vomiting, anxiety, restlessness, sweating, and prostration.[15] However, the research of the venom in this genus needs to be studied further.

A popular remedy for the pain, inflammation, and any remaining tentacle pieces from the sting is vinegar. When stings occur vinegar can come to the rescue by inactivating the nematocyst (specialized cells in the tentacles of jellyfish).[15] A controversial topic surrounding the treatment of jellyfish stings is whether or not to apply a pressure-immobilization bandage. There is some evidence that shows applying pressure can cause the discharge of additional venom from partial nematocysts and vinegar-soaked nematocyst.[15] Currently, the Australian Resuscitation Council suggests that the most effective treatment is to soak the area with vinegar and transport it to a healthcare facility as needed until further research is conducted.[15]

Predators and prey

[edit]

Carybdea use the nematocysts on their tentacles to sting, kill, and capture their prey.[16] The genus Carybdea are predators, and eat a variety of things.[17] Many species within the genus feed on zooplankton, such as Carybdea marsupialis.[18] Carybdea commonly feed on plankton and mysids that are found in deeper waters.[19] However, due to their powerful stinging abilities, some species of Carybdea are known to capture and kill various small invertebrates, including shrimp, and fish.[19] Worms are also a source of food for Carybdea.[20] In some species, crustaceans and polychaetes are also prey.[19]

To defend themselves, Carybdea also use their stinging tentacles and venom to ward off predators.[19] These nematocysts are arranged in a ring formation, and it is believed so that the surface area of the predator to the nematocysts is greater and therefore causes greater harm.[16] Predators may vary from species to species depending on what body of water each species lives in. For example, some of the most prominent predators of Carybdea alata include sea turtles, batfish, butterfish, and crabs.[21] It is important to note that not all predators are affected by the Carybdea's sting.[21] Sea turtles that eat C. alata are affected by the venom as other predators would be.[21] Humans are often unintentional predators of Carybdea. Owing to the transparency of many species' bells, swimmers often do not see the organisms in the water.[16] When a human comes in contact with one of the tentacles of the Carybdea, its natural instinct to defend itself and sting the human occurs.[21] The severity of the sting and its side effects varies from species to species.[16]

Anatomy and physiology

[edit]

While there are many species within the genus Carybdea, the anatomy and physiology of each species is generally the same with some minor differences to distinguish between the species. As the name suggests, Carybdea exist as a cube shaped bell.[22] The bell is composed of two layers, the ectoderm and the endoderm.[20] On the inside of the bell is the gut.[20] Carybdea also have sophisticated eyes with lenses that can detect light.[22] These sensory structures are known as rhopalia, and can be found within the bell of the organism.[20] The rhopalia contain lenses, corneas, and retinas.[20] Within these eye-like structures are two ocelli, lens eyes, and a statolith.[23] Looking up through the Carybdea you will see the mouth.[20] Most species rage in size anywhere from 15 mm to 40 mm in their adult life.[22] Attached to each corner of the box shaped ball are four tentacles that range in length from species to species.[22] These tentacles are attached to the bell through the pedalium.[23] On these tentacles are specialized cells known as nematocysts.[16] These cells contain a coiled barb that when in contact with something will uncoil and fire, and release venom.[20] Nematocysts are arranged in rings on the tentacles.[20] A common characteristic of Carybdea is tan spots on the bell.[22]

Many of the species within the genus spend the majority of their lives in the medusa stage, however a few species have the ability to attach and exist in the polyp stage.[16] Because they are almost always in their medusa stage, they are almost constantly swimming.[22]

However, there are some physical differences amongst species within the Genus Carybdea. For example, the species Carybdea marsupialis can be distinguished from other species by the red banding on their tentacles.[17] Additionally, female Carybdea marsupialis have orange spots on their bells, but males do not.[8] The species Carybdea sivickisi have yellow-colored tentacles, and similarly to Carybdea marsupialis only the females have orange spots on the bell.[8] Carybdea rastoni are often difficult to see in the water but are distinguishable by their pinkish gonads that are able to be seen through the bell.[9]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Péron, F.; Lesueur, C. (1810). "Tableau des caractères génériques et spécifiques de toutes les espèces de méduses connues jusqu'à ce jour". Annales du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris. 14: 325–366.
  2. ^ Gegenbaur, C. (1856). "Versuch eines Systemes der Medusen, mit Beschreibung neuer oder wenig gekannter Formen; zugleich ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Fauna des Mittelmeeres". Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, Leipzig. 8: 202–273.
  3. ^ Myers, Phil; Burch, John B. (2001). "Cubozoa". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved March 29, 2021.
  4. ^ Boltovskoy, D. "Family Carybdeidae". Retrieved March 29, 2021.
  5. ^ a b Boltovskoy, D. "Genus Carybdea". Retrieved March 29, 2021.
  6. ^ a b c Acevedo, Melissa & Straehler-Pohl, Ilka & Morandini, André & Stampar, Sergio & Bentlage, Bastian & MATSUMOTO, GEORGE & Yanagihara, Angel & Toshino, Sho & Bordehore, Cesar & Fuentes, Veronica. (2019). Revision of the genus Carybdea (Cnidaria: Cubozoa: Carybdeidae): Clarifying the identity of its type species Carybdea marsupialis. Zootaxa. 4543. 515. 10.11646/zootaxa.4543.4.3.
  7. ^ Karunarathne, Krishan D.; Croos, M. D. S. T. de (2020). "A new species of box jellyfish, Carybdea wayamba sp. nov. (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa: Cubomedusae: Carybdeidae) from Sri Lanka". Plankton and Benthos Research: 317–326. doi:10.3800/pbr.15.317. Retrieved 2021-08-22.
  8. ^ a b c d Patel, R., & Rutledge, K. (2013). Carybdea sivickisi. Animal Diversity Web. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Carybdea_sivickisi/#:~:text=mainly%20lives%20in%20oceans%2C%20seas,other%20bodies%20of%20salt%20water.&text=animal%20constituent%20of%20plankton%3B%20mainly%20small%20crustaceans%20and%20fish%20larvae
  9. ^ a b Scripps Institution of Oceanography. (n.d.). Carybdea rastoni. Carybdea rastoni | Zooplankton Guide. http://sio-legacy.ucsd.edu/zooplanktonguide/species/carybdea-rastoni
  10. ^ a b c d e Box Jellyfish: Life Cycle, Habitat & Predators. (2021, January 4). Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/lesson/box-jellyfish-life-cycle-habitat-predators.html
  11. ^ a b c Straehler-Pohl, I.; Jarms, G. (2005). "Life cycle of Carybdea marsupialis Linnaeus, 1758 (Cubozoa, Carybdeidae) reveals metamorphosis to be a modified strobilation". Marine Biology. 147 (6): 1271–1277. Bibcode:2005MarBi.147.1271S. doi:10.1007/s00227-005-0031-4. S2CID 89427492.
  12. ^ a b Gueroun, S. K. M.; Acevedo, M. J.; Kéfi-Daly Yahia, O.; Deidun, A.; Fuentes, V. L.; Piraino, S.; Daly Yahia, M. N. (2015). "First records of Carybdea marsupialis proliferation (Cnidaria: Cubozoa) along the eastern Tunisian coast (Central Mediterranean)". Italian Journal of Zoology. 82 (3): 430–435. doi:10.1080/11250003.2015.1045945. S2CID 83658553.
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  23. ^ a b Dudley, M. (2016). Biology, ecology and ecophysiology of the box jellyfish Carybdea marsupialis (Cnidaria: Cubozoa), 1–138. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/95222541.pdf
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