Aminophylline: Difference between revisions
→Brand names: wp:medmos |
|||
(181 intermediate revisions by more than 100 users not shown) | |||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{Short description|Chemical compound}} |
|||
{{drugbox |
|||
{{Drugbox |
|||
| IUPAC_name = 1,3-dimethyl-7H-purine-2,6-dione; ethane-1,2-diamine |
|||
| Verifiedfields = changed |
|||
| image = Aminophylline.svg |
|||
| Watchedfields = changed |
|||
| width=250 |
|||
| verifiedrevid = 456688736 |
|||
| CAS_number = 317-34-0 |
|||
| IUPAC_name = 1,3-Dimethyl-7''H''-purine-2,6-dione; ethane-1,2-diamine |
|||
| ATC_prefix = R03 |
|||
| image = Aminophylline.svg |
|||
| ATC_suffix = DA05 |
|||
| |
| width = 250 |
||
| PubChem = 9433 |
|||
<!--Clinical data--> |
|||
| DrugBank = APRD00329 |
|||
| tradename = |
|||
| C=16 | H=24 | N=10 | O=4 |
|||
| Drugs.com = {{drugs.com|ppa|aminophylline}} |
|||
| molecular_weight = 420.427 g/mol |
|||
| MedlinePlus = a601015 |
|||
| bioavailability = |
|||
| |
| pregnancy_AU = A |
||
| |
| pregnancy_US = N |
||
| pregnancy_category = |
|||
| elimination_half-life = 7-9 hours |
|||
| legal_AU = S3 |
|||
| pregnancy_category = |
|||
| |
| legal_CA = |
||
| legal_CA = |
|||
| legal_UK = P |
| legal_UK = P |
||
| legal_US = |
| legal_US = Rx-only |
||
| legal_US_comment = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=087242 |title=FDA-Approved Drugs Abbreviated New Drug Application (ANDA): 087242 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=October 26, 1983 |website=fda.gov|access-date=December 2, 2023}}</ref> |
|||
| legal_status = |
|||
| legal_status = Rx-only |
|||
| routes_of_administration = oral, [[intravenous|i.v.]] |
|||
| routes_of_administration = [[Oral administration|By mouth]], [[intravenous therapy]] (IV) |
|||
<!--Pharmacokinetic data--> |
|||
| bioavailability = |
|||
| protein_bound = 60% |
|||
| metabolism = |
|||
| elimination_half-life = 7–9 hours |
|||
<!--Identifiers--> |
|||
| CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}} |
|||
| CAS_number = 317-34-0 |
|||
| ATC_prefix = R03 |
|||
| ATC_suffix = DA05 |
|||
| ATC_supplemental = |
|||
| PubChem = 9433 |
|||
| DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}} |
|||
| DrugBank = DB01223 |
|||
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} |
|||
| ChemSpiderID = 9062 |
|||
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} |
|||
| UNII = 27Y3KJK423 |
|||
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} |
|||
| KEGG = D00227 |
|||
| ChEBI = 2659 |
|||
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} |
|||
| ChEMBL = 1210 |
|||
<!--Chemical data--> |
|||
| C=16 | H=24 | N=10 | O=4 |
|||
| smiles = Cn2c(=O)c1nc[nH]c1n(C)c2=O.Cn2c(=O)c1nc[nH]c1n(C)c2=O.NCCN |
|||
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} |
|||
| StdInChI = 1S/2C7H8N4O2.C2H8N2/c2*1-10-5-4(8-3-9-5)6(12)11(2)7(10)13;3-1-2-4/h2*3H,1-2H3,(H,8,9);1-4H2 |
|||
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} |
|||
| StdInChIKey = FQPFAHBPWDRTLU-UHFFFAOYSA-N |
|||
}} |
}} |
||
'''Aminophylline''' is a [[drug combination]] that contains [[theophylline]] and [[ethylenediamine]] in 2:1 ratio. |
|||
'''Aminophylline''' is a compound of the [[bronchodilator]] [[theophylline]] with [[ethylenediamine]] in 2:1 ratio. The ethylenediamine improves solubility, and the aminophylline is usually found as a [[hydrate|dihydrate]].<ref>{{cite web |title= Aminophylline Professional Monograph |url= https://www.drugs.com/pro/aminophylline-injection.html |work=Drugs.com}}</ref> |
|||
Aminophylline is less potent and shorter-acting than [[theophylline]]. Its most common use is in the treatment of airway obstruction from asthma or COPD. Aminophylline is a nonselective [[adenosine receptor antagonist]] and [[phosphodiesterase inhibitor]].<ref name="Mader 2003 192–197">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mader TJ, Smithline HA, Durkin L, Scriver G | title = A randomized controlled trial of intravenous aminophylline for atropine-resistant out-of-hospital asystolic cardiac arrest | journal = Academic Emergency Medicine | volume = 10 | issue = 3 | pages = 192–197 | date = March 2003 | pmid = 12615581 | doi = 10.1197/aemj.10.3.192 | doi-access = free }}</ref> |
|||
==Medical uses== |
|||
Intravenous aminophylline can be used for acute exacerbation of symptoms and reversible airway obstruction in [[asthma]] and other chronic lung disease such as [[COPD]], [[emphysema]] and chronic [[bronchitis]]. It is used as an adjunct to inhaled [[Beta-2_adrenergic_receptor|beta-2]] selective [[agonist]]s and systemically administered [[corticosteroid]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/pro/aminophylline-injection.html|title=Aminophylline Injection|website=Drugs.com|access-date=6 January 2018}}</ref> |
|||
Aminophylline is used to reverse [[regadenoson]], [[dipyridamole]] or adenosine based infusions during nuclear cardiology stress testing. Aminophylline has also been reported to be effective in preventing slow heart rates during complex cardiovascular interventions (atherectomy of the right coronary artery).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.invasivecardiology.com/articles/aminophylline-preventing-bradyarrhythmias-during-orbital-or-rotational-atherectomy-right|title=Aminophylline for Preventing Bradyarrhythmias During Orbital or Rotational Atherectomy of the Right Coronary Artery|website=invasivecardiology.com|access-date=2018-06-15|archive-date=2020-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803005046/https://www.invasivecardiology.com/articles/aminophylline-preventing-bradyarrhythmias-during-orbital-or-rotational-atherectomy-right|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is also used in the treatment of heart block due to acute inferior myocardial infarction. It can also cause [[cardiac arrest]]. |
|||
Aminophylline has shown some promise as a bodyfat reducer when used as a topical cream.<ref name="pmid17391155">{{cite journal | vauthors = Caruso MK, Pekarovic S, Raum WJ, Greenway F | title = Topical fat reduction from the waist | journal = Diabetes, Obesity & Metabolism | volume = 9 | issue = 3 | pages = 300–303 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 17391155 | doi = 10.1111/j.1463-1326.2006.00600.x | s2cid = 988473 }}</ref> Aminophylline is also a treatment option for [[anaphylactic shock]].<ref>Blackbourne LH. Surgical Recall. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2009. pp169</ref> |
|||
While it has been suggested for use in [[cardiac arrest]] evidence does not support a benefit.<ref name="PMID17652689">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hayward E, Showler L, Soar J | title = Aminophylline in bradyasystolic cardiac arrest | journal = Emergency Medicine Journal | volume = 24 | issue = 8 | pages = 582–583 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17652689 | pmc = 2660094 | doi = 10.1136/emj.2007.051342 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hurley KF, Magee K, Green R | title = Aminophylline for bradyasystolic cardiac arrest in adults | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2015 | issue = 11 | pages = CD006781 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26593309 | pmc = 8454042 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD006781.pub3 }}</ref> |
|||
==Side effects== |
|||
Aminophylline can lead to theophylline toxicity. Aminophylline has been found to decrease the sedative effects of [[propofol]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Turan A, Kasuya Y, Govinda R, Obal D, Rauch S, Dalton JE, Akça O, Sessler DI | display-authors = 6 | title = The effect of aminophylline on loss of consciousness, bispectral index, propofol requirement, and minimum alveolar concentration of desflurane in volunteers | journal = Anesthesia and Analgesia | volume = 110 | issue = 2 | pages = 449–454 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 19955506 | doi = 10.1213/ane.0b013e3181c6be7e | s2cid = 29111498 | doi-access = free }}</ref> and decrease [[topiramate]] antiseizure action.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Luszczki JJ, Jankiewicz K, Jankiewicz M, Czuczwar SJ | title = Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions of aminophylline and topiramate in the mouse maximal electroshock-induced seizure model | journal = European Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 562 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 53–59 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 17320861 | doi = 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.01.038 }}</ref> |
|||
==Properties== |
==Properties== |
||
It is more [[soluble]] in water than theophylline. White or slightly yellowish granules or powder, having a slight ammoniacal odor and a bitter taste. Upon exposure to air, it gradually loses ethylenediamine and absorbs [[carbon dioxide]] with the liberation of free theophylline. Its solutions are [[alkaline]]. |
It is more [[soluble]] in water than theophylline. White or slightly yellowish granules or powder, having a slight ammoniacal odor and a bitter taste. Upon exposure to air, it gradually loses ethylenediamine and absorbs [[carbon dioxide]] with the liberation of free theophylline. Its solutions are [[alkaline]]. 1 g dissolves in 25 mL of water to give a clear solution; 1 g dissolved in 5 mL of water crystallizes upon standing, but redissolves when a small amount of [[ethylenediamine]] is added. Insoluble in alcohol and in ether. |
||
==Pharmacology== |
|||
==Mechanism of action== |
|||
Like other methylated [[xanthine]] derivatives, aminophylline is both a |
|||
Aminophylline is less potent and shorter-acting than theophylline. Its most common use is in the treatment of [[bronchial asthma]]. to sure thhat your airway become clear |
|||
# competitive nonselective [[phosphodiesterase inhibitor]]<ref name="PDEs-Essayan">{{cite journal | vauthors = Essayan DM | title = Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases | journal = The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology | volume = 108 | issue = 5 | pages = 671–680 | date = November 2001 | pmid = 11692087 | doi = 10.1067/mai.2001.119555 | doi-access = free }}</ref> which raises intracellular [[Cyclic adenosine monophosphate|cAMP]], activates [[cAMP-dependent protein kinase|PKA]], [[TNF inhibitor|inhibits TNF-alpha]]<ref name="PTX-Deree">{{cite journal | vauthors = Deree J, Martins JO, Melbostad H, Loomis WH, Coimbra R | title = Insights into the regulation of TNF-alpha production in human mononuclear cells: the effects of non-specific phosphodiesterase inhibition | journal = Clinics | volume = 63 | issue = 3 | pages = 321–328 | date = June 2008 | pmid = 18568240 | pmc = 2664230 | doi = 10.1590/S1807-59322008000300006 }}</ref><ref name="pmid9927365">{{cite journal | vauthors = Marques LJ, Zheng L, Poulakis N, Guzman J, Costabel U | title = Pentoxifylline inhibits TNF-alpha production from human alveolar macrophages | journal = American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine | volume = 159 | issue = 2 | pages = 508–511 | date = February 1999 | pmid = 9927365 | doi = 10.1164/ajrccm.159.2.9804085 }}</ref> and [[leukotriene]]<ref name="LT-Peters-Golden">{{cite journal | vauthors = Peters-Golden M, Canetti C, Mancuso P, Coffey MJ | title = Leukotrienes: underappreciated mediators of innate immune responses | journal = Journal of Immunology | volume = 174 | issue = 2 | pages = 589–594 | date = January 2005 | pmid = 15634873 | doi = 10.4049/jimmunol.174.2.589 | doi-access = free }}</ref> synthesis, and [[Anti-inflammatory|reduces inflammation]] and [[innate immunity]]<ref name="LT-Peters-Golden"/> and |
|||
# nonselective [[adenosine receptor]] antagonist.<ref name="AR-Daly">{{cite journal | vauthors = Daly JW, Jacobson KA, Ukena D | title = Adenosine receptors: development of selective agonists and antagonists | journal = Progress in Clinical and Biological Research | volume = 230 | issue = 1 | pages = 41–63 | year = 1987 | pmid = 3588607 }}</ref> |
|||
Aminophylline causes bronchodilation, diuresis<sup>†</sup>, [[central nervous system]] and cardiac stimulation, and gastric acid secretion by blocking phosphodiesterase which increases tissue concentrations of [[cyclic adenosine monophosphate]] (cAMP) which in turn promotes [[catecholamine]] stimulation of [[lipolysis]], [[glycogenolysis]], and [[gluconeogenesis]], and induces release of [[epinephrine]] from adrenal medulla cells.<br> |
|||
==Brand names== |
|||
<sup>†</sup>Diuresis is caused by an increase in cAMP which acts in the CNS to inhibit the release of [[Vasopressin|antidiuretic hormone]] (arginine-vasopressin). |
|||
*Phyllocontin |
|||
*Truphylline |
|||
Adenosine is an endogenous extracellular messenger that can regulate myocardial oxygen needs.<ref name="Mader 2003 192–197"/><ref name="Mader 1997 3–7">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mader TJ, Gibson P | title = Adenosine receptor antagonism in refractory asystolic cardiac arrest: results of a human pilot study | journal = Resuscitation | volume = 35 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–7 | date = August 1997 | pmid = 9259053 | doi = 10.1016/s0300-9572(97)01097-6 }}</ref> It acts through cellular surface receptors which effect intracellular signalling pathways to increase coronary artery blood flow, slow heart rate, block atrioventricular node conduction, suppress [[cardiac automaticity]], and decrease β-adrenergic effects on contractility.<ref name="Mader 2003 192–197"/><ref name="Mader 1997 3–7"/> Adenosine also antagonizes chronotropic and ionotropic effects of circulating catecholamines.<ref name="Perouansky 1998 39–41">{{cite journal | vauthors = Perouansky M, Shamir M, Hershkowitz E, Donchin Y | title = Successful resuscitation using aminophylline in refractory cardiac arrest with asystole | journal = Resuscitation | volume = 38 | issue = 1 | pages = 39–41 | date = July 1998 | pmid = 9783508 | doi = 10.1016/s0300-9572(98)00079-3 }}</ref> Overall, adenosine decreases the heart’s rate and force of contraction, which increases blood supply to the cardiac muscle. Given specific circumstances this mechanism (which is intended to protect the heart) may cause atropine-resistant refractory bradyasystole.<ref name="Mader 2003 192–197"/> Adenosine's effects are concentration-dependent. Adenosine’s receptors are competitively antagonized by methylxanthines such as aminophylline.<ref name="Mader 2003 192–197"/><ref name="Mader 1997 3–7"/><ref name="Perouansky 1998 39–41"/> Aminophylline competitively antagonizes the cardiac actions of adenosine at the cell surface receptors.<ref name="Mader 1997 3–7"/> Thus, it increases heart rate and contractility. |
|||
==External links== |
|||
== References == |
|||
{{reflist}} |
|||
== External links == |
|||
* {{cite web | url = https://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/name/aminophylline | publisher = U.S. National Library of Medicine | work = Drug Information Portal | title = Aminophylline }} |
|||
{{Asthma and copd rx}} |
{{Asthma and copd rx}} |
||
{{Adenosinergics}} |
|||
{{Phosphodiesterase inhibitors}} |
|||
{{Portal bar | Medicine}} |
|||
[[Category:Adenosine receptor antagonists]] |
|||
[[Category:Bronchodilators]] |
[[Category:Bronchodilators]] |
||
[[Category:Phosphodiesterase inhibitors]] |
|||
[[Category:Xanthines]] |
[[Category:Xanthines]] |
||
[[de:Aminophyllin]] |
|||
[[ja:アミノフィリン]] |
Latest revision as of 14:21, 24 September 2024
Clinical data | |
---|---|
AHFS/Drugs.com | Professional Drug Facts |
MedlinePlus | a601015 |
Pregnancy category |
|
Routes of administration | By mouth, intravenous therapy (IV) |
ATC code | |
Legal status | |
Legal status |
|
Pharmacokinetic data | |
Protein binding | 60% |
Elimination half-life | 7–9 hours |
Identifiers | |
| |
CAS Number | |
PubChem CID | |
DrugBank | |
ChemSpider | |
UNII | |
KEGG | |
ChEBI | |
ChEMBL | |
CompTox Dashboard (EPA) | |
ECHA InfoCard | 100.005.696 |
Chemical and physical data | |
Formula | C16H24N10O4 |
Molar mass | 420.434 g·mol−1 |
3D model (JSmol) | |
| |
| |
(what is this?) (verify) |
Aminophylline is a compound of the bronchodilator theophylline with ethylenediamine in 2:1 ratio. The ethylenediamine improves solubility, and the aminophylline is usually found as a dihydrate.[2]
Aminophylline is less potent and shorter-acting than theophylline. Its most common use is in the treatment of airway obstruction from asthma or COPD. Aminophylline is a nonselective adenosine receptor antagonist and phosphodiesterase inhibitor.[3]
Medical uses
[edit]Intravenous aminophylline can be used for acute exacerbation of symptoms and reversible airway obstruction in asthma and other chronic lung disease such as COPD, emphysema and chronic bronchitis. It is used as an adjunct to inhaled beta-2 selective agonists and systemically administered corticosteroids.[4]
Aminophylline is used to reverse regadenoson, dipyridamole or adenosine based infusions during nuclear cardiology stress testing. Aminophylline has also been reported to be effective in preventing slow heart rates during complex cardiovascular interventions (atherectomy of the right coronary artery).[5] It is also used in the treatment of heart block due to acute inferior myocardial infarction. It can also cause cardiac arrest.
Aminophylline has shown some promise as a bodyfat reducer when used as a topical cream.[6] Aminophylline is also a treatment option for anaphylactic shock.[7]
While it has been suggested for use in cardiac arrest evidence does not support a benefit.[8][9]
Side effects
[edit]Aminophylline can lead to theophylline toxicity. Aminophylline has been found to decrease the sedative effects of propofol[10] and decrease topiramate antiseizure action.[11]
Properties
[edit]It is more soluble in water than theophylline. White or slightly yellowish granules or powder, having a slight ammoniacal odor and a bitter taste. Upon exposure to air, it gradually loses ethylenediamine and absorbs carbon dioxide with the liberation of free theophylline. Its solutions are alkaline. 1 g dissolves in 25 mL of water to give a clear solution; 1 g dissolved in 5 mL of water crystallizes upon standing, but redissolves when a small amount of ethylenediamine is added. Insoluble in alcohol and in ether.
Pharmacology
[edit]Like other methylated xanthine derivatives, aminophylline is both a
- competitive nonselective phosphodiesterase inhibitor[12] which raises intracellular cAMP, activates PKA, inhibits TNF-alpha[13][14] and leukotriene[15] synthesis, and reduces inflammation and innate immunity[15] and
- nonselective adenosine receptor antagonist.[16]
Aminophylline causes bronchodilation, diuresis†, central nervous system and cardiac stimulation, and gastric acid secretion by blocking phosphodiesterase which increases tissue concentrations of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) which in turn promotes catecholamine stimulation of lipolysis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis, and induces release of epinephrine from adrenal medulla cells.
†Diuresis is caused by an increase in cAMP which acts in the CNS to inhibit the release of antidiuretic hormone (arginine-vasopressin).
Adenosine is an endogenous extracellular messenger that can regulate myocardial oxygen needs.[3][17] It acts through cellular surface receptors which effect intracellular signalling pathways to increase coronary artery blood flow, slow heart rate, block atrioventricular node conduction, suppress cardiac automaticity, and decrease β-adrenergic effects on contractility.[3][17] Adenosine also antagonizes chronotropic and ionotropic effects of circulating catecholamines.[18] Overall, adenosine decreases the heart’s rate and force of contraction, which increases blood supply to the cardiac muscle. Given specific circumstances this mechanism (which is intended to protect the heart) may cause atropine-resistant refractory bradyasystole.[3] Adenosine's effects are concentration-dependent. Adenosine’s receptors are competitively antagonized by methylxanthines such as aminophylline.[3][17][18] Aminophylline competitively antagonizes the cardiac actions of adenosine at the cell surface receptors.[17] Thus, it increases heart rate and contractility.
References
[edit]- ^ "FDA-Approved Drugs Abbreviated New Drug Application (ANDA): 087242". fda.gov. October 26, 1983. Retrieved December 2, 2023.
- ^ "Aminophylline Professional Monograph". Drugs.com.
- ^ a b c d e Mader TJ, Smithline HA, Durkin L, Scriver G (March 2003). "A randomized controlled trial of intravenous aminophylline for atropine-resistant out-of-hospital asystolic cardiac arrest". Academic Emergency Medicine. 10 (3): 192–197. doi:10.1197/aemj.10.3.192. PMID 12615581.
- ^ "Aminophylline Injection". Drugs.com. Retrieved 6 January 2018.
- ^ "Aminophylline for Preventing Bradyarrhythmias During Orbital or Rotational Atherectomy of the Right Coronary Artery". invasivecardiology.com. Archived from the original on 2020-08-03. Retrieved 2018-06-15.
- ^ Caruso MK, Pekarovic S, Raum WJ, Greenway F (May 2007). "Topical fat reduction from the waist". Diabetes, Obesity & Metabolism. 9 (3): 300–303. doi:10.1111/j.1463-1326.2006.00600.x. PMID 17391155. S2CID 988473.
- ^ Blackbourne LH. Surgical Recall. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2009. pp169
- ^ Hayward E, Showler L, Soar J (August 2007). "Aminophylline in bradyasystolic cardiac arrest". Emergency Medicine Journal. 24 (8): 582–583. doi:10.1136/emj.2007.051342. PMC 2660094. PMID 17652689.
- ^ Hurley KF, Magee K, Green R (November 2015). "Aminophylline for bradyasystolic cardiac arrest in adults". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2015 (11): CD006781. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006781.pub3. PMC 8454042. PMID 26593309.
- ^ Turan A, Kasuya Y, Govinda R, Obal D, Rauch S, Dalton JE, et al. (February 2010). "The effect of aminophylline on loss of consciousness, bispectral index, propofol requirement, and minimum alveolar concentration of desflurane in volunteers". Anesthesia and Analgesia. 110 (2): 449–454. doi:10.1213/ane.0b013e3181c6be7e. PMID 19955506. S2CID 29111498.
- ^ Luszczki JJ, Jankiewicz K, Jankiewicz M, Czuczwar SJ (May 2007). "Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions of aminophylline and topiramate in the mouse maximal electroshock-induced seizure model". European Journal of Pharmacology. 562 (1–2): 53–59. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.01.038. PMID 17320861.
- ^ Essayan DM (November 2001). "Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 108 (5): 671–680. doi:10.1067/mai.2001.119555. PMID 11692087.
- ^ Deree J, Martins JO, Melbostad H, Loomis WH, Coimbra R (June 2008). "Insights into the regulation of TNF-alpha production in human mononuclear cells: the effects of non-specific phosphodiesterase inhibition". Clinics. 63 (3): 321–328. doi:10.1590/S1807-59322008000300006. PMC 2664230. PMID 18568240.
- ^ Marques LJ, Zheng L, Poulakis N, Guzman J, Costabel U (February 1999). "Pentoxifylline inhibits TNF-alpha production from human alveolar macrophages". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 159 (2): 508–511. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.159.2.9804085. PMID 9927365.
- ^ a b Peters-Golden M, Canetti C, Mancuso P, Coffey MJ (January 2005). "Leukotrienes: underappreciated mediators of innate immune responses". Journal of Immunology. 174 (2): 589–594. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.174.2.589. PMID 15634873.
- ^ Daly JW, Jacobson KA, Ukena D (1987). "Adenosine receptors: development of selective agonists and antagonists". Progress in Clinical and Biological Research. 230 (1): 41–63. PMID 3588607.
- ^ a b c d Mader TJ, Gibson P (August 1997). "Adenosine receptor antagonism in refractory asystolic cardiac arrest: results of a human pilot study". Resuscitation. 35 (1): 3–7. doi:10.1016/s0300-9572(97)01097-6. PMID 9259053.
- ^ a b Perouansky M, Shamir M, Hershkowitz E, Donchin Y (July 1998). "Successful resuscitation using aminophylline in refractory cardiac arrest with asystole". Resuscitation. 38 (1): 39–41. doi:10.1016/s0300-9572(98)00079-3. PMID 9783508.
External links
[edit]- "Aminophylline". Drug Information Portal. U.S. National Library of Medicine.