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In the U.S. political history of the 1980s, the Gang of Four refers to Bernard W. Aronson, Bruce P. Cameron, Robert S. Leiken,^[1] and Penn Kemble,^[1]^[2] four advocates of U.S. Congressional funding for the Nicaraguan Contras, who were engaged in an armed campaign in opposition to the Sandinista government, during the Reagan presidency. The four were prominent policy analysts and activists in the U.S. Democratic Party.

Background

During the 1980s in Nicaragua, the Contras were engaged in an armed campaign against the Sandinista government. In the beginning, the Contras consisted largely of former members of the National Guard of Somoza, the dictator who had been overthrown in the 1979 Revolution. The Contras were joined also by former revolutionaries who had turned against the Sandinista policies; a third source of personnel were farmers angered by the Sandinista land reform and American Indians.^{[citation needed]}

In response, several Miskito groups eventually formed guerrilla groups in the 1980s, which carried on armed struggle against the central government. On February 25, 1982, Steadman Fagoth, one of the guerrilla leaders, took refuge in Honduras along with 3,000 Miskitos.^[3] The Sandinistas began to denounce the activities of Contras in the Rio Coco zone. The Miskitos occupied the village of San Carlos during the "Red December" (December 20–21, 1982) during which several Sandinista soldiers were killed. In retaliation, the state massacred 30 Miskitos in the following days, prompting many of them to escape to Honduras to live in a difficult state of exile. The state of emergency in the Rio Coco zone was proclaimed in 1983, and lasted until 1988.^[4]

In 1983 the Misurasata movement, led by Brooklyn Rivera, split, with the breakaway Misura group of Stedman Fagoth allying itself more closely with the FDN, one of the first Contras commanded by Enrique Bermúdez. A subsequent autonomy statute in September 1987 largely defused Miskito resistance.

The Contras had financial and military support from the Central Intelligence Agency of the U.S. However, a CIA-supported manual advocating killing Sandinista politicians and poisoning wells in Nicaragua, as well as mining harbors, provoked a backlash. The House Appropriations Bill of 1982 contained the Boland Amendment, which outlawed U.S. assistance to the Contras for the purpose of overthrowing the Nicaraguan government, while allowing assistance for other purposes.^[5] Having been passed unanimously, the appropriations bill was signed by President Ronald Reagan on December 21, 1982.^[6] The Boland Amendment enjoyed wide support among Democrats but had been opposed by the Reagan administration.

Soon after they had blocked Contra aid, Congressional Democrats were embarrassed and politically vulnerable because of the Sandinistas. Very soon after the vote, Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega announced that he would visit the Soviet Union.^[7] The Speaker of the House, Tip O'Neill, a liberal Democrat, was troubled by reports of harassment of the Catholic Church.^[8] Some Sandinistas had earlier endorsed the Communist crack-down on Poland's labor movement, Solidarity.^{[citation needed]}

Advocacy of Congressional funding of Contras

The Gang of Four were four advocates of U.S. Congressional funding for the Contras, who were notable for being prominent Democrats.^[1]

Leiken's criticism of Nicaraguan Sandinistas in 1984

In October 1984, The New Republic published "Nicaragua's Untold Stories", which criticized the Sandinistas for economic mismanagement, corruption, and violations of human rights. The author was Robert S. Leiken, a Democratic policy analyst who had previously been an opponent of the Vietnam War.

The turning point came in the fall of 1984, when, after an intense 10 day trip to Nicaragua, Leiken returned "appalled and angry" over conditions there. He wrote an article criticizing the Sandinistas in terms that were, for a liberal Democrat, unmistakably powerful and all the more striking because they appeared in the traditionally liberal The New Republic.^[9]

Leiken's article caused controversy among Democrats, according to Time magazine:

The idea that a well respected liberal analyst would launch such a strong attack on the Sandinistas caused considerable stir in Washington. Leiken's apparent conversion was seen by the entrenched left as a betrayal and by Reaganites as a vindication of their long held views. Most important, many Democrats who had relied on Leiken's analyses began to reconsider their Sandinista sympathies. Senator Edward Kennedy had the article read into the Congressional Record. Suddenly, Leiken became as controversial as Nicaragua itself.^[10]

Other advocacy

Bernard W. Aronson helped to draft President Reagan's speech on Contra aid, which influenced moderate Democrats.^[11] Excerpts were introduced into the Congressional Record.^[12] Their goal was not to overthrow the democratically elected Sandinista government, but to pressure the Sandinistas to negotiate a peace treaty with the Contras.^[13] They differed from the Reagan administration on some questions. For example, they supported efforts to transfer control of Contra funding from the Central Intelligence Agency and Department of Defense to the Department of State's USAID;^[14] they also supported negotiations opposed by Reagan administration "hard-liners" who wished to overthrow the Sandinistas.^[15]

All four members were nationally prominent Democratic policy analysts who had criticized the conduct of the Vietnam War.^[1]^[2] Their advocacy of Congressional funding for the Contras was unpopular among liberals and progressives in the Democratic Party.^[2] The label "Gang of Four", alluding to the Chinese Gang of Four who had allegedly sought a revival of the Maoist Cultural Revolution, was ironic.

Notes

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Massing (1987, p. 23)
^ ^a ^b ^c Holley, Joe (October 19, 2005). "Political activist Penn Kemble dies at 64". The Washington Post.
^ Asleson, Vern, Nicaragua: Those Passed By, Galde Press ISBN 1-931942-16-1, 2004.
^ Gilles Bataillon, "Cambios culturales y sociopolíticos en las comunidades Mayangnas y Miskitos del río Bocay y del alto río Coco, Nicaragua (1979–2000)", Journal de la Société des Américanistes, 2001, tome 87 (in Spanish).
^ Riesenfeld, Stefan A. (January 1987). "The Powers of Congress and the President in International Relations: Revisited". California Law Review. 75 (1): 405–414. doi:10.2307/3480586. JSTOR 3480586. The Boland Amendment was part of the Joint Resolution of December 21, 1982, providing further continuing appropriations for the fiscal year 1983
^ Congressional Limitations and Requirements for Military Deployments and Funding
^ Cameron (2007, p. 40)
^ Cameron (2007, p. 124)
^ Christopher Madison, "Profiles in Influence: A Scholar's About Face On the Sandinistas", The National Journal, June 14, 1986.
^ Jill Smolowe, "Conversion of a Timely Kind; A liberal analyst fans controversy with his pro Contra views", Time, April 21, 1986.
^ Massing (1987, p. 42)
^ Cameron (2007)
^ Cameron (2007, p. 42)
^ Cameron (2007, p. 41)
^ Cameron (2007, pp. 42–43)

References

Bird, Kai; Holland, Max (November 30, 1985). "A Defection in the Family". The Nation. PDF version and HTML version at Decoding Washington website of Holland.
Cameron, Bruce P. (2007). My Life in the Time of the Contras. UNM Press. p. 340. ISBN 978-0-8263-4251-5.
Massing, Michael (October 1987). "Contra aides: Why four Democratic operatives enlisted in Ollie North's crusade". Mother Jones: 23–26, 40–43.

[M23-1] Massing (1987, p. 23)

[Holley-2] Holley, Joe (October 19, 2005). "Political activist Penn Kemble dies at 64". The Washington Post.

[3] Asleson, Vern, Nicaragua: Those Passed By, Galde Press ISBN 1-931942-16-1, 2004.

[4] Gilles Bataillon, "Cambios culturales y sociopolíticos en las comunidades Mayangnas y Miskitos del río Bocay y del alto río Coco, Nicaragua (1979–2000)", Journal de la Société des Américanistes, 2001, tome 87 (in Spanish).

[clr-5] Riesenfeld, Stefan A. (January 1987). "The Powers of Congress and the President in International Relations: Revisited". California Law Review. 75 (1): 405–414. doi:10.2307/3480586. JSTOR 3480586. The Boland Amendment was part of the Joint Resolution of December 21, 1982, providing further continuing appropriations for the fiscal year 1983

[apa-6] Congressional Limitations and Requirements for Military Deployments and Funding

[7] Cameron (2007, p. 40)

[8] Cameron (2007, p. 124)

[9] Christopher Madison, "Profiles in Influence: A Scholar's About Face On the Sandinistas", The National Journal, June 14, 1986.

[10] Jill Smolowe, "Conversion of a Timely Kind; A liberal analyst fans controversy with his pro Contra views", Time, April 21, 1986.

[M42-11] Massing (1987, p. 42)

[12] Cameron (2007)

[13] Cameron (2007, p. 42)

[14] Cameron (2007, p. 41)

[15] Cameron (2007, pp. 42–43)

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-In the American political history of the 1980s,  the '''Gang of Four''' refers to [[Bernard W. Aronson]], [[Bruce P. Cameron]], [[Robert S. Leiken]],<ref name="M23"/> and [[Penn Kemble]].<ref name="Holley"/><ref name="M23"/>, four advocates of U.S. Congressional funding for the Nicaraguan [[Contras]], who were engaged in an armed campaign in opposition to the [[Sandinista]] government, during the [[Reagan Presidency]]. The four were prominent policy analysts and activists in the American [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]].
+{{Short description|Four advocates of U.S. funding for the Nicaraguan Contras}}
+{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2022}}
+{{Other uses|Gang of Four (disambiguation)}}
+In the U.S. political history of the 1980s, the '''Gang of Four''' refers to [[Bernard W. Aronson]], Bruce P. Cameron, [[Robert S. Leiken]],<ref name="M23"/> and [[Penn Kemble]],<ref name="M23"/><ref name="Holley"/> four advocates of U.S. Congressional funding for the Nicaraguan [[Contras]], who were engaged in an armed campaign in opposition to the [[Sandinista]] government, during the [[Reagan presidency]]. The four were prominent policy analysts and activists in the U.S. [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]].
-==Background: The Nicaraguan Contras and the United States==
+==Background==
-During the 1980s in [[Nicaragua]], the [[Contras]] were engaged in an armed campaign against the [[Sandinista]] government. In the beginning, the Contras consisted largely of former members of the [[National Guard (Nicaragua)|National Guard]] of [[Somoza]], the dictator who had been overthrown in the 1979 [[Nicaraguan Revolution|Revolution]].  The Contras were joined also by  former revolutionaries who had turned against the Sandinista policies; a third source of personnel were farmers  angered by the [[land_reform#Latin_America|Sandinista]] [[land&nbsp;reform]] and [[Nicaragua#Amerindians|American&nbsp;Indians]].<ref>In the 1980s, the leftist [[Sandinista]] government established "Committes of Sandinista Defense" (''Comités de Defensa Sandinista''). ([http://frontpagemag.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID=E0057975-7170-47A5-8A2B-9DF61534A3EF ''"The Black Book of the Sandinistas"''], 21 November 2006, Jamie Glazov, FrontPage Magazine)
+During the 1980s in [[Nicaragua]], the [[Contras]] were engaged in an armed campaign against the [[Sandinista]] government. In the beginning, the Contras consisted largely of former members of the [[National Guard (Nicaragua)|National Guard]] of [[Somoza]], the dictator who had been overthrown in the [[Nicaraguan Revolution|1979 Revolution]]. The Contras were joined also by former revolutionaries who had turned against the Sandinista policies; a third source of personnel were farmers angered by the Sandinista [[land reform]] and [[Nicaragua#Amerindians|American Indians]].{{cn|date=February 2021}}
-<p>
-In response, several Miskito groups eventually formed [[guerrillas]] in the 1980s, which carried on [[armed struggle]] against the central government. On 25 February 1982, Steadman Fagoth, one of the guerrilla leaders, took [[refugee|refuge]] in [[Honduras]] along with 3,000 Miskitos. (Asleson, Vern, ''Nicaragua: Those Passed By'', Galde Press ISBN 1-931942-16-1, 2004)  The Sandinistas began to denounce the activities of [[Contras]] in the [[Rio Coco]] zone. The Miskitos occupied the village of San Carlos during the "Red December" (20–21 December 1982) during which several Sandinista soldiers were killed. In retaliation, the state massacred 30 Miskitos in the following days, prompting many of them to escape to Honduras to live in a difficult state of [[exile]]. The [[state of emergency]] in the Rio Coco zone was proclaimed in 1983, and lasted until 1988. (Gilles Bataillon, « Cambios culturales y sociopolíticos en las comunidades Mayangnas y Miskitos del río Bocay y del alto río Coco, Nicaragua (1979–2000) », ''[[Journal de la Société des Américanistes]]'', 2001, tome 87, [http://jsa.revues.org/document1238.html On line] {{es icon}})
-<p>
-In 1983 the Misurasata movement, led by Brooklyn Rivera, split, with the breakaway Misura group of Stedman Fagoth allying itself more closely with the [[Nicaraguan Democratic Force|FDN]], one of the first Contra commanded by Enrique Bermúdez. A subsequent autonomy statute in September 1987 largely defused Miskito resistance.
-</ref>
+In response, several [[Miskito people|Miskito]] groups eventually formed [[guerrilla]] groups in the 1980s, which carried on [[armed struggle]] against the central government. On February 25, 1982, Steadman Fagoth, one of the guerrilla leaders, took [[refugee|refuge]] in [[Honduras]] along with 3,000 Miskitos.<ref>Asleson, Vern, ''Nicaragua: Those Passed By'', Galde Press {{ISBN|1-931942-16-1}}, 2004.</ref> The Sandinistas began to denounce the activities of Contras in the [[Rio Coco]] zone. The Miskitos occupied the village of San Carlos during the "Red December" (December 20–21, 1982) during which several Sandinista soldiers were killed. In retaliation, the state massacred 30 Miskitos in the following days, prompting many of them to escape to Honduras to live in a difficult state of [[exile]]. The [[state of emergency]] in the Rio Coco zone was proclaimed in 1983, and lasted until 1988.<ref>Gilles Bataillon, [http://jsa.revues.org/document1238.html "Cambios culturales y sociopolíticos en las comunidades Mayangnas y Miskitos del río Bocay y del alto río Coco, Nicaragua (1979–2000)"], ''[[Journal de la Société des Américanistes]]'', 2001, tome 87 {{in lang|es}}.</ref>
-The Contras had financial and military support from the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] of the U.S. However, a CIA-supported manual advocating killing Sandinista politicians and poisoning wells in Nicaragua, as well as mining harbors, provoked a backlash.  The  House Appropriations Bill of 1982 contained the [[Boland Amendment]],<ref name = "cia">{{cite web
-|title=A Review of Iran-Contra
-|work=
-|url=http://www.spiritus-temporis.com/boland-amendment/
-|accessdate=2007-09-27
-}}</ref> which outlawed U.S. assistance to the [[Contras]] for the purpose of overthrowing the Nicaraguan government, while allowing assistance for other purposes.<ref name=clr>{{cite journal |last=Riesenfeld|first=Stefan A.|authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1987|month=January|title=The Powers of Congress and the President in International Relations: Revisited|journal=California Law Review|volume= 75|issue= 1 |pages=405|id= |doi=10.2307/3480586|accessdate=2007-11-07 |quote=The Boland Amendment was part of the Joint Resolution of December 21, 1982, providing further continuing appropriations for the fiscal year 1983 |jstor=3480586 |publisher=California Law Review, Inc.}}</ref>  Having been passed unanimously, the appropriations bill was signed by President [[Ronald Reagan]] on December 21, 1982.<ref name=apa>[http://www.americanprogressaction.org/issues/2007/military_deployments.html/#_edn13 Congressional Limitations and Requirements for Military Deployments and Funding<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref> The Boland amendment enjoyed wide support among Democrats but had been opposed by the Reagan Administration.
+In 1983 the Misurasata movement, led by Brooklyn Rivera, split, with the breakaway Misura group of Stedman Fagoth allying itself more closely with the [[Nicaraguan Democratic Force|FDN]], one of the first Contras commanded by Enrique Bermúdez. A subsequent autonomy statute in September 1987 largely defused Miskito resistance.
-Soon after they had blocked Contra aid, Congressional Democrats were embarrassed and politically vulnerable because of the Sandinistas. Very soon after the vote, Nicaraguan President [[Daniel Ortega]] announced that he would visit the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{harvtxt|Cameron|2007|p=40}}</ref> The [[Speaker of the House]], [[Tip O'Neill]], a liberal Democrat, was troubled by reports of harassment of the Catholic Church.<ref>{{harvtxt|Cameron|2007|p=124}}</ref> Some Sandinistas had earlier  endorsed the Communist crack-down on Poland's labor movement, [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]].{{cn|date=November 2011}}
+The Contras had financial and military support from the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] of the U.S. However, a CIA-supported manual advocating killing Sandinista politicians and poisoning wells in Nicaragua, as well as mining harbors, provoked a backlash. The House Appropriations Bill of 1982 contained the [[Boland Amendment]], which outlawed U.S. assistance to the Contras for the purpose of overthrowing the Nicaraguan government, while allowing assistance for other purposes.<ref name=clr>{{cite journal |last=Riesenfeld|first=Stefan A.|date=January 1987|title=The Powers of Congress and the President in International Relations: Revisited|journal=California Law Review|volume= 75|issue= 1 |pages=405–414|doi=10.2307/3480586|quote=The Boland Amendment was part of the Joint Resolution of December 21, 1982, providing further continuing appropriations for the fiscal year 1983 |jstor=3480586 |url=https://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1550&context=californialawreview}}<!--|accessdate=2007-11-07 --></ref> Having been passed unanimously, the appropriations bill was signed by President [[Ronald Reagan]] on December 21, 1982.<ref name=apa>[http://www.americanprogressaction.org/issues/2007/military_deployments.html/#_edn13 Congressional Limitations and Requirements for Military Deployments and Funding<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref> The Boland Amendment enjoyed wide support among Democrats but had been opposed by the Reagan administration.
+Soon after they had blocked Contra aid, Congressional Democrats were embarrassed and politically vulnerable because of the Sandinistas. Very soon after the vote, Nicaraguan President [[Daniel Ortega]] announced that he would visit the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{harvtxt|Cameron|2007|p=40}}</ref> The [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker of the House]], [[Tip O'Neill]], a liberal Democrat, was troubled by reports of harassment of the Catholic Church.<ref>{{harvtxt|Cameron|2007|p=124}}</ref> Some Sandinistas had earlier endorsed the Communist crack-down on Poland's labor movement, [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}}
 ==Advocacy of Congressional funding of Contras==
-The ''Gang of Four'' were four advocates of U.S. Congressional funding for the Contras, who were notable for being prominent Democrats.<ref name="M23" >{{harvtxt|Massing|1987|p=[http://books.google.com/books?id=R-cDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=Penn+Kemble,+%22Gang+of+Four%22&source=bl&ots=WuKokJNoDY&sig=NeEO7XmuHV-0poTDM2A1-17_yDQ&hl=en&ei=8EHETvDkGoGO4gS9wtSLDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=%22Gang%20of%20Four%22&f=false 23]}}</ref>
+The Gang of Four were four advocates of U.S. Congressional funding for the Contras, who were notable for being prominent Democrats.<ref name="M23" >{{harvtxt|Massing|1987|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=R-cDAAAAMBAJ&q=%22Gang+of+Four%22&pg=PA12 23]}}</ref>
 ===Leiken's criticism of Nicaraguan Sandinistas in 1984===
+In October 1984, ''[[The New Republic]]'' published "Nicaragua's Untold Stories", which criticized the [[Sandinistas]] for economic mismanagement, corruption, and violations of human rights. The author was [[Robert S. Leiken]], a Democratic policy analyst who had previously been an opponent of the Vietnam War.
+<blockquote>The turning point came in the fall of 1984, when, after an intense 10 day trip to Nicaragua, Leiken returned "appalled and angry" over conditions there. He wrote an article criticizing the Sandinistas in terms that were, for a liberal Democrat, unmistakably powerful and all the more striking because they appeared in the traditionally liberal ''The New Republic''.<ref>Christopher Madison, "Profiles in Influence: A Scholar's About Face On the Sandinistas", ''The National Journal'', June 14, 1986.</ref></blockquote>
-In October 1984,  ''[[The New Republic]]'' published  "Nicaragua's Untold Stories", which criticized the [[Sandinistas]]. The author was [[Robert S. Leiken]], a Democratic policy analyst who had previously been an opponent of the Vietnam War.
-<blockquote>
+Leiken's article caused controversy among [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]], according to ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine:
-"The turning point came in the fall of 1984, when, after an intense 10 day trip to Nicaragua, Leiken returned 'appalled and angry' over conditions there. He wrote an article criticizing the Sandinistas in terms that were, for a liberal Democrat, unmistakably powerful and all the more striking because they appeared in the traditionally liberal ''The New Republic'' [...]."<ref>(Christopher Madison, "Profiles in Influence: A Scholar's About Face On the Sandinistas," ''The National Journal'', June 14, 1986)</ref>
-</blockquote>
+<blockquote>The idea that a well respected liberal analyst would launch such a strong attack on the Sandinistas caused considerable stir in Washington. Leiken's apparent conversion was seen by the entrenched left as a betrayal and by Reaganites as a vindication of their long held views. Most important, many Democrats who had relied on Leiken's analyses began to reconsider their Sandinista sympathies. Senator Edward Kennedy had the article read into the ''Congressional Record''. Suddenly, Leiken became as controversial as Nicaragua itself.<ref>Jill Smolowe, "Conversion of a Timely Kind; A liberal analyst fans controversy with his pro ''Contra'' views", ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', April 21, 1986.</ref></blockquote>
-Leiken's article caused controversy among [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]], according to ''[[Time Magazine]]'':
-<blockquote>
-"The idea that a well respected liberal analyst would launch such a strong attack on the Sandinistas caused considerable stir in Washington. Leiken's apparent conversion was seen by the entrenched left as a betrayal and by Reaganites as a vindication of their long held views. Most important, many Democrats who had relied on Leiken's analyses began to reconsider their Sandinista sympathies. Senator Edward Kennedy had the article read into the ''Congressional Record''. Suddenly, Leiken became as controversial as Nicaragua itself."<ref>(Jill Smolowe, "Conversion of a Timely Kind; A liberal&nbsp;analyst fans controversy with his pro&nbsp;''Contra'' views," ''Time Magazine,'' April 21, 1986)</ref>
-</blockquote>
 ===Other advocacy===
-Aronson helped to draft President Reagan's speech on Contra aid, which influenced moderate Democrats.<ref name="M42" >{{harvtxt|Massing|1987|p=[http://books.google.com/books?id=R-cDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=Penn+Kemble,+%22Gang+of+Four%22&source=bl&ots=WuKokJNoDY&sig=NeEO7XmuHV-0poTDM2A1-17_yDQ&hl=en&ei=8EHETvDkGoGO4gS9wtSLDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAw#v=snippet&q=%22Gang%20of%20Four%22%2C%20Aronson&f=false 42]}}</ref> Excerpts were introduced into the ''[[Congressional Record]]''.<ref>{{harvtxt|Cameron|2007}}</ref> Their goal was not to overthrow the democratically elected Sandinista government, but to pressure the Sandinistas to negotiate a peace treaty with the Contras.<ref>{{harvtxt|Cameron|2007|p=42}}</ref>  They differed from the Reagan Administration on some questions. For example, they supported efforts to transfer control of Contra funding from the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] to the [[Department of State]]'s [[USAID]];<ref>{{harvtxt|Cameron|2007|p=41}}</ref> they also supported negotiations opposed by Reagan Administration "hard-liners" who wished to overthrow the Sandinistas.<ref>{{harvtxt|Cameron|2007|pp=42–43}}</ref>
+[[Bernard W. Aronson]] helped to draft President Reagan's speech on Contra aid, which influenced moderate Democrats.<ref name="M42" >{{harvtxt|Massing|1987|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=R-cDAAAAMBAJ&q=%22Gang+of+Four%22%2C+Aronson&pg=PA12 42]}}</ref> Excerpts were introduced into the ''[[Congressional Record]]''.<ref>{{harvtxt|Cameron|2007}}</ref> Their goal was not to overthrow the democratically elected Sandinista government, but to pressure the Sandinistas to negotiate a peace treaty with the Contras.<ref>{{harvtxt|Cameron|2007|p=42}}</ref> They differed from the Reagan administration on some questions. For example, they supported efforts to transfer control of Contra funding from the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] to the [[Department of State]]'s [[USAID]];<ref>{{harvtxt|Cameron|2007|p=41}}</ref> they also supported negotiations opposed by Reagan administration "hard-liners" who wished to overthrow the Sandinistas.<ref>{{harvtxt|Cameron|2007|pp=42–43}}</ref>
-All four members were nationally prominent  [[Democratic Party (U.S.)|Democratic Party]] [[policy analyst]]s who had criticized the conduct of the [[Vietnam War]].<ref name="M23"/><ref name="Holley"/> Their advocacy of Congressional funding for the Contras was unpopular among liberals and progressives in the Democratic Party.<ref name="Holley" >{{cite article|title=Political activist Penn Kemble dies at&nbsp;64|first=Joe|last=Holley|
+All four members were nationally prominent Democratic [[policy analyst]]s who had criticized the conduct of the [[Vietnam War]].<ref name="M23"/><ref name="Holley"/> Their advocacy of Congressional funding for the Contras was unpopular among liberals and progressives in the Democratic Party.<ref name="Holley" >{{Cite news|title=Political activist Penn Kemble dies at 64|first=Joe|last=Holley|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=October 19, 2005 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/10/18/AR2005101801743_pf.html}}</ref><!-- <ref name="times">{{Cite news|newspaper=[[The Times]]|title=Penn Kemble: Dapper Democratic Party activist whose influence extended across the spectrum of US politics (21 January 1941 – 15 October 2005)|date=October 31, 2005|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article584709.ece}}{{dead link|date=September 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> --> The label "Gang of Four", alluding to the Chinese [[Gang of Four]] who had allegedly sought a revival of the [[Maoist]] [[Cultural Revolution]], was [[ironic]].
-newspaper=Washington Post |date=October 19, 2005 |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/10/18/AR2005101801743_pf.html|ref=harv}}</ref><!-- <ref name="times">{{cite article|newspaper=[[The Times (London)]]|title=Penn&nbsp;Kemble: Dapper Democratic Party activist whose influence extended across the spectrum of US politics (21&nbsp;January&nbsp;1941 – 15&nbsp;October&nbsp;2005)|date=October 31|year=2005|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article584709.ece|ref=harv}}</ref> --> The label "Gang of Four", alluding to the Chinese [[Gang of Four]] who had allegedly sought a revival of the [[Maoist]] [[Cultural Revolution]], was ironic.
 ==See also==
 * [[Boland Amendment]]
 * [[Esquipulas Peace Agreement]]
-* [[Nicaragua v. United States]]
+* ''[[Nicaragua v. United States]]''
 ==Notes==
+{{reflist|colwidth=33em}}
-<references/>
 ==References==
-* {{cite journal|first1=Kai|last1=Bird|authorlink1=Kai Bird|first2=Max|last2=Holland|authorlink2=Max Holland|title=A Defection in the Family|journal=[[The Nation]]|month=30 November|year=1985|url=http://www.thenation.com/archive/defection-family|ref=harv|id=[http://www.washingtondecoded.com/site/files/a_defection_in_the_family.pdf PDF version] and [http://www.washingtondecoded.com/site/irancontra/ HTML version at Decoding Washington website of Holland]}}
+*{{cite journal|first1=Kai|last1=Bird|author-link1=Kai Bird|first2=Max|last2=Holland|author-link2=Max Holland|title=A Defection in the Family|journal=[[The Nation]]|date=November 30, 1985|url=http://www.thenation.com/archive/defection-family|id=[http://www.washingtondecoded.com/site/files/a_defection_in_the_family.pdf PDF version] and [http://www.washingtondecoded.com/site/irancontra/ HTML version at Decoding Washington website of Holland]}}
-* {{cite book|title=My life in the time of the Contras|first=Bruce&nbsp;P.|last=Cameron|authorlink=Bruce P. Cameron|publisher=UNM Press|year=2007|isbn=9780826342515|page=340|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=a-eB2PduzxUC&dq=Bruce+Cameron%2C+Penn+Kemble&q=Jane+Fonda#v=snippet&q=Jane%20Fonda%2C%20Penn%20Kemble&f=false|ref=harv}}
+*{{cite book|title=My Life in the Time of the Contras|first=Bruce P.|last=Cameron|author-link=Bruce P. Cameron|publisher=UNM Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8263-4251-5|page=340|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a-eB2PduzxUC&q=Jane+Fonda%2C+Penn+Kemble}}
-* {{cite journal|first=Michael|last=Massing|authorlink=Michael Massing|journal=Mother Jones|month=October|year=1987|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=R-cDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=Penn+Kemble,+%22Gang+of+Four%22&source=bl&ots=WuKokJNoDY&sig=NeEO7XmuHV-0poTDM2A1-17_yDQ&hl=en&ei=8EHETvDkGoGO4gS9wtSLDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=%22Gang%20of%20Four%22&f=false|ref=harv|title=Contra aides: Why four Democratic operatives enlisted in Ollie&nbsp;North's crusade|pages=23–26, 40–43}}
+*{{cite journal|first=Michael|last=Massing|author-link=Michael Massing|journal=[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]]|date=October 1987|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R-cDAAAAMBAJ&q=%22Gang+of+Four%22&pg=PA12|title=Contra aides: Why four Democratic operatives enlisted in Ollie North's crusade|pages=23–26, 40–43}}
 {{United States intervention in Latin America}}
+[[Category:Nicaraguan Revolution]]
 [[Category:American political activists]]
 [[Category:American foreign policy writers]]
 [[Category:American lobbyists]]
 [[Category:Nicaragua–United States relations]]
-[[Category:1980s]]
+[[Category:1980s in Nicaragua]]
-[[Category:Anti-communist organizations]]
-[[Category:History of Nicaragua]]
 [[Category:History of the foreign relations of the United States]]
 [[Category:Wars involving the United States]]
+[[Category:1980s in the United States]]

v t e United States intervention in Latin America
Policy	Monroe Doctrine (1823) Platt Amendment (1901–1934) Roosevelt Corollary/Big Stick ideology (1904) Good Neighbor policy (1933) Dollar diplomacy Banana Wars
Wars	Mexican–American War (1846–1848) Spanish–American War (1898) Mexican Border War (1910–1919) United States involvement in the Mexican Revolution (1916–1919)
Overt actions and occupations	First Occupation of Cuba (1898–1902) Separation of Panama from Colombia and Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903) Second Occupation of Cuba (1906–1909) Occupation of Nicaragua (1912–1933) Occupation of Veracruz (1914) Occupation of Haiti (1915–1934) Occupation of the Dominican Republic (1916–1924) Occupation of the Dominican Republic (1965–1966) Invasion of Panama (1989)
Covert actions	1954 Guatemalan coup d'état Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961) Operation Mongoose (1961) 1964 Brazilian coup d'état Project FUBELT (1970) 1971 Bolivian coup d'état 1973 Chilean coup d'état Operation Condor (1975–1983)
Other	United States involvement in regime change in Latin America Contras (1979–1990) Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) Nicaragua's case against the United States (1986)
Foreign policy of the United States Latin America–United States relations