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[[File:Shah 'Alam conveying the grant of the Diwani to Lord Clive.jpg|thumb|250px|[[August 16]]: The [[Treaty of Allahabad]] is signed.]]
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[[File:Shah 'Alam conveying the grant of the Diwani to Lord Clive.jpg|thumb|right|[[August 16]]: [[Treaty of Allahabad]] is signed.]]
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== Events ==
== Events ==

=== January–March ===
=== January–March ===
* [[January 23]] – [[Joseph_II,_Holy Roman Emperor|Prince Joseph of Austria]] marries Princess [[Maria Josepha of Bavaria]] in [[Vienna]].
* [[January 23]] – [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Prince Joseph of Austria]] marries Princess [[Maria Josepha of Bavaria]] in [[Vienna]].
* [[January 29]] &ndash; One week before his death, [[Mir Jafar]], who had been enthroned as the [[Nawab of Bengal]] and ruler of the Bengali people with the support and protection of the [[British East India Company]], abdicates in favor of his 18-year-old son, [[Najmuddin Ali Khan]]. <ref>Abdul Majed Khan, ''The Transition in Bengal, 1756-75: A Study of Saiyid Muhammad Reza Khan'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007) p69</ref>
* [[January 29]] &ndash; One week before his death, [[Mir Jafar]], who had been enthroned as the [[Nawab of Bengal]] and ruler of the Bengali people with the support and protection of the [[British East India Company]], abdicates in favor of his 18-year-old son, [[Najmuddin Ali Khan]].<ref>Abdul Majed Khan, ''The Transition in Bengal, 1756-75: A Study of Saiyid Muhammad Reza Khan'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007) p69</ref>
* [[February 8]] &ndash;
* [[February 8]]
**[[Frederick the Great]], the [[King of Prussia]], issues a decree abolishing the historic punishments against unmarried women in Germany for "sex crimes", particularly the ''Hurenstrafen'' (literally "whore shaming") practices of public humiliation. <ref>Isabel V. Hull, ''Sexuality, State, and Civil Society in Germany, 1700-1815'' (Cornell University Press, 1997) p127</ref>
**[[Frederick the Great]], the [[King of Prussia]], issues a decree abolishing the historic punishments against unmarried women in Germany for "sex crimes", particularly the ''Hurenstrafen'' (literally "whore shaming") practices of public humiliation.<ref>Isabel V. Hull, ''Sexuality, State, and Civil Society in Germany, 1700-1815'' (Cornell University Press, 1997) p127</ref>
**[[Isaac Barré]], a member of the British House of Commons for [[Wycombe (UK Parliament constituency)|Wycombe]] and a veteran of the [[French and Indian War]] in the British American colonies, coins the term "[[Sons of Liberty]]" in a rebuttal to [[Charles Townshend]]'s derisive description of the American colonists during the introduction of the proposed Stamp Act. MP Barré notes that "They fled from your tyranny to a then uncultivated and unhospitable country... And yet, actuated by the principles of true English liberty, they met all these hardships with pleasure, compared with those they suffered in their own country, from the hands of those who should have been their friends." American colonists adopt the term for their own organization after reading the accounts of Barré's speech. <ref>Jonathan Mercantini, ''The Stamp Act of 1765: A History in Documents'' (Broadview Press, 2017) p71</ref>
**[[Isaac Barré]], a member of the British House of Commons for [[Wycombe (UK Parliament constituency)|Wycombe]] and a veteran of the [[French and Indian War]] in the British American colonies, coins the term "[[Sons of Liberty]]" in a rebuttal to [[Charles Townshend]]'s derisive description of the American colonists during the introduction of the proposed Stamp Act. Barré notes that "They fled from your tyranny to a then uncultivated and unhospitable country... And yet, actuated by the principles of true English liberty, they met all these hardships with pleasure, compared with those they suffered in their own country, from the hands of those who should have been their friends." American colonists adopt the term for their own organization after reading the accounts of Barré's speech.<ref>Jonathan Mercantini, ''The Stamp Act of 1765: A History in Documents'' (Broadview Press, 2017) p71</ref>
* [[February 14]] &ndash; [[Spain]]'s five-member "special junta", appointed by Prime Minister [[Jerónimo Grimaldi, 1st Duke of Grimaldi|Jerónimo Grimaldi]], delivers its report regarding "ways to address the backwardness of Spain's commerce with its colonies and with foreign nations". The report provides detailed orders to be delivered to [[José de Gálvez]], the ''visitador general'' in charge of [[New Spain]]. <ref>Stanley J. Stein and Barbara H. Stein, ''Apogee of Empire: Spain and New Spain in the Age of Charles III, 1759–1789'' (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003) p69</ref>
* [[February 14]] &ndash; [[Spain]]'s five-member "special junta", appointed by Prime Minister [[Jerónimo Grimaldi, 1st Duke of Grimaldi|Jerónimo Grimaldi]], delivers its report regarding "ways to address the backwardness of Spain's commerce with its colonies and with foreign nations". The report provides detailed orders to be delivered to [[José de Gálvez]], the ''visitador general'' in charge of [[New Spain]].<ref>Stanley J. Stein and Barbara H. Stein, ''Apogee of Empire: Spain and New Spain in the Age of Charles III, 1759–1789'' (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003) p69</ref>
* [[March 9]] &ndash; After a public campaign by the writer [[Voltaire]], judges in [[Paris]] posthumously exonerate [[Jean Calas]] of murdering his son. Calas had been tortured and executed in [[1762]] on the charge, though his son may have committed suicide.
* [[March 9]] &ndash; After a public campaign by the writer [[Voltaire]], judges in [[Paris]] posthumously exonerate [[Jean Calas]] of murdering his son. Calas had been tortured and executed in [[1762]] on the charge, though his son may have committed suicide.
* [[March 22]] &ndash; Royal assent is given to the [[Duties in American Colonies Act 1765]], historically referred to as the [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]], imposing the first direct tax levied from [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] on the [[Thirteen Colonies|thirteen American colonies]], effective November 1. <ref>"Sunday's and Monday's Posts", in ''The Leeds Intelligencer'', March 26, 1765, p3</ref> The revenue measure (which requires the purchase of a stamp to be affixed for validation of all legal documents, but also to licensed newspapers and even playing cards and dice) is made to help defray the costs for British military operations in [[North America]], including the French and Indian War. <ref>Richard Archer, ''As If an Enemy's Country: The British Occupation of Boston and the Origins of Revolution'' (Oxford University Press, 2010) pp20-21</ref>
* [[March 22]] &ndash; Royal assent is given to the [[Duties in American Colonies Act 1765]], historically referred to as the [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]], imposing the first direct tax levied from [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] on the [[Thirteen Colonies|thirteen American colonies]], effective November 1.<ref>"Sunday's and Monday's Posts", in ''The Leeds Intelligencer'', March 26, 1765, p3</ref> The revenue measure (which requires the purchase of a stamp to be affixed for validation of all legal documents, but also to licensed newspapers and even playing cards and dice) is made to help defray the costs for British military operations in [[North America]], including the French and Indian War.<ref>Richard Archer, ''As If an Enemy's Country: The British Occupation of Boston and the Origins of Revolution'' (Oxford University Press, 2010) pp20-21</ref>
* [[March 24]] &ndash; Great Britain passes the [[Quartering Act]], requiring private households in the thirteen American colonies to house British soldiers if necessary.
* [[March 24]] &ndash; Great Britain passes the [[Quartering Act]], requiring private households in the thirteen American colonies to house British soldiers if necessary.


=== April&ndash;June ===
=== April&ndash;June ===
* [[April 4]] &ndash; At [[Fort Tombecbe]], near what is now the town of [[Epes, Alabama]], representatives of the British Empire and of the [[Choctaw]] Indian tribe in [[Mississippi]] sign a peace treaty in the wake of French cession of claims to the British. A boundary is fixed between land to be occupied by the Choctaws and for lands which British settlers can use; in addition, the British agree to provide a police official and a gunsmith at Fort Tombecbe for the Choctaws to use for trespassing complaints and for weapons repairs. By 1775, however, the Choctaws are outnumbered in Mississippi. <ref>"Mississippi", by Kathrin Dodds, in ''Native America: A State-by-State Historical Encyclopedia'', ed. by Daniel S. Murphree (ABC-CLIO, 2012) p611</ref>
* [[April 4]] &ndash; At [[Fort Tombecbe]], near what is now the town of [[Epes, Alabama]], representatives of the British Empire and of the [[Choctaw]] Indian tribe in [[Mississippi]] sign a peace treaty in the wake of French cession of claims to the British. A boundary is fixed between land to be occupied by the Choctaws and for lands which British settlers can use; in addition, the British agree to provide a police official and a gunsmith at Fort Tombecbe for the Choctaws to use for trespassing complaints and for weapons repairs. By 1775, however, the Choctaws are outnumbered in Mississippi.<ref>"Mississippi", by Kathrin Dodds, in ''Native America: A State-by-State Historical Encyclopedia'', ed. by Daniel S. Murphree (ABC-CLIO, 2012) p611</ref>
* [[April 5]] &ndash; After completing the portion of the [[Mason–Dixon line]] marking the semi-circular boundary between [[Pennsylvania]] and [[Delaware]], English surveyors [[Charles Mason]] and [[Jeremiah Dixon]] begin the two and a half year process of plotting out the 230-mile boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland along the latitude of 39°43′20″ N. <ref>Andro Linklater, ''The Fabric of America: How Our Borders and Boundaries Shaped the Country and Forged Our National Identity'' (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2009) p29</ref>
* [[April 5]] &ndash; After completing the portion of the [[Mason–Dixon line]] marking the semi-circular boundary between [[Pennsylvania]] and [[Delaware]], English surveyors [[Charles Mason]] and [[Jeremiah Dixon]] begin the two-and-a-half-year process of plotting out the 230-mile boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland along the latitude of 39°43′20″ N.<ref>Andro Linklater, ''The Fabric of America: How Our Borders and Boundaries Shaped the Country and Forged Our National Identity'' (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2009) p29</ref>
* [[April 14]] &ndash; Three days after getting the news that the Stamp Act has passed, American colonists invade the British Army arsenal near the New York City Hall and sabotage guns inside by spiking them. <ref>Edward Robb Ellis, ''The Epic of New York City: A Narrative History'' (Basic Books, 2011)</ref>
* [[April 14]] &ndash; Three days after getting the news that the Stamp Act has passed, American colonists invade the British Army arsenal near the New York City Hall and sabotage guns inside by spiking them.<ref>Edward Robb Ellis, ''The Epic of New York City: A Narrative History'' (Basic Books, 2011)</ref>
* [[April 26]] &ndash; At [[Saint Petersburg]], German engineer [[Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein|Christian Kratzenstein]] presents to the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] a perfected version of the arithmetical machine originally invented by [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Gottfried Leibniz]]. Kratzenstein claims that his machine solves the problem with the Leibniz machine has with calculations above four digits, perfecting the flaw where the machine is "prone to err whenever it is necessary to make a number of 9999 move to 10000", but the machine is not developed further. <ref>Matthew L. Jones, ''Reckoning with Matter: Calculating Machines, Innovation, and Thinking about Thinking from Pascal to Babbage'' (University of Chicago Press, 2016) p133</ref>
* [[April 26]] &ndash; At [[Saint Petersburg]], German engineer [[Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein|Christian Kratzenstein]] presents to the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] a perfected version of the arithmetical machine originally invented by [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Gottfried Leibniz]]. Kratzenstein claims that his machine solves the problem with the Leibniz machine has with calculations above four digits, perfecting the flaw where the machine is "prone to err whenever it is necessary to make a number of 9999 move to 10000", but the machine is not developed further.<ref>[[Matthew L. Jones]], ''Reckoning with Matter: Calculating Machines, Innovation, and Thinking about Thinking from Pascal to Babbage'' (University of Chicago Press, 2016) p133</ref>
* [[May 18]] &ndash; Not long after British rule has started over the formerly French colony of [[Quebec]], an accidental fire destroys one quarter of the town of [[Montreal]]. <ref>William Henry Atherton, ''Montreal, 1535-1914: Under British rule, 1760-1914" (S. J. Clarke, 1914) p397</ref>
* [[May 18]] &ndash; Not long after British rule has started over the formerly French colony of [[Quebec]], an accidental fire destroys one quarter of the town of [[Montreal]].<ref>William Henry Atherton, ''Montreal, 1535-1914: Under British rule, 1760-1914'' (S. J. Clarke, 1914) p397</ref>
* [[May 26]] &ndash; During a stroll in the park "on a fine Sabbath afternoon" at [[Glasgow Green]], Scottish engineer [[James Watt]] receives the inspiration that provides the breakthrough in his development of the [[steam engine]]; he recounts later that "The idea came into my mind, that as steam was an elastic body it would rush into a vacuum, and if a communication was made between the cylinder and an exhausted vessel, it would rush into it, and might be there condensed without cooling the cylinder... I had not walked further than the Golf-house when the whole thing was arranged in my mind." <ref>H. W. Dickinson, ''James Watt: Craftsman and Engineer'' (Cambridge University Press, 1936) pp36-37</ref>
* [[May 26]] &ndash; During a stroll in the park "on a fine Sabbath afternoon" at [[Glasgow Green]], Scottish engineer [[James Watt]] receives the inspiration that provides the breakthrough in his development of the [[steam engine]]; he recounts later that "The idea came into my mind, that as steam was an elastic body it would rush into a vacuum, and if a communication was made between the cylinder and an exhausted vessel, it would rush into it, and might be there condensed without cooling the cylinder... I had not walked further than the Golf-house when the whole thing was arranged in my mind."<ref>H. W. Dickinson, ''James Watt: Craftsman and Engineer'' (Cambridge University Press, 1936) pp36-37</ref>
* [[June 21]] &ndash; The [[Isle of Man]] is brought under British control, the [[Isle of Man Purchase Act 1765|Isle of Man Purchase Act]] (coming into force 10 May) confirming [[HM Treasury]]'s purchase of the feudal rights of the [[Dukes of Atholl]], as [[Lord of Mann]] over the island, and [[wikt:revested|revesting]] them into the [[British Crown]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Hartley Booth|first=V. E.|last2=Sells|first2=Peter|title=British extradition law and procedure: including extradition between the United Kingdom and foreign states, the Commonwealth and dependent countries and the Republic of China.|publisher=Sijthoff & Noordhoff|location=Alphen aan den Rijn|year=1980|page=5|isbn=978-90-286-0079-9|oclc=6890466}}</ref>
* [[June 21]] &ndash; The [[Isle of Man]] is brought under British control, the [[Isle of Man Purchase Act 1765|Isle of Man Purchase Act]] (coming into force 10 May) confirming [[HM Treasury]]'s purchase of the feudal rights of the [[Dukes of Atholl]], as [[Lord of Mann]] over the island, and [[wikt:revested|revesting]] them into the [[British Crown]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hartley Booth|first1=V. E.|last2=Sells|first2=Peter|title=British extradition law and procedure: including extradition between the United Kingdom and foreign states, the Commonwealth and dependent countries and the Republic of China.|publisher=Sijthoff & Noordhoff|location=Alphen aan den Rijn|year=1980|page=5|isbn=978-90-286-0079-9|oclc=6890466}}</ref>


=== July&ndash;December ===
=== July&ndash;December ===
* [[July 10]] &ndash; King George III dismisses [[George Grenville]] from the office of [[Prime Minister of Great Britain]], and replaces him with another Whig Party statesman, [[Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham|Charles Watson-Wentworth]], Lord Rockingham. <ref>Nicholas K. Robinson, ''Edmund Burke: A Life in Caricature'' (Yale University Press, 1996) p17 </ref>
* [[July 10]] &ndash; King George III dismisses [[George Grenville]] from the office of [[Prime Minister of Great Britain]], and replaces him with another Whig Party statesman, [[Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham|Charles Watson-Wentworth]], Lord Rockingham.<ref>Nicholas K. Robinson, ''Edmund Burke: A Life in Caricature'' (Yale University Press, 1996) p17</ref>
* [[July 12]] &ndash; On orders of [[Pontiac (Ottawa leader)|Chief Pontiac]], War Chief Wahpesah of the [[Kickapoo people]] releases British Indian Affairs negotiator [[George Croghan]] from 35 days of detention. <ref>Arrell M. Gibson, ''Kickapoos: Lords of the Middle Border'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 1975)</ref> At the same time, Pontiac authorizes a Shawnee Chief, Nanicksah, to sign a treaty with the British on behalf of the Great Lakes tribes, settling the French and Indian War. <ref>"Nanicksah", in ''Native Peoples A to Z: A Reference Guide to Native Peoples of the Western Hemisphere'', ed. by Donald Ricky (Native American Book Publishers, 2009) p1779</ref>
* [[July 12]] &ndash; On orders of [[Pontiac (Ottawa leader)|Chief Pontiac]], War Chief Wahpesah of the [[Kickapoo people]] releases British Indian Affairs negotiator [[George Croghan]] from 35 days of detention.<ref>Arrell M. Gibson, ''Kickapoos: Lords of the Middle Border'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 1975)</ref> At the same time, Pontiac authorizes a Shawnee Chief, Nanicksah, to sign a treaty with the British on behalf of the Great Lakes tribes, settling the French and Indian War.<ref>"Nanicksah", in ''Native Peoples A to Z: A Reference Guide to Native Peoples of the Western Hemisphere'', ed. by Donald Ricky (Native American Book Publishers, 2009) p1779</ref>
* [[July 13]] &ndash; [[Qianlong Emperor|Qianlong]], the [[Emperor of China]] issues a decree that copper engravings be made to depict all of his victories in battle. In the interest of amity with the Chinese, King [[George III of Great Britain]] gives priority to the sale of British copper, and King [[Louis XV of France]] assents to the use of French artisans. <ref>John Wiley Spiers, ''How Small business Trades Worldwide'' (Writer's Showcase, 2001) p86</ref>
* [[July 13]] &ndash; [[Qianlong Emperor|Qianlong]], the [[Emperor of China]] issues a decree that copper engravings be made to depict all of his victories in battle. In the interest of amity with the Chinese, King [[George III of Great Britain]] gives priority to the sale of British copper, and King [[Louis XV of France]] assents to the use of French artisans.<ref>John Wiley Spiers, ''How Small business Trades Worldwide'' (Writer's Showcase, 2001) p86</ref>
* [[July 21]] &ndash; Having eliminated all of his rivals for leadership of [[Persia]], [[Karim Khan Zand]] returns in triumph to his home in [[Shiraz]] and makes it his capital, then begins construction of citadels, mosques, schools and other buildings. <ref>"Karim Khan Zand (ca. 1705-1779)" in ''The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia'', by Mehrdad Kia (ABC-CLIO, 2017) p133</ref>
* [[July 21]] &ndash; Having eliminated all of his rivals for leadership of [[Persia]], [[Karim Khan Zand]] returns in triumph to his home in [[Shiraz]] and makes it his capital then begins construction of citadels, mosques, schools and other buildings.<ref>"Karim Khan Zand (ca. 1705-1779)" in ''The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia'', by Mehrdad Kia (ABC-CLIO, 2017) p133</ref>
* [[July 23]] &ndash; Headed by [[Odawa]] Chief Pontiac and George Croghan, a party of Great Lakes tribesmen and British soldiers travel along the [[Wabash River]] and obtain the release of all white [[prisoners of war]] remaining in the [[Miami people]] and Odawa villages between [[Ouiatenon]] (near modern-day [[Granville, Indiana]]) and [[Detroit]]. <ref>Bert Anson, ''The Miami Indians'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 2000) p74</ref>
* [[July 23]] &ndash; Headed by [[Odawa]] Chief Pontiac and George Croghan, a party of Great Lakes tribesmen and British soldiers travel along the [[Wabash River]] and obtain the release of all white [[prisoners of war]] remaining in the [[Miami people]] and Odawa villages between [[Ouiatenon]] (near modern-day [[Granville, Indiana]]) and [[Detroit]].<ref>Bert Anson, ''The Miami Indians'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 2000) p74</ref>
* [[July 30]] &ndash; At [[Yale College]], eight students attack the residence of Yale's President [[Thomas Clap]] because of his promotion of [[Old and New Light|"New Light"]] [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] doctrine; and "with Evil Intent" and "with Strong hand burst and take off the gates of the yard of the mansion house and Carry away and with Screaming and Shouting... throw into said House Numbers of large stones with Cattles Horns into the windows of said House." <ref>Robert Blair St. George, ''Conversing by Signs: Poetics of Implication in Colonial New England Culture'' (University of North Carolina Press, 2000) p246</ref> The students plead guilty and pay nominal fines, and Clap resigns at the end of the 1765-66 school year.
* [[July 30]] &ndash; At [[Yale College]], eight students attack the residence of Yale's President [[Thomas Clap]] because of his promotion of [[Old and New Light|"New Light"]] [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] doctrine; and "with Evil Intent" and "with Strong hand burst and take off the gates of the yard of the mansion house and Carry away and with Screaming and Shouting... throw into said House Numbers of large stones with Cattles Horns into the windows of said House."<ref>Robert Blair St. George, ''Conversing by Signs: Poetics of Implication in Colonial New England Culture'' (University of North Carolina Press, 2000) p246</ref> The students plead guilty and pay nominal fines, and Clap resigns at the end of the 1765–66 school year.
* [[August 9]] &ndash; [[Russian Empire|Russian]] Empress [[Catherine the Great|Catherine II]] issues a decree authorizing the new way to produce [[vodka]] (by freezing).
* [[August 9]] &ndash; [[Russian Empire|Russian]] Empress [[Catherine the Great|Catherine II]] issues a decree authorizing the new way to produce [[vodka]] (by freezing).


[[File:IGI1908India1765a.jpg|thumb|Map of [[India]] in 1765 showing territories loyal to the [[Maratha]]s in ''(Yellow)''; and the territories of those loyal to the [[Great Mogul]] in ''(Green)''.]]
[[File:IGI1908India1765a.jpg|thumb|Map of [[India]] in 1765 showing territories loyal to the [[Maratha]]s (yellow); and the territories of those loyal to the [[Great Mogul]] (green)]]


⚫
* [[August 14]] &ndash; In protest of the [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]], [[Boston]]ians attack the home of official [[Andrew Oliver]].
* [[August 16]] &ndash; The [[Treaty of Allahabad]] is signed. The Treaty marks the political and constitutional involvement and the beginning of [[Company rule in India]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Bhattacherje |first=S. B. |date=May 1, 2009 |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Events & Dates |url=https://books.google.com/?id=oGVSvXuCsyUC&pg=SL1-PA63&dq=St.+Peter%27s+Church+allahabad#v=onepage |location= |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |pages=A-96 |isbn= 9788120740747|accessdate=March 24, 2014 }}</ref>
* [[August 16]] &ndash; The [[Treaty of Allahabad]] is signed. The Treaty marks the political and constitutional involvement and the beginning of [[Company rule in India]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Bhattacherje |first=S. B. |date=May 1, 2009 |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Events & Dates |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oGVSvXuCsyUC&q=St.+Peter%27s+Church+allahabad&pg=SL1-PA63 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |pages=A-96 |isbn= 9788120740747|access-date=March 24, 2014 }}</ref>
⚫
* [[August 14]] &ndash; In protest at the [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]], [[Boston]]ians attack the home of official [[Andrew Oliver]].
* [[August 18]] &ndash; [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] becomes [[Holy Roman Emperor]].
* [[August 18]] &ndash; [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] becomes [[Holy Roman Emperor]].
* [[August 26]] &ndash; In protest of the [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]], [[Boston]]ians destroy the home of lieutenant governor [[Thomas Hutchinson (governor)|Thomas Hutchinson]].
* [[August 26]] &ndash; In protest of the [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]], [[Boston]]ians destroy the home of lieutenant governor [[Thomas Hutchinson (governor)|Thomas Hutchinson]].
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* In [[Lisbon]], the ''[[auto-da-fé]]'' parade (often an excuse for violence against Jews or Christian [[Christian heresy|'heretics']]) is abolished.
* In [[Lisbon]], the ''[[auto-da-fé]]'' parade (often an excuse for violence against Jews or Christian [[Christian heresy|'heretics']]) is abolished.
* Desai [[Atash Behram]] is established in [[Navsari]], India.
* Desai [[Atash Behram]] is established in [[Navsari]], India.
* [[Catherine the Great]] establishes the first secondary education school for non-noble females in Russia: the [[Novodevichii Institute]], for the daughters of commoners.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bisha|first=Robin|title=Russian Women, 1698-1917 Experience and Expression: An Anthology of Sources.|year=2002|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington, IN|pages=162–163}}</ref>
* [[Catherine the Great]] establishes the first secondary education school for non-noble females in Russia: the [[Novodevichii Institute]], for the daughters of commoners.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bisha|first=Robin|title=Russian Women, 1698-1917 Experience and Expression: An Anthology of Sources.|year=2002|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington, IN|pages=162–163}}</ref>{{dubious|reason=listed in both 1764 & 1765|date=November 2022}}


== Births ==
== Births ==
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[[File:William IV crop.jpg|thumb|right|110px|[[William IV of the United Kingdom]]]]
[[File:William IV crop.jpg|thumb|right|110px|[[William IV of the United Kingdom]]]]
* [[August 21]] &ndash; King [[William IV of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1837]])
* [[August 21]] &ndash; King [[William IV of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1837]])
* [[August 24]] &ndash; [[Thomas Muir of Huntershill|Thomas Muir]], Scottish advocate, revolutionary (d. [[1799]])
* [[September 16]] &ndash; [[Harry Burrard-Neale]], British [[Royal Navy]] officer and politician (d. [[1840]])
* [[September 16]] &ndash; [[Harry Burrard-Neale]], British [[Royal Navy]] officer and politician (d. [[1840]])
* [[September 18]] &ndash; [[Pope Gregory XVI]] (d. [[1846]])
* [[September 18]] &ndash; [[Pope Gregory XVI]] (d. [[1846]])
* [[September 25]] &ndash; [[Micha%C5%82 Kleofas Ogi%C5%84ski]], [[Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth|Polish-Lithuanian]], and later [[Russian_Empire|Russian]] imperial statesman and composer
* [[September 25]] &ndash; [[Michał Kleofas Ogiński]], [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Polish-Lithuanian]], and later [[Russian Empire|Russian]] imperial statesman and composer
* [[September 29]] &ndash; [[Karl Ludwig Harding]], German astronomer (d. [[1834]])
* [[September 29]] &ndash; [[Karl Ludwig Harding]], German astronomer (d. [[1834]])
* [[September 30]] &ndash; [[José María Morelos]], leader of [[Mexican War of Independence]] (d. [[1815]])<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/m/morelos.htm|title=Biografia de José María Morelos|website=Biografiasyvidas.com|accessdate=15 January 2019}}</ref>
* [[September 30]] &ndash; [[José María Morelos]], leader of [[Mexican War of Independence]] (d. [[1815]])<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/m/morelos.htm|title=Biografia de José María Morelos|website=Biografiasyvidas.com|access-date=15 January 2019}}</ref>
* [[October 8]] &ndash; [[Harman Blennerhassett]], Irish-American lawyer (d. [[1831]])
* [[October 8]] &ndash; [[Harman Blennerhassett]], Irish-American lawyer (d. [[1831]])
* [[October 17]] &ndash; [[Henri Jacques Guillaume Clarke]], duc de Feltre, French marshal and politician (d. [[1818]])
* [[October 17]] &ndash; [[Henri Jacques Guillaume Clarke]], duc de Feltre, French marshal and politician (d. [[1818]])
* [[October 18]] &ndash; [[Josefa Joaquina Sánchez]], Venezuelan embroiderer and independence heroine (d. [[1813]])
* [[October 24]] &ndash; [[James Mackintosh]], Scottish publicist (d. [[1832]])
* [[October 24]] &ndash; [[James Mackintosh]], Scottish publicist (d. [[1832]])
[[File:Fulton.jpg|thumb|right|110px|[[Robert Fulton]]]]
[[File:Fulton.jpg|thumb|right|110px|[[Robert Fulton]]]]
* [[November 14]] &ndash; [[Robert Fulton]], American inventor (d. [[1815]])
* [[November 14]] &ndash; [[Robert Fulton]], American inventor (d. [[1815]])
* [[November 17]] &ndash; [[Jacques MacDonald]], French marshal (d. [[1840]])
* [[November 17]] &ndash; [[Jacques MacDonald]], French marshal (d. [[1840]])
* [[November 19]] &ndash; [[Filippo Castagna]], Maltese politician (d. [[1830]])<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Abela |first1=Joe |title=Filippo Castagna u Birżebbuġa |url=https://sanpietru.wordpress.com/birzebbuga/84-2/ |magazine=Leħen il-Banda |publisher=Għaqda San Pietru Fil-Ktajjen A.D. 1957 |date=1999 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203205856/https://sanpietru.wordpress.com/birzebbuga/84-2/ |archive-date=3 December 2019 |language=mt}}</ref>
* [[November 20]] &ndash; [[Thomas Fremantle (Royal Navy officer)|Sir Thomas Fremantle]], British captain and politician (d. [[1819]])
* [[November 20]] &ndash; [[Thomas Fremantle (Royal Navy officer)|Sir Thomas Fremantle]], British captain and politician (d. [[1819]])
* [[November 28]] &ndash; [[George William Manby]], English author and inventor (d. [[1854]])
* [[November 28]] &ndash; [[George William Manby]], English author and inventor (d. [[1854]])
Line 92: Line 96:
* ''date unknown''
* ''date unknown''
** [[Mary Bryant]], one of the first successful escapees from the fledgling Australian penal colony
** [[Mary Bryant]], one of the first successful escapees from the fledgling Australian penal colony
** [[James Smithson]], British mineralogist, chemist and posthumous founder of the [[Smithsonian Institution]] (d. [[1829]])<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://siarchives.si.edu/history/james-smithson|title = Smithsonian History, James Smithson|accessdate =28 February 2018|website = Smithsonian Institution Archives Website|publisher = Smithsonian Institution Archives}}</ref>
** [[James Smithson]], British mineralogist, chemist and posthumous founder of the [[Smithsonian Institution]] (d. [[1829]])<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://siarchives.si.edu/history/james-smithson|title = Smithsonian History, James Smithson|access-date =28 February 2018|website = Smithsonian Institution Archives Website|publisher = Smithsonian Institution Archives}}</ref>


== Deaths ==
== Deaths ==
* [[February 2]] &ndash; [[Teresia Constantia Phillips]], British autobiographer (b. [[1709]])
* [[February 2]] &ndash; [[Teresia Constantia Phillips]], British autobiographer (b. [[1709]])
* [[February 4]] &ndash; [[Jean-Jacques Blaise d'Abbadie]], Director-general of the [[Louisiana (New France)|Colony of Louisiana]] (b. [[1726]])
* [[February 4]] &ndash; [[Jean-Jacques Blaise d'Abbadie]], Director-general of the [[Louisiana (New France)|Colony of Louisiana]] (b. [[1726]])
* [[February 9]] &ndash; [[Elisabetta de Gambarini]], English composer (b. [[1731]])
* [[February 9]] &ndash; [[Elisabetta de Gambarini]], English composer (b. [[1730]])
* [[March 3]] &ndash; [[William Stukeley]], English archaeologist (b. [[1687]])
* [[March 3]] &ndash; [[William Stukeley]], English archaeologist (b. [[1687]])
* [[March 27]] &ndash; [[Arthur Dobbs]], Irish politician and governor of the Royal Colony of North Carolina (b. [[1689]])
* [[March 27]] &ndash; [[Arthur Dobbs]], Irish politician and governor of the Royal Colony of North Carolina (b. [[1689]])
⚫
[[File:M.V. Lomonosov by L.Miropolskiy after G.C.Prenner (1787, RAN).jpg|thumb|right|110px|[[Mikhail Lomonosov]]]]
* [[April 5]] &ndash; [[Edward Young]], English poet (b. [[1683]])
* [[April 5]] &ndash; [[Edward Young]], English poet (b. [[1683]])
* [[April 11]] &ndash; [[Lewis Morris (1701–1765)]], Welsh hydrographer (b. [[1701]])
* [[April 11]] &ndash; [[Lewis Morris (1701–1765)]], Welsh hydrographer (b. [[1701]])
⚫
[[File:M.V. Lomonosov by L.Miropolskiy after G.C.Prenner (1787, RAN).jpg|thumb|right|110px|[[Mikhail Lomonosov]]]]
* [[April 15]] &ndash; [[Mikhail Lomonosov]], Russian author and scientist (b. [[1711]])
* [[April 15]] &ndash; [[Mikhail Lomonosov]], Russian author and scientist (b. [[1711]])
* [[April 20]] &ndash; [[Abigail Williams (Salem witch trials)|Abigail Williams]], American accuser in the Salem witch trials (b. [[1681]])
* [[April 20]] &ndash; [[Abigail Williams (Salem witch trials)|Abigail Williams]], American accuser in the Salem witch trials (b. [[1681]])
* [[May 17]] &ndash; [[Alexis Clairaut]], French mathematician (b. [[1713]])
* [[May 17]] &ndash; [[Alexis Clairaut]], French mathematician (b. [[1713]])
* [[June 21]] &ndash; [[Nachman of Horodenka]], Hasidic rabbi<ref>{{cite web|url=https://toldot.com/history/nahmanIzGrodenki.html|website=toldot.com|date=July 2, 2018 |language=ru|script-title=ru:Раби Нахман ИЗ ГОРОДЕНКИ|trans-title=Rabbi Nachman from Horodenka|access-date=30 April 2023}}</ref>
* [[July 15]] &ndash; [[Charles-André van Loo]], French painter (b. [[1705]])
* [[July 15]] &ndash; [[Charles-André van Loo]], French painter (b. [[1705]])
* [[July 18]] – [[Philip, Duke of Parma]], Spanish prince (b. [[1720]])
* [[August 17]] &ndash; [[Timothy Cutler]], rector of Yale College (b. [[1684]])
* [[August 17]] &ndash; [[Timothy Cutler]], rector of Yale College (b. [[1684]])
* [[August 18]] &ndash; [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1708]])
* [[August 18]] &ndash; [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1708]])
* [[September 2]] &ndash; [[Henry Bouquet]], Swiss-born British army officer (b. [[1719]])
* [[September 2]] &ndash; [[Henry Bouquet]], Swiss-born British army officer (b. [[1719]])
* [[September 26]] &ndash; [[Jean-Baptiste Bénard de la Harpe]], French explorer of North America (b. [[1683]])
* [[October 10]] &ndash; [[Lionel Sackville, 1st Duke of Dorset]], Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. [[1688]])
* [[October 10]] &ndash; [[Lionel Sackville, 1st Duke of Dorset]], Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. [[1688]])
* [[October 21]] &ndash; [[Giovanni Paolo Panini]], Italian painter and architect (b. [[1691]])
* [[October 21]] &ndash; [[Giovanni Paolo Panini]], Italian painter and architect (b. [[1691]])
Line 116: Line 123:
* [[December 3]] &ndash; [[Lord John Sackville]], English cricketer (b. [[1713]])
* [[December 3]] &ndash; [[Lord John Sackville]], English cricketer (b. [[1713]])
* [[December 16]] &ndash; [[Peter Frederick Haldimand]], Swiss-born military officer and surveyor
* [[December 16]] &ndash; [[Peter Frederick Haldimand]], Swiss-born military officer and surveyor
* [[December 20]] – [[Louis, Dauphin of France (1729–1765)|Louis, Dauphin of France]], heir apparent to the French throne (b. [[1729]])
* [[December 25]] &ndash; [[Prokop Diviš]], Czech scientist (b. [[1698]])
* [[December 25]] &ndash; [[Prokop Diviš]], Czech scientist (b. [[1698]])


Line 122: Line 130:


==Further reading==
==Further reading==
* {{cite book |title=Blair's Chronological Tables |author1=[[John Blair (priest)|John Blair]] |author2=J. Willoughby Rosse|location= London |publisher=[[Henry George Bohn|H.G. Bohn]] |year=1856 |via=Hathi Trust |chapterurl= http://hdl.handle.net/2027/loc.ark:/13960/t6349vh5n?urlappend=%3Bseq=682 |chapter=1765 }}
* {{cite book |title=Blair's Chronological Tables |author1=John Blair |author-link=John Blair (priest) |author2=J. Willoughby Rosse|location= London |publisher=[[Henry George Bohn|H.G. Bohn]] |year=1856 |via=Hathi Trust |chapter-url= http://hdl.handle.net/2027/loc.ark:/13960/t6349vh5n?urlappend=%3Bseq=682 |chapter=1765 |hdl=2027/loc.ark:/13960/t6349vh5n?urlappend=%3Bseq=682 }}


{{DEFAULTSORT:1765}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:1765}}

Latest revision as of 00:56, 29 September 2024

Millennium: 2nd millennium
Centuries:
Decades:
Years:
August 16: The Treaty of Allahabad is signed.
1765 by topic
Arts and science
Countries
Lists of leaders
Birth and death categories
Establishments and disestablishments categories
Works category
1765 in various calendars
Gregorian calendar1765
MDCCLXV
Ab urbe condita2518
Armenian calendar1214
ԹՎ ՌՄԺԴ
Assyrian calendar6515
Balinese saka calendar1686–1687
Bengali calendar1172
Berber calendar2715
British Regnal year5 Geo. 3 – 6 Geo. 3
Buddhist calendar2309
Burmese calendar1127
Byzantine calendar7273–7274
Chinese calendar甲申年 (Wood Monkey)
4462 or 4255
    — to —
乙酉年 (Wood Rooster)
4463 or 4256
Coptic calendar1481–1482
Discordian calendar2931
Ethiopian calendar1757–1758
Hebrew calendar5525–5526
Hindu calendars
 - Vikram Samvat1821–1822
 - Shaka Samvat1686–1687
 - Kali Yuga4865–4866
Holocene calendar11765
Igbo calendar765–766
Iranian calendar1143–1144
Islamic calendar1178–1179
Japanese calendarMeiwa 2
(明和２年)
Javanese calendar1690–1691
Julian calendarGregorian minus 11 days
Korean calendar4098
Minguo calendar147 before ROC
民前147年
Nanakshahi calendar297
Thai solar calendar2307–2308
Tibetan calendar阳木猴年
(male Wood-Monkey)
1891 or 1510 or 738
    — to —
阴木鸡年
(female Wood-Rooster)
1892 or 1511 or 739
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1765.

1765 (MDCCLXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar, the 1765th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 765th year of the 2nd millennium, the 65th year of the 18th century, and the 6th year of the 1760s decade. As of the start of 1765, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.

Events

[edit]

January–March

[edit]
  • January 23 – Prince Joseph of Austria marries Princess Maria Josepha of Bavaria in Vienna.
  • January 29 – One week before his death, Mir Jafar, who had been enthroned as the Nawab of Bengal and ruler of the Bengali people with the support and protection of the British East India Company, abdicates in favor of his 18-year-old son, Najmuddin Ali Khan.[1]
  • February 8
    • Frederick the Great, the King of Prussia, issues a decree abolishing the historic punishments against unmarried women in Germany for "sex crimes", particularly the Hurenstrafen (literally "whore shaming") practices of public humiliation.[2]
    • Isaac Barré, a member of the British House of Commons for Wycombe and a veteran of the French and Indian War in the British American colonies, coins the term "Sons of Liberty" in a rebuttal to Charles Townshend's derisive description of the American colonists during the introduction of the proposed Stamp Act. Barré notes that "They fled from your tyranny to a then uncultivated and unhospitable country... And yet, actuated by the principles of true English liberty, they met all these hardships with pleasure, compared with those they suffered in their own country, from the hands of those who should have been their friends." American colonists adopt the term for their own organization after reading the accounts of Barré's speech.[3]
  • February 14 – Spain's five-member "special junta", appointed by Prime Minister Jerónimo Grimaldi, delivers its report regarding "ways to address the backwardness of Spain's commerce with its colonies and with foreign nations". The report provides detailed orders to be delivered to José de Gálvez, the visitador general in charge of New Spain.[4]
  • March 9 – After a public campaign by the writer Voltaire, judges in Paris posthumously exonerate Jean Calas of murdering his son. Calas had been tortured and executed in 1762 on the charge, though his son may have committed suicide.
  • March 22 – Royal assent is given to the Duties in American Colonies Act 1765, historically referred to as the Stamp Act, imposing the first direct tax levied from Great Britain on the thirteen American colonies, effective November 1.[5] The revenue measure (which requires the purchase of a stamp to be affixed for validation of all legal documents, but also to licensed newspapers and even playing cards and dice) is made to help defray the costs for British military operations in North America, including the French and Indian War.[6]
  • March 24 – Great Britain passes the Quartering Act, requiring private households in the thirteen American colonies to house British soldiers if necessary.

April–June

[edit]
  • April 4 – At Fort Tombecbe, near what is now the town of Epes, Alabama, representatives of the British Empire and of the Choctaw Indian tribe in Mississippi sign a peace treaty in the wake of French cession of claims to the British. A boundary is fixed between land to be occupied by the Choctaws and for lands which British settlers can use; in addition, the British agree to provide a police official and a gunsmith at Fort Tombecbe for the Choctaws to use for trespassing complaints and for weapons repairs. By 1775, however, the Choctaws are outnumbered in Mississippi.[7]
  • April 5 – After completing the portion of the Mason–Dixon line marking the semi-circular boundary between Pennsylvania and Delaware, English surveyors Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon begin the two-and-a-half-year process of plotting out the 230-mile boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland along the latitude of 39°43′20″ N.[8]
  • April 14 – Three days after getting the news that the Stamp Act has passed, American colonists invade the British Army arsenal near the New York City Hall and sabotage guns inside by spiking them.[9]
  • April 26 – At Saint Petersburg, German engineer Christian Kratzenstein presents to the Russian Academy of Sciences a perfected version of the arithmetical machine originally invented by Gottfried Leibniz. Kratzenstein claims that his machine solves the problem with the Leibniz machine has with calculations above four digits, perfecting the flaw where the machine is "prone to err whenever it is necessary to make a number of 9999 move to 10000", but the machine is not developed further.[10]
  • May 18 – Not long after British rule has started over the formerly French colony of Quebec, an accidental fire destroys one quarter of the town of Montreal.[11]
  • May 26 – During a stroll in the park "on a fine Sabbath afternoon" at Glasgow Green, Scottish engineer James Watt receives the inspiration that provides the breakthrough in his development of the steam engine; he recounts later that "The idea came into my mind, that as steam was an elastic body it would rush into a vacuum, and if a communication was made between the cylinder and an exhausted vessel, it would rush into it, and might be there condensed without cooling the cylinder... I had not walked further than the Golf-house when the whole thing was arranged in my mind."[12]
  • June 21 – The Isle of Man is brought under British control, the Isle of Man Purchase Act (coming into force 10 May) confirming HM Treasury's purchase of the feudal rights of the Dukes of Atholl, as Lord of Mann over the island, and revesting them into the British Crown.[13]

July–December

[edit]
Map of India in 1765 showing territories loyal to the Marathas (yellow); and the territories of those loyal to the Great Mogul (green)

Date unknown

[edit]

Births

[edit]
Nicéphore Niépce
William IV of the United Kingdom
Robert Fulton

Deaths

[edit]
Mikhail Lomonosov

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Abdul Majed Khan, The Transition in Bengal, 1756-75: A Study of Saiyid Muhammad Reza Khan (Cambridge University Press, 2007) p69
  2. ^ Isabel V. Hull, Sexuality, State, and Civil Society in Germany, 1700-1815 (Cornell University Press, 1997) p127
  3. ^ Jonathan Mercantini, The Stamp Act of 1765: A History in Documents (Broadview Press, 2017) p71
  4. ^ Stanley J. Stein and Barbara H. Stein, Apogee of Empire: Spain and New Spain in the Age of Charles III, 1759–1789 (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003) p69
  5. ^ "Sunday's and Monday's Posts", in The Leeds Intelligencer, March 26, 1765, p3
  6. ^ Richard Archer, As If an Enemy's Country: The British Occupation of Boston and the Origins of Revolution (Oxford University Press, 2010) pp20-21
  7. ^ "Mississippi", by Kathrin Dodds, in Native America: A State-by-State Historical Encyclopedia, ed. by Daniel S. Murphree (ABC-CLIO, 2012) p611
  8. ^ Andro Linklater, The Fabric of America: How Our Borders and Boundaries Shaped the Country and Forged Our National Identity (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2009) p29
  9. ^ Edward Robb Ellis, The Epic of New York City: A Narrative History (Basic Books, 2011)
  10. ^ Matthew L. Jones, Reckoning with Matter: Calculating Machines, Innovation, and Thinking about Thinking from Pascal to Babbage (University of Chicago Press, 2016) p133
  11. ^ William Henry Atherton, Montreal, 1535-1914: Under British rule, 1760-1914 (S. J. Clarke, 1914) p397
  12. ^ H. W. Dickinson, James Watt: Craftsman and Engineer (Cambridge University Press, 1936) pp36-37
  13. ^ Hartley Booth, V. E.; Sells, Peter (1980). British extradition law and procedure: including extradition between the United Kingdom and foreign states, the Commonwealth and dependent countries and the Republic of China. Alphen aan den Rijn: Sijthoff & Noordhoff. p. 5. ISBN 978-90-286-0079-9. OCLC 6890466.
  14. ^ Nicholas K. Robinson, Edmund Burke: A Life in Caricature (Yale University Press, 1996) p17
  15. ^ Arrell M. Gibson, Kickapoos: Lords of the Middle Border (University of Oklahoma Press, 1975)
  16. ^ "Nanicksah", in Native Peoples A to Z: A Reference Guide to Native Peoples of the Western Hemisphere, ed. by Donald Ricky (Native American Book Publishers, 2009) p1779
  17. ^ John Wiley Spiers, How Small business Trades Worldwide (Writer's Showcase, 2001) p86
  18. ^ "Karim Khan Zand (ca. 1705-1779)" in The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia, by Mehrdad Kia (ABC-CLIO, 2017) p133
  19. ^ Bert Anson, The Miami Indians (University of Oklahoma Press, 2000) p74
  20. ^ Robert Blair St. George, Conversing by Signs: Poetics of Implication in Colonial New England Culture (University of North Carolina Press, 2000) p246
  21. ^ Bhattacherje, S. B. (May 1, 2009). Encyclopaedia of Indian Events & Dates. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. pp. A-96. ISBN 9788120740747. Retrieved March 24, 2014.
  22. ^ Bisha, Robin (2002). Russian Women, 1698-1917 Experience and Expression: An Anthology of Sources. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. pp. 162–163.
  23. ^ "Biografia de José María Morelos". Biografiasyvidas.com. Retrieved January 15, 2019.
  24. ^ Abela, Joe (1999). "Filippo Castagna u Birżebbuġa". Leħen il-Banda (in Maltese). Għaqda San Pietru Fil-Ktajjen A.D. 1957. Archived from the original on December 3, 2019.
  25. ^ "Smithsonian History, James Smithson". Smithsonian Institution Archives Website. Smithsonian Institution Archives. Retrieved February 28, 2018.
  26. ^ Раби Нахман ИЗ ГОРОДЕНКИ [Rabbi Nachman from Horodenka]. toldot.com (in Russian). July 2, 2018. Retrieved April 30, 2023.

Further reading

[edit]
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