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{{Main|Sangha (Jainism)}}
{{Main|Sangha (Jainism)}}


Jainism has a fourfold order of ''muni'' (male monastics), ''[[aryika]]'' (female monastics), ''[[Śrāvaka (Jainism)|Śrāvaka]]'' (layman) and ''sravika'' (laywoman). This order is known as a ''sangha''.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}}.
Jainism has a fourfold order of ''muni'' (male monastics), ''[[aryika]]'' (female monastics), ''[[Śrāvaka (Jainism)|Śrāvaka]]'' (layman) and ''sravika'' (laywoman). This order is known as a ''sangha''.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}}. Many Jains are in general caste.


==Cultural influence==
==Cultural influence==
The Jain have the highest [[Literacy in India|literacy rate in India]], 94.1.% compared with the national average of 65.38%. They have the highest female literacy rate, 90.6.% compared with the national average of 54.16%.<ref>{{citation |title=Jains steal the show with 7 Padmas |url=http://timesofindia.com/india/Jains-steal-the-show-with-7-Padmas/articleshow/46856659.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=9 April 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Literacy race: Jains take the honours |date=7 September 2004 |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Literacy-race-Jains-take-the-honours/articleshow/842893.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref>
The Jain have the highest [[Literacy in India|literacy rate in India]], 94.1.% compared with the national average of 65.38%. They have the highest female literacy rate, 90.6.% compared with the national average of 54.16%.<ref>{{citation |title=Jains steal the show with 7 Padmas |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Jains-steal-the-show-with-7-Padmas/articleshow/46856659.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=9 April 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Literacy race: Jains take the honours |date=7 September 2004 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Literacy-race-Jains-take-the-honours/articleshow/842893.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref>


As per national survey NFHS-4 conducted in 2018 Jains was declared wealthiest of any community with 70% of its population living in top quintiles of wealth.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/delhi-and-punjab-richest-states-jain-wealthiest-community-national-survey/story-sakdd3MBOfKhU2p5LrNVUM.html|title = Delhi and Punjab richest states, Jain wealthiest community: National survey|date = 13 January 2018}}</ref>
As per national survey NFHS-4 conducted in 2018 Jains were declared wealthiest of any community with 70% of their population living in top quintiles of wealth.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/delhi-and-punjab-richest-states-jain-wealthiest-community-national-survey/story-sakdd3MBOfKhU2p5LrNVUM.html|title = Delhi and Punjab richest states, Jain wealthiest community: National survey|date = 13 January 2018}}</ref>
The sex ratio in the 0-6 age group is the second lowest for Jain (870 females per 1,000 males).
The sex ratio in the 0-6 age group is the second lowest for Jain (870 females per 1,000 males).


==Communities==
==Communities==
Jain's are found in almost every part of the country. There are basically about 110 different Jain communities in [[India]]. They can be divided into six groups based on historical and current residence.
Jains are found in almost every part of [[India]]. There are about 100 different Jain communities in India. They can be divided into five groups based on historical and current residence:
* [[Oswal]]
* Kanyakubj
* [[Bhandari]]
* [[Sarawagi|Khandelwal]]
* [[Varaiya]]
* [[Agarwal]]
* [[Porwad]]
* [[Bagherwal]]
* [[Humad]]
* [[Barar]]
* [[Jaiswal Jain]]
* Samaiya
* Mahatma Jain
* Palliwal<ref>{{cite book |title=The Assembly of Listeners: Jains in Society |editor1-first=Michael |editor1-last=Carrithers |editor2-first=Caroline |editor2-last=Humphrey |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-52136-505-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LW8czr_HzzwC&pg=PA83 |page=83}}</ref>
* [[Veerwal]]
Major Jain communities:
* [[Jain Bunt]] are a Jain community from [[Karnataka]], India.{{sfn|Kumar Suresh Singh|2004|pp=387–391(Emigrant Bunts by P. Dhar)}}
* Jain [[Komati caste|Komati]] is a small community scattered all over [[South India|South]] and [[Central India]] and patrons of many Jain Institutions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jainsamaj.org/rpg_site/literature2.php?id=614&cat=42|title=Jain Culture In Telugu Literature |website=jainsamaj.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160207000251/http://www.jainsamaj.org/rpg_site/literature2.php?id=614&cat=42|archive-date=7 February 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/Inscription-on-the-last-Jain-temple-in-Telangana-found/article14427991.ece|title=Inscription on the last Jain temple in Telangana found|newspaper=The Hindu|date=17 June 2016|last1=Krishnamoorthy|first1=Suresh}}</ref>
* [[Saraks]] is a community in [[Jharkhand]], [[Bihar]], [[Bengal]], and [[Orissa, India|Orissa]]. They have been followers of Jainism since ancient time.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.anagrasarkalyan.gov.in/htm/obc_list.html |title=Government of West Bengal: List of Other Backward Classes |publisher=Govt. of West Bengal |access-date=December 23, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160119112501/http://www.anagrasarkalyan.gov.in/htm/obc_list.html |archive-date=19 January 2016 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
* [[Porwal]] community that originated in southern [[Rajasthan]], India.{{sfn|K. S. Singh|2004|p=1738}}
* [[Parwar (Jain community)|Parwar]] is a major Jain community from the [[Jainism in Bundelkhand|Bundelkhand region]], which is largely in [[Madhya Pradesh]] and [[Lalitpur District, India|Lalitpur District, Jhansi]].{{sfn|Kumar Suresh Singh|2004|p=565}}
* [[Agrawal Jain]] of [[Hisar, Haryana]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/TYwWWYXGX3L72a1psxhe3N/A-history-of-the-Agarwals.html|title=A history of the Agarwals|last=Patel|first=Aakar|date=2015-02-06|website=Livemint|language=en|access-date=2020-01-09}}</ref>
* [[Bhabra]] of [[Punjab region|Punjab]] is an ancient merchant community from Punjab region which mainly follows Jainism.
* [[Sarawagi]] or ''Khandelwali'' originated from [[Khandela]], a historical town in northern Rajasthan.{{sfn|Kumar Suresh Singh|2004|p=565}}
* [[Bagherwal]] from [[Baghera]] (currently known as [[Ajmer district]]) a princely state in Rajasthan, a community of [[Digambara|Digambar]] sect.{{citation needed|date=May 2017}}
* [[Shrimal Jain|Shrimal]], originally from Rajasthan, [[Shrimal]] town in southern Rajasthan. The Shrimal (Srimal) Jain are part of the [[Oswal]] merchant and minister caste that is found primarily in the [[North India|north of India]].{{sfn|K. S. Singh|1989|p=524}}
* [[Oswal]] are a Jain community with origins in the [[Marwar]] region of Rajasthan and [[Tharparkar district]] in [[Sindh]].{{sfn|Babb|2004|pp=164–178}}
* [[Jaiswal Jain|Jaiswal]] are mainly located in the [[Gwalior]] and [[Agra]] region.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jaiswalsamajvizag.com/about.html|title=About Jaiswals|website=Jaiswal Samaj|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180430084050/http://www.jaiswalsamajvizag.com/about.html|archive-date=30 April 2018|url-status=live|access-date=12 January 2019|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
* [[Navnat]] emerged as a result of blending of several smaller Jain communities in [[East Africa]] as well as in Gujarat itself in early 20th century.{{sfn|Adam|2015|p=299}}
*[[Veerwal]] is a [[Jain]] community in the [[Mewar]] region in [[Rajasthan]], India.
*[[Humad]] is the name of an ancient [[Jain]] community originally from Gujarat and Rajasthan, India.
*[[Varaiya]] is a Jain community with origins in the Madhya Pradesh, India.


===Central India===
===Central India===
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* [[Jainism in Canada]]
* [[Jainism in Canada]]
* [[Jainism in the United States]]
* [[Jainism in the United States]]
* [[Jainism in Africa|Jainism in East Africa]] - One of the oldest Jain overseas diaspora. Their number was estimated at 45,000 at the independence of the East African countries in the early 1960s.<ref name="google26">{{citation |last1=Gregory|first1=Robert G.|title=Quest for equality: Asian politics in East Africa, 1900-1967|date=1993|publisher=Orient Longman Limited|location=New Delhi|isbn=0-863-11-208-0|page=26|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vl8tMabf5KUC&pg=PA1 }}</ref> Most members of the diaspora belonged to Gujarati speaking Halari Visa Oshwal Jain community originally from the [[Jamnagar]] area of [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]].<ref name="google26"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mehta|first1=Makrand|title=Gujarati Business Communities in East African Diaspora: Major Historical Trends|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|date=2001|volume=36|issue=20|pages=1738–1747|jstor=4410637}}</ref>
* [[Jainism in Africa|Jainism in East Africa]] - One of the oldest Jain overseas diaspora. Their number was estimated at 45,000 at the independence of the East African countries in the early 1960s.<ref name="google26">{{citation |last1=Gregory|first1=Robert G.|title=Quest for equality: Asian politics in East Africa, 1900-1967|date=1993|publisher=Orient Longman Limited|location=New Delhi|isbn=0-863-11-208-0|page=26|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vl8tMabf5KUC&pg=PA1 |language=en}}</ref> Most members of the diaspora belonged to Gujarati speaking Halari Visa Oshwal Jain community originally from the [[Jamnagar]] area of [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]].<ref name="google26"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mehta|first1=Makrand|title=Gujarati Business Communities in East African Diaspora: Major Historical Trends|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|date=2001|volume=36|issue=20|pages=1738–1747|jstor=4410637}}</ref>
*[[Jainism in Africa|Jainism in West Africa]] - Nigerian Jains
*[[Jainism in Africa|Jainism in West Africa]]
Jains are one of the oldest religious and cultural groups, originating in India. Although small in number, there are many subcommunities of Jains such as Tamil Jains, Gujarati Jains etc. One of the lesser known groups are the Nigerian Jains.

Originally emigrating from South Indian from Valparai, a small Tamil village, due to discrimination against their darker skin tone; they eventually settled in Lagos. Thus, the Nigerian Jain is in fact an offshoot of the even lesser known Tamil Jain. There, in Nigeria, they flourished and built a small but stable community. However, being perceived as outsiders (due to their restrictive diet and limited stature), they grew increasing insular and withdrawn from the wider Jain community and other Nigerians.

Clashes with Nigerian government: In 1982, the Jain community clashed with Nigerian authorities over the lack of provisions for vegetarians in Lagos. The Jains believed that eating roots vegetables and meat was morally wrong, which were both staples of Nigerian cuisine. They asked for farming land to graze cows and grow aubergines (which they believed to be the vegetable with the least emotions). They were given a small farm away from the city, and thus were ostracized.

Medical issues: Due to their small community and close relations, several generations along many Nigerian jains had conserved several recessive genes. This was phenotypically seen as short stature, Valgus of the knees and thoracic kyphosis resulting in a "T-rex walk". Due to the small gene pool, Dorothea Bennett actually travelled to Lagos as part of her work on developmental genomics.

Famous Nigerian Jains: Dr Raja Lakshmi is the only well known member of the community, having once vomited on Stephen Hawking.


==Population==
==Population==
Line 117: Line 76:
|-
|-
| 9 || [[Tamil Nadu]] || 89,265 || 10,084 || 79,181 || 45,605 || 5,044 || 40,561 || 43,660 || 5,040 || 38,620
| 9 || [[Tamil Nadu]] || 89,265 || 10,084 || 79,181 || 45,605 || 5,044 || 40,561 || 43,660 || 5,040 || 38,620
|-
| 10 || [[Nigeria]] || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 0
|}
|}
⚫
The Jain population in United States is estimated to be about 150,000 to 200,000.<ref>{{citation|last=Lee|first=Jonathan H. X.|title=Encyclopedia of Asian American Folklore and Folklife|date=21 December 2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-35066-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas00leej/page/487 487–488]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas00leej/page/487|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Wiley|first=Kristi L.|title=Historical dictionary of Jainism|year=2004|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-5051-4|page=19|language=en}}</ref>


⚫
In Japan, there are more than 5,000 families who have converted to Jainism and the religion is growing there.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/thousands-of-japanese-making-a-smooth-transition-from-zen-to-jain/articleshow/74262195.cms|title=Thousands of Japanese making a smooth transition from Zen to Jain|date=23 February 2020|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref>
It is likely that the actual population of Jains may be significantly higher than the census numbers.{{citation needed|reason=Your explanation here|date=February 2016}}

⚫
The Jain population in United States is estimated to be about 150,000 to 200,000.<ref>{{citation|last=Lee|first=Jonathan H. X.|title=Encyclopedia of Asian American Folklore and Folklife|date=21 December 2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-35066-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas00leej/page/487 487–488]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas00leej/page/487}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Wiley|first=Kristi L.|title=Historical dictionary of Jainism|year=2004|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-5051-4|page=19}}</ref>

⚫
In Japan, there are more than 5,000 families who have converted to Jainism and is growing faster there.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://m.timesofindia.com/india/thousands-of-japanese-making-a-smooth-transition-from-zen-to-jain/amp_articleshow/74262195.cms|title=Thousands of Japanese making a smooth transition from Zen to Jain|date=23 February 2020|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
Line 137: Line 91:


===Sources===
===Sources===
* {{citation |last=Adam |first=Michel |title=Indian Africa: Minorities of Indian-Pakistani Origin in Eastern Africa |url={{Google books|PQPqCgAAQBAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Mkuki na Nyota Publishers |date=2015 |isbn=978-9987-08-297-1 }}
* {{citation |last=Adam |first=Michel |title=Indian Africa: Minorities of Indian-Pakistani Origin in Eastern Africa |url={{Google books|PQPqCgAAQBAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Mkuki na Nyota Publishers |date=2015 |isbn=978-9987-08-297-1 |language=en}}
* {{citation |last=Babb |first=Lawrence A. |title=Alchemies of Violence: Myths of Identity and the Life of Trade in Western India |url={{Google books|74tUY0le33UC|page=PA164|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Sage |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7619-3223-9 }}
* {{citation |last=Babb |first=Lawrence A. |title=Alchemies of Violence: Myths of Identity and the Life of Trade in Western India |url={{Google books|74tUY0le33UC|page=PA164|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Sage |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7619-3223-9 |language=en}}
* {{citation |last=Dundas |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Dundas |title=The Jains |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |edition=Second |date=2002 |orig-year=1992 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-415-26605-X }}
* {{citation |last=Dundas |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Dundas |title=The Jains |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |edition=Second |date=2002 |orig-year=1992 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-415-26605-X }}
* {{citation |editor=J. Gordon Melton |editor-link=J. Gordon Melton |editor2=Martin Baumann |title=Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C |edition=Second |volume=One: A-B |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |date=2010 |isbn=978-1-59884-204-3 }}
* {{citation |editor=J. Gordon Melton |editor-link=J. Gordon Melton |editor2=Martin Baumann |title=Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C |edition=Second |volume=One: A-B |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |date=2010 |isbn=978-1-59884-204-3 }}
Line 145: Line 99:
}}
}}
* {{citation |last=Singh |first=K. S. |title=People of India |url={{Google books|vm_KCE4XXPMC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |edition=Rajasthan |publisher=Popular Prakashan |date=1989 |isbn=978-81-7154-769-2 |ref={{sfnref|K. S. Singh|1989}} }}
* {{citation |last=Singh |first=K. S. |title=People of India |url={{Google books|vm_KCE4XXPMC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |edition=Rajasthan |publisher=Popular Prakashan |date=1989 |isbn=978-81-7154-769-2 |ref={{sfnref|K. S. Singh|1989}} }}
* {{citation |editor-last=Singh |editor-first=K. S. |title=People of India: Maharashtra |url={{Google books|4bfmnmsBfQ4C|page=PA1738|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=2004 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |agency=Anthropological Survey of India |location=Mumbai, India |isbn=978-81-7991-102-0 |ref={{sfnref|K. S. Singh|2004}} }}
* {{citation |editor-last=Singh |editor-first=K. S. |title=People of India: Maharashtra |url={{Google books|4bfmnmsBfQ4C|page=PA1738|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=2004 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |type=Anthropological Survey of India |location=Mumbai, India |isbn=978-81-7991-102-0 |ref={{sfnref|K. S. Singh|2004}} }}
* {{citation |last=Singh |first=Kumar Suresh |title=People of India: Maharashtra |url={{Google books|OmBjoAFMfjoC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |agency=Anthropological Survey of India |volume=1 |year=2004 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-81-7991-100-6 |ref={{sfnref|Kumar Suresh Singh|2004}} }}
* {{citation |last=Singh |first=Kumar Suresh |title=People of India: Maharashtra |url={{Google books|OmBjoAFMfjoC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |type=Anthropological Survey of India |volume=1 |year=2004 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-81-7991-100-6 |ref={{sfnref|Kumar Suresh Singh|2004}} }}


==External links==
==External links==
Line 158: Line 112:
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jain Community}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jain Community}}
[[Category:Jain communities| ]]
[[Category:Jain communities| ]]
[[Category:Social groups of India]]
[[Category:Social groups of Gujarat]]
[[Category:Social groups of Gujarat]]
[[Category:Social groups of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Social groups of West Bengal]]

Latest revision as of 01:08, 30 September 2024

Part of a series on
Jainism
Philosophy
Ethics
Ethics of Jainism
Mahavratas (major vows)
Anuvratas (further vows)
Jain prayers
Major figures
Major sects
Schools and Branches
Jain literature
Festivals
Pilgrimages
Tirth
Other

The Jains in India are the last direct representatives of the ancient Shramana tradition. People who practice Jainism, an ancient religion of the Indian subcontinent, are collectively referred to as Jains.

Sangha

[edit]
Main article: Sangha (Jainism)

Jainism has a fourfold order of muni (male monastics), aryika (female monastics), Śrāvaka (layman) and sravika (laywoman). This order is known as a sangha.[citation needed]. Many Jains are in general caste.

Cultural influence

[edit]

The Jain have the highest literacy rate in India, 94.1.% compared with the national average of 65.38%. They have the highest female literacy rate, 90.6.% compared with the national average of 54.16%.[1][2]

As per national survey NFHS-4 conducted in 2018 Jains were declared wealthiest of any community with 70% of their population living in top quintiles of wealth.[3] The sex ratio in the 0-6 age group is the second lowest for Jain (870 females per 1,000 males).

Communities

[edit]

Jains are found in almost every part of India. There are about 100 different Jain communities in India. They can be divided into five groups based on historical and current residence:

Central India

[edit]

Western India

[edit]

Northern India

[edit]

Southern India

[edit]

Eastern India

[edit]

Diaspora

[edit]

Virchand Gandhi made a presentation of Jainism at the Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago in 1893, marking one of the earliest appearances of Jainism outside India.[4] The World Jain Congress was held in Leicester in 1988.[5]

Population

[edit]

The Jain population in India according to 2011 census is 0.54% i.e. 4,451,753 (Males 2,278,097; Females 2,173,656) out of the total population of India 1,210,854,977 (males 623,270,258; females 587,584,719).[8] The tabular representation of Jain population in the major states of India as per 2011 Census data released by the government is:

S. No. State Persons (total) Persons (rural) Persons (urban) Male (total) Male (rural) Male (urban) Female (total) Female (rural) Female (urban)
1 India 4,451,753 904,809 3,546,944 2,278,097 467,577 1,810,520 2,173,656 437,232 1,736,424
2 Maharashtra 1,400,349 269,959 1,130,390 713,157 140,476 572,681 687,192 129,483 557,709
3 Rajasthan 622,023 166,322 455,701 317,614 84,649 232,965 304,409 81,673 222,736
4 Gujarat 579,654 44,118 535,536 294,911 22,357 272,554 284,743 21,761 262,982
5 Madhya Pradesh 567,028 109,699 457,329 291,937 57,431 234,506 275,091 52,268 222,823
6 Karnataka 440,280 220,362 219,918 225,544 113,598 111,946 214,736 106,764 107,972
7 Uttar Pradesh 213,267 30,144 183,123 110,994 15,852 95,142 102,273 14,292 87,981
8 Delhi 166,231 192 166,039 85,605 94 85,511 80,626 98 80,528
9 Tamil Nadu 89,265 10,084 79,181 45,605 5,044 40,561 43,660 5,040 38,620

The Jain population in United States is estimated to be about 150,000 to 200,000.[9][10]

In Japan, there are more than 5,000 families who have converted to Jainism and the religion is growing there.[11]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ "Jains steal the show with 7 Padmas", The Times of India, 9 April 2015
  2. ^ "Literacy race: Jains take the honours", The Times of India, 7 September 2004
  3. ^ "Delhi and Punjab richest states, Jain wealthiest community: National survey". 13 January 2018.
  4. ^ J. Gordon Melton & Martin Baumann 2010, p. 1555.
  5. ^ Dundas 2002, p. 246.
  6. ^ a b Gregory, Robert G. (1993), Quest for equality: Asian politics in East Africa, 1900-1967, New Delhi: Orient Longman Limited, p. 26, ISBN 0-863-11-208-0
  7. ^ Mehta, Makrand (2001). "Gujarati Business Communities in East African Diaspora: Major Historical Trends". Economic and Political Weekly. 36 (20): 1738–1747. JSTOR 4410637.
  8. ^ Office of registrar general and census commissioner (2011), C-1 Population By Religious Community, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India
  9. ^ Lee, Jonathan H. X. (21 December 2010), Encyclopedia of Asian American Folklore and Folklife, ABC-CLIO, pp. 487–488, ISBN 978-0-313-35066-5
  10. ^ Wiley, Kristi L. (2004), Historical dictionary of Jainism, Scarecrow Press, p. 19, ISBN 978-0-8108-5051-4
  11. ^ "Thousands of Japanese making a smooth transition from Zen to Jain". Hindustan Times. 23 February 2020.

Sources

[edit]
[edit]
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