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| image = Suchindram inscription of Rajaraja I.jpg
| image = Suchindram inscription of Rajaraja I.jpg
| image_size =
| image_size =
| caption = Inscription of Chola emperor Rajaraja from Suchindram, Kanyakumari (15th regnal year)
| caption = Inscription of Chola emperor Rajaraja from [[Suchindram]], [[Kanyakumari]] (15th regnal year)
| date = c. 988 CE<ref name=":1" />
| date = {{circa}} 988 CE<ref name=":1" />
| place = Kandalur, south Kerala.
| place = Kandalur, south [[Kerala]].
| casus =
| casus =
| territory = Fall of Kandalur salai
| territory = Fall of Kandalur salai and annexed by Cholas
| result = Decisive Chola victory
| result = Decisive [[Chola]] victory
| combatant1 = * [[Chola dynasty]]
| combatant1 = {{flagicon image|Chola_flag.png}}[[Chola Empire]]
| combatant2 = * Members of Kandalur salai
| combatant2 = * Soldier Members of Kandalur salai
* [[Chera Perumal dynasty|Chera Perumals]]
* [[Chera Perumal dynasty|Chera Perumals]]
* [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas]]
* {{flagicon image|Twin_fish_flag_of_Pandyas.svg}}[[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas]]
| commander1 = {{flagicon image|Chola_flag.png}} [[Rajaraja Chola I|Rajaraja Chola I]]
| commander1 = * {{flagicon image|Chola_flag.png}}[[Rajaraja Chola I]]
* {{flagicon image|Chola_flag.png}}Aprameyan Pallavan (commander)
| commander2 = [[Bhaskara Ravi Varman]]<ref>https://www.google.ca/books/edition/A_Global_History_of_Pre_Modern_Warfare/yE85EAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=chola+army+sri+lanka+garrisons&pg=PT189&printsec=frontcover</ref>
| commander2 = * Bhaskara Ravi Varman <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yE85EAAAQBAJ&dq=chola+army+sri+lanka+garrisons&pg=PT189|isbn = 9781000432121|title = A Global History of Pre-Modern Warfare: Before the Rise of the West, 10,000 BCE–1500 CE|date = 14 September 2021|publisher = Routledge}}</ref>
⚫
| strength1 = 1 Fleet
* {{flagicon image|Twin_fish_flag_of_Pandyas.svg}}Amarabuyanga Pandiyan
⚫
| strength2 = 1 Fleet
| units1 = * {{flagicon image|Chola_flag.png}} [[Chola army|Chola Army]]
⚫
| casualties1 = Unknown
*{{flagicon image|Chola_flag.png}} [[Chola Navy]]
| casualties2 = Unknown

| units2 = * Chera Army
* Chera Navy
⚫
| strength1 = 1 Fleet
⚫
| strength2 = 1 Fleet
⚫
| casualties1 = Unknown
| casualties2 = Destruction of Chera navy, ports
| notes =
| notes =
}}
}}


The '''battle of Kandalur salai''' (c. 988 CE), also spelled '''Kanthaloor shala,''' was a naval engagement of the [[Chola Empire|Cholas]] under [[Raja Raja Chola I|Rajaraja I]] (985—1014 CE) against the "salai" at Kandalur in south [[Kerala]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 122-24.</ref> The exact location of Kandalur—somewhere south [[Kerala]]—is a subject of scholarly debate.<ref name=":1">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&dq=perumals+of+kerala&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi3zvqI1b3uAhVBgOYKHcR9D8MQ6AEwAXoECAoQAQ Perumals of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy].'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 115 - 117.</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 135.</ref> The above (988 CE) event is sometimes assumed to be identical with the "conquest of [[Vizhinjam]] by a general of [[Rajaraja I|Rajaraja [I]]]", before the burning of [[Sri Lanka|Lanka]], given in the Tiruvalangadu Grant/Plates.<ref name=":1" />
The '''battle of Kandalur salai''' (c. 988 CE), also spelled '''Kanthaloor salai,''' was a naval engagement of the [[Chola Empire|Cholas]] under [[Raja Raja Chola I|Rajaraja I]] (985—1014 CE) against the "salai" at Kandalur in [[Trivandrum]] [[Kerala]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 122-24.</ref> The exact location of Kandalur—somewhere south [[History of Kerala|Kerala]]—is a subject of scholarly debate.<ref name=":1">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala Perumals of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy].'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 115 - 117.</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 135.</ref> The above (988 CE) event is sometimes assumed to be identical with the "conquest of [[Vizhinjam]] by a general of [[Rajaraja I|Rajaraja [I]]]", before the burning of [[History of Sri Lanka|Lanka]], given in the [[Thiruvalangadu|Tiruvalangadu]] Grant/Plates.<ref name=":1" />


The phrase "Kandalur salai kalamarutta" is again used as a title with distinction of three other Chola kings also ([[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra]], [[Rajadhiraja Chola|Rajadhiraja]] and [[Kulottunga I|Kulottunga]]).<ref name=":4">Narayanan, M.G.S. 'Kantalur Salai-New Light on Aryan Expansion in South India.' ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', vol. 32, 1970, pp. 125–136.</ref>
The phrase "Kandalur salai kalamarutta" is again used as a title with distinction of three other Chola emperors also ([[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra]], [[Rajadhiraja Chola|Rajadhiraja]] and [[Kulottunga I|Kulottunga]]).<ref name=":4">Narayanan, M.G.S. 'Kantalur Salai-New Light on Aryan Expansion in South India.' ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', vol. 32, 1970, pp. 125–136.</ref>


== Assessment of the title ==
== Assessment of the title ==
The so-called salais were considered prized possessions as they are claimed to have been sacked by many kings of south India.<ref name=":1" /> The character of the salais were re-examined in the 1970 paper 'Kantalur Salai-New Light on Brahmin Expansion in South India' by historian M. G. S. Narayanan.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S., 'Kantalur Salai-New Light on Aryan Expansion in South India,' Proceedings of Indian History Congress, 1970. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141058</ref>
"Salais" were considered prized possessions as they are claimed to have been sacked by many kings of South India.<ref name=":1" /> The character of the salais were re-examined in the 1970 paper 'Kantalur Salai-New Light on Brahmin Expansion in South India' by historian M. G. S. Narayanan.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S., 'Kantalur Salai-New Light on Aryan Expansion in South India,' Proceedings of Indian History Congress, 1970. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141058</ref>


{{cquote|It is now clear that the salai (or ghatika or kalakam or kalam) was a peculiar institution... A multipurpose training centre for celibate arms-bearing Brahmins (Chathar/Chathirar) in material and spiritual fields (including military training to equip them to serve the chieftain or the king and vedic and sastraic studies)...
{{cquote|It is now clear that the salai (or ghatika or kalakam or kalam) was a peculiar institution... A multipurpose training centre for [[Brahmacharya|celibate]] arms-bearing [[Brahmin]]s (Chathar/Chathirar) in material and spiritual fields (including military training to equip them to serve the chieftain or the king and vedic and sastraic studies)...
| author = M. G. S. Narayanan (1970)
| author = M. G. S. Narayanan (1970)
| book = Perumals of Kerala
| book = Perumals of Kerala
Line 44: Line 51:
# Desikavinayakam Pillai - "regulation of the Brahmin feeding at Kandalur Feeding House [salai]"<ref name=":4" />
# Desikavinayakam Pillai - "regulation of the Brahmin feeding at Kandalur Feeding House [salai]"<ref name=":4" />
#[[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|K. A. N. Sastri]] - "destroyed ships at Kandalur [harbour]"<ref name=":4" />
#[[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|K. A. N. Sastri]] - "destroyed ships at Kandalur [harbour]"<ref name=":4" />
# Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai - "discontinued/destroyed the feeding [kalam] of the armed Brahmins [Chathar] at Kandalur"..<ref name=":4" />
# Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai - "discontinued/destroyed the feeding [kalam] of the armed Brahmins [Chathar] at Kandalur".<ref name=":4" />


== Location of Kandalur salai ==
== Location of Kandalur salai ==
The exact location of Kandalur is a subject of scholarly debate. It is possible the original Kandalur salai was located near the [[Ay dynasty|Ay]] headquarters [[Vizhinjam]] and the deity was later shifted to [[Thiruvananthapuram|Trivandrum]] (after the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] raids of the 10th-11th centuries).<ref name=":1" />
The exact location of Kandalur is a subject of scholarly debate. It is possible the original Kandalur salai was located near the [[Ay dynasty|Ay]] headquarters [[Vizhinjam]] and the deity was later shifted to [[Thiruvananthapuram|Trivandrum]] (after the [[Chola Empire|Chola]] raids of the 10th-11th centuries).<ref name=":1" />


* Original location:— a village around 20 km east of Vizhinjam with a Shiva temple called Kandalur Salai.<ref name=":1" />
* Original location:— a village around 20&nbsp;km east of Vizhinjam with a [[Valiyasala Mahadeva Temple|Shiva temple]] called Kandalur Salai.<ref name=":1" />
* Shifted location:— within the city of [[Thiruvananthapuram|Trivandrum]] (Valiya Salai Temple)<ref name=":1" />
* Shifted location:— within the city of [[Thiruvananthapuram|Trivandrum]] (Valiya Salai Temple)<ref name=":1" />


== Raid by Rajaraja I (c. 988 CE) ==
== Raid by Rajaraja I (c. 988 CE) ==
As per historian K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, the capture was the first military achievement of king [[Rajaraja I|Rajaraja]]'s reign. The success was summed up in the famous phrase "Kandalur salai kalamarutta", which precedes Rajaraja's name in several of his inscriptions from the 4th regnal year (988 CE) onwards.<ref name=":1" /><ref>K. A. N. Sastri, ''History of South India.'' Oxford, 1955. p. 164-9.</ref>
As per historian K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, the capture was the first military achievement of Emperor [[Rajaraja I|Rajaraja]]'s reign. The success was summed up in the famous phrase "Kandalur salai kalamarutta", which precedes Rajaraja's name in several of his inscriptions from the 4th regnal year (988 CE) onwards.<ref name=":1" /><ref>K. A. N. Sastri, ''History of South India.'' Oxford, 1955. p. 164-9.</ref>


* The Kandalur salai belonged to the [[Ay dynasty|Ay chief]], a vassal of the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] king at [[Madurai]], in the mid-860s (865 CE).<ref name=":4" />
* The Kandalur salai belonged to the [[Ay dynasty|Ay chief]], a vassal of the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] king at [[Madurai]], in the mid-860s (865 CE).<ref name=":4" />
*It is possible that at the time of the raid, the salai may have been under control of the [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumal]] king of Kerala, Bhaskara Ravi.<ref name=":1" /> If that was the case, the campaign can be viewed as part of Rajaraja's early battles against the Cheras, Pandyas and the rulers of [[Sri Lanka]].<ref name=":0" />
*It is possible that at the time of the raid, the salai may have been under control of the [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumal]] king of Kerala, Bhaskara Ravi.<ref name=":1" /> If that was the case, the campaign can be viewed as part of Rajaraja's early battles against the Cheras, Pandyas and the rulers of [[History of Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]].<ref name=":0" />

* However, some historians argue that Kandalur salai, which only later Chola inscriptions (1048 CE) claim to have belonged to the Chera Perumals, may have been held by the [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandyas]] when it was attacked by Rajaraja I.<ref>K. A. N. Sastri, ''History of South India.'' Oxford, 1955.</ref><ref name=":3">Venkayya, V., ''South Indian Inscriptions'', (Madras), Vol II, Intn, p. 2.</ref>
* However, some historians argue that Kandalur salai, which only later Chola inscriptions (1048 CE) claim to have belonged to the Chera Perumals, may have been held by the [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandyas]] when it was attacked by Rajaraja I.<ref>K. A. N. Sastri, ''History of South India.'' Oxford, 1955.</ref><ref name=":3">Venkayya, V., ''South Indian Inscriptions'', (Madras), Vol II, Intn, p. 2.</ref>
*A hero stone inscription was unearthed from a village near [[Tiruvannamalai]] in November, 2009. It supports the view that a military engagement indeed took place at Kandalur.<ref name="hindu1">{{cite web|last=Subramanian|first=T. S.|date=2009-11-27|title=Unearthed Stone Ends Debate|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/Unearthed-stone-ends-debate/article15940697.ece|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624131513/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/Unearthed-stone-ends-debate/article15940697.ece |archive-date=24 June 2018 |website=The Hindu|publisher=}}</ref> It has a eulogy that talks about Rajaraja "beheading the Malai Alargal of Kandalur Salai".<ref name="hindu1" />
*A hero stone inscription was unearthed from a village near [[Tiruvannamalai]] in November, 2009. It supports the view that a military engagement indeed took place at Kandalur.<ref name="hindu1">{{cite web|last=Subramanian|first=T. S.|date=2009-11-27|title=Unearthed Stone Ends Debate|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/Unearthed-stone-ends-debate/article15940697.ece|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624131513/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/Unearthed-stone-ends-debate/article15940697.ece |archive-date=24 June 2018 |website=The Hindu|publisher=}}</ref> It has a eulogy that talks about Rajaraja "beheading the Malai Alargal of Kandalur Salai".<ref name="hindu1" />
Line 67: Line 73:
* 988 CE — first Chola reference to the fall of Kandalur salai ("Kandalur salai kalamarutta").<ref name=":1" />
* 988 CE — first Chola reference to the fall of Kandalur salai ("Kandalur salai kalamarutta").<ref name=":1" />
* 1018-19 CE — Chola ([[Rajadhiraja Chola|Rajadhiraja]] and [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra]]) campaigns in Kerala.
* 1018-19 CE — Chola ([[Rajadhiraja Chola|Rajadhiraja]] and [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra]]) campaigns in Kerala.
⚫
{{cquote|"...confined the undaunted king of [[Venad|Venatu]] [back] to Che[ra]natu [from the [[Ay dynasty|Ay country]]].... and put on a fresh garland of [[Thiruvanchikulam Temple|Vanchi]] after capturing Kantalur Salai while the strong Villavan [the Chera king] hid himself in terror inside the jungle..."
{{cquote|
⚫
"...confined the undaunted king of [[Venad|Venatu]] [back] to Che[ra]natu [from the [[Ay dynasty|Ay country]]].... and put on a fresh garland of [[Thiruvanchikulam Temple|Vanchi]] after capturing Kantalur Salai while the strong Villavan [the Chera king] hid himself in terror inside the jungle..."
}}
}}
* 1048 CE – Velur and Tiruppangili inscriptions – Kandalur salai is mentioned as 'Cheralan Velaikkelu Kantalur Chalai'.<ref name=":3" />
* 1048 CE – Velur and Tiruppangili inscriptions – Kandalur salai is mentioned as 'Cheralan Velaikkelu Kantalur Chalai'.<ref name=":3" />

* ''Kalingattupparani'' (III-21) mentions [[Kulottunga I|Kulottunga Chola]]'s victory of over the Bow Emblem and the Chola capture of Kantalur Salai.
* ''Kalingattupparani'' (III-21) mentions [[Kulottunga I|Kulottunga Chola]]'s victory of over the Bow Emblem and the Chola capture of Kantalur Salai.
* c. 1102 — c.1118 CE – Jatavarman Parakrama [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] mentions the capture of Kantalur Salai (for his Chola overlord [[Vikrama Chola]]).
* c. 1102 — c.1118 CE – Jatavarman Parakrama [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] mentions the capture of Kantalur Salai (for his Chola overlord [[Vikrama Chola]]).
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[[Category:10th-century conflicts|Kandalur Salai]]
[[Category:10th-century conflicts|Kandalur Salai]]
[[Category:Naval history of India]]
[[Category:Naval history of India]]
[[Category:Chera dynasty]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Chera dynasty]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Chola Empire|Kandalur Salai]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Chola Empire|Kandalur Salai]]
[[Category:Military orders (monastic society)]]
[[Category:Military orders (monastic society)]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving Cholas]]

Latest revision as of 09:53, 5 October 2024

Battle of Kandalur salai
Capture of Kandalur salai

Inscription of Chola emperor Rajaraja from Suchindram, Kanyakumari (15th regnal year)
Datec. 988 CE[1]
Location
Kandalur, south Kerala.
Result Decisive Chola victory
Territorial
changes		 Fall of Kandalur salai and annexed by Cholas
Belligerents
Chola Empire
Commanders and leaders
  • Rajaraja Chola I
  • Aprameyan Pallavan (commander)
    		•
  • Bhaskara Ravi Varman [2]
  • Amarabuyanga Pandiyan
    • Units involved
  • Chola Army
  • Chola Navy
    		•
  • Chera Army
  • Chera Navy
    • Strength
    1 Fleet 1 Fleet
    Casualties and losses
    Unknown Destruction of Chera navy, ports

    The battle of Kandalur salai (c. 988 CE), also spelled Kanthaloor salai, was a naval engagement of the Cholas under Rajaraja I (985—1014 CE) against the "salai" at Kandalur in Trivandrum Kerala.[1][3] The exact location of Kandalur—somewhere south Kerala—is a subject of scholarly debate.[1][3][4] The above (988 CE) event is sometimes assumed to be identical with the "conquest of Vizhinjam by a general of Rajaraja [I]", before the burning of Lanka, given in the Tiruvalangadu Grant/Plates.[1]

    The phrase "Kandalur salai kalamarutta" is again used as a title with distinction of three other Chola emperors also (Rajendra, Rajadhiraja and Kulottunga).[5]

    Assessment of the title

    [edit]

    "Salais" were considered prized possessions as they are claimed to have been sacked by many kings of South India.[1] The character of the salais were re-examined in the 1970 paper 'Kantalur Salai-New Light on Brahmin Expansion in South India' by historian M. G. S. Narayanan.[6]

    It is now clear that the salai (or ghatika or kalakam or kalam) was a peculiar institution... A multipurpose training centre for celibate arms-bearing Brahmins (Chathar/Chathirar) in material and spiritual fields (including military training to equip them to serve the chieftain or the king and vedic and sastraic studies)...

    — M. G. S. Narayanan (1970)

    Older assessments

    [edit]

    Different views were expressed by early scholars regarding the character of "salai" (such as naval base - military training centre - cantonment - ammunition depot).[4]

    1. Dr. Hultzsch - (1) "built a jewell-like hall at Kandalur" or (2) "cut the vessel [kalam] in the hall at Kandalur" (3) "destroyed ships [kalam] at Kandalur [harbour]"[5]
    2. Gopinatha Rao - "destroyed/discontinued/transferred the Brahmin feeding [kalam] at Kandalur Feeding House or Hall [salai] "[5]
    3. Desikavinayakam Pillai - "regulation of the Brahmin feeding at Kandalur Feeding House [salai]"[5]
    4. K. A. N. Sastri - "destroyed ships at Kandalur [harbour]"[5]
    5. Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai - "discontinued/destroyed the feeding [kalam] of the armed Brahmins [Chathar] at Kandalur".[5]

    Location of Kandalur salai

    [edit]

    The exact location of Kandalur is a subject of scholarly debate. It is possible the original Kandalur salai was located near the Ay headquarters Vizhinjam and the deity was later shifted to Trivandrum (after the Chola raids of the 10th-11th centuries).[1]

    • Original location:— a village around 20 km east of Vizhinjam with a Shiva temple called Kandalur Salai.[1]
    • Shifted location:— within the city of Trivandrum (Valiya Salai Temple)[1]

    Raid by Rajaraja I (c. 988 CE)

    [edit]

    As per historian K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, the capture was the first military achievement of Emperor Rajaraja's reign. The success was summed up in the famous phrase "Kandalur salai kalamarutta", which precedes Rajaraja's name in several of his inscriptions from the 4th regnal year (988 CE) onwards.[1][7]

    • The Kandalur salai belonged to the Ay chief, a vassal of the Pandya king at Madurai, in the mid-860s (865 CE).[5]
    • It is possible that at the time of the raid, the salai may have been under control of the Chera Perumal king of Kerala, Bhaskara Ravi.[1] If that was the case, the campaign can be viewed as part of Rajaraja's early battles against the Cheras, Pandyas and the rulers of Sri Lanka.[3]
    • However, some historians argue that Kandalur salai, which only later Chola inscriptions (1048 CE) claim to have belonged to the Chera Perumals, may have been held by the Pandyas when it was attacked by Rajaraja I.[8][9]
    • A hero stone inscription was unearthed from a village near Tiruvannamalai in November, 2009. It supports the view that a military engagement indeed took place at Kandalur.[10] It has a eulogy that talks about Rajaraja "beheading the Malai Alargal of Kandalur Salai".[10]

    References to Kandalur salai

    [edit]

    Corrections by M. G. S. Narayanan on K. A. Nilakanta Sastri are employed.

    • 865 CE — Huzur Office/Parthivapuram Plates of Ay chieftain Karunantatakkan Srivallabha (a vassal of the Pandya king Srimara Srivallabha).[1][5]
    • 988 CE — first Chola reference to the fall of Kandalur salai ("Kandalur salai kalamarutta").[1]
    • 1018-19 CE — Chola (Rajadhiraja and Rajendra) campaigns in Kerala.

    "...confined the undaunted king of Venatu [back] to Che[ra]natu [from the Ay country].... and put on a fresh garland of Vanchi after capturing Kantalur Salai while the strong Villavan [the Chera king] hid himself in terror inside the jungle..."

    • 1048 CE – Velur and Tiruppangili inscriptions – Kandalur salai is mentioned as 'Cheralan Velaikkelu Kantalur Chalai'.[9]
    • Kalingattupparani (III-21) mentions Kulottunga Chola's victory of over the Bow Emblem and the Chola capture of Kantalur Salai.
    • c. 1102 — c.1118 CE – Jatavarman Parakrama Pandya mentions the capture of Kantalur Salai (for his Chola overlord Vikrama Chola).

    References

    [edit]
    1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumals of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 115 - 117.
    2. ^ A Global History of Pre-Modern Warfare: Before the Rise of the West, 10,000 BCE–1500 CE. Routledge. 14 September 2021. ISBN 9781000432121.
    3. ^ a b c Noburu Karashmia (ed.), A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 122-24.
    4. ^ a b Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 135.
    5. ^ a b c d e f g h Narayanan, M.G.S. 'Kantalur Salai-New Light on Aryan Expansion in South India.' Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol. 32, 1970, pp. 125–136.
    6. ^ Narayanan, M. G. S., 'Kantalur Salai-New Light on Aryan Expansion in South India,' Proceedings of Indian History Congress, 1970. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141058
    7. ^ K. A. N. Sastri, History of South India. Oxford, 1955. p. 164-9.
    8. ^ K. A. N. Sastri, History of South India. Oxford, 1955.
    9. ^ a b Venkayya, V., South Indian Inscriptions, (Madras), Vol II, Intn, p. 2.
    10. ^ a b Subramanian, T. S. (27 November 2009). "Unearthed Stone Ends Debate". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 24 June 2018.
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