Joseon missions to Japan: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|Korea to Japan diplomacy}} |
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{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}} |
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}} |
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[[File:Chosenheireishi yodojyo chakuraizu.jpg|thumb|right|A drawing sent by the Joseon court in Korea to the Tokugawa shogunate in Japan, c. 1748]] |
[[File:Chosenheireishi yodojyo chakuraizu.jpg|thumb|right|A drawing sent by the Joseon court in Korea to the Tokugawa shogunate in Japan, c. 1748]] |
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'''Joseon missions to Japan''' represent a crucial aspect of the international relations of mutual [[Joseon]]-[[Japan]]ese contacts and communication.<ref>한일관계사연구논집편찬위원회. (2005). 통신사・왜관과한일관계 (''Han Il kwangyesa yŏngu nonjip''), Vol. 6, p. 29.</ref> |
'''Joseon missions to Japan''' represent a crucial aspect of the international relations of mutual [[Joseon]]-[[Japan]]ese contacts and communication.<ref>한일관계사연구논집편찬위원회. (2005). 통신사・왜관과한일관계 (''Han Il kwangyesa yŏngu nonjip''), Vol. 6, p. 29.</ref> In sum, these serial diplomatic ventures illustrate the persistence of Joseon's ''[[Gyorin|kyorin]]'' (neighborly relations) diplomacy from 1392 to 1910.{{fact|date=March 2024}} |
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The chronology of one side in a bilateral relationship stands on its own. This long-term, strategic policy contrasts with the ''[[sadae]]'' (serving the great) diplomacy which characterized the Joseon-Chinese relations in this same period.<ref>Kang, Etsuko H. (1997). [https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA49 |
The chronology of one side in a bilateral relationship stands on its own. This long-term, strategic policy contrasts with the ''[[sadae]]'' (serving the great) diplomacy which characterized the Joseon-Chinese relations in this same period.<ref>Kang, Etsuko H. (1997). [https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA49 ''Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations: from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century'', p. 49.]</ref> |
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The unique nature of these bilateral diplomatic exchanges evolved from a conceptual framework developed by the Chinese. Gradually, the theoretical model would be modified. The changing model mirrors the evolution of a unique relationship between two neighboring states.<ref>Toby, Ronald P. (1991). [https://books.google.com/books?id=2hK7tczn2QoC |
The unique nature of these bilateral diplomatic exchanges evolved from a conceptual framework developed by the Chinese. Gradually, the theoretical model would be modified. The changing model mirrors the evolution of a unique relationship between two neighboring states.<ref>Toby, Ronald P. (1991). [https://books.google.com/books?id=2hK7tczn2QoC&dq=korean+diplomacy+1711&pg=PA85 ''State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu'', p. 87.]</ref> In the 20th century, Joseon's neighborly relations diplomacy failed. |
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==Joseon diplomacy== |
==Joseon diplomacy== |
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{{Main|Joseon diplomacy}} |
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General Yi |
General Yi Sŏng-gye (posthumously known as [[Taejo of Joseon]]) established the "Kingdom of Great Joseon" in 1392–1393, and he founded the [[Yi family|Yi dynasty]] which would retain power on the Korean peninsula for five hundred years. An early achievement of the new monarch was improved relations with China; and indeed, Joseon had its origin in General Yi's refusal to attack China in response to raids from Chinese bandits.<ref>Hussain, Tariq. (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=OijoSOZktc4C&pg=PA45 ''Diamond Dilemma: Shaping Korea for the 21st Century'', p. 45]; Hodge, Carl Cavanagh. (2008). [https://books.google.com/books?id=NtEZ7Zq7s-gC&pg=PA401 ''Encyclopedia of the Age of Imperialism, 1800–1914: A-K'', p. 401.]</ref> The Joseon foreign policy would evolve from pre-existing foundations. For example, [[Goryeo dynasty|Goryeo]] envoy [[Chŏng Mong-ju]] travelled to Japan in 1377;<ref>Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). ''Annales des empereurs du japon'', p. 313; [http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=33 Korea-Japan Relations> Middle Ages> 4. Waegu and the Korea-Japan Relationship.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028164235/http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=33 |date=October 28, 2009 }}</ref> and the consequences of his efforts were only seen later. |
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As an initial step, a diplomatic mission was dispatched to Japan in 1402. The Joseon envoy sought to bring about the re-establishment of amicable relations between the two countries and he was charged to commemorate the good relations which existed in ancient times. This mission was successful, and ''[[shōgun]]'' [[Ashikaga Yoshimitsu]] was reported to have been favorably impressed by this initial embassy.<ref name="Titsingh, p. 320">Titsingh, p. 320.</ref> Subsequent missions developed and nurtured the contacts and exchanges between the two neighboring countries. |
As an initial step, a diplomatic mission was dispatched to Japan in 1402. The Joseon envoy sought to bring about the re-establishment of amicable relations between the two countries and he was charged to commemorate the good relations which existed in ancient times. This mission was successful, and ''[[shōgun]]'' [[Ashikaga Yoshimitsu]] was reported to have been favorably impressed by this initial embassy.<ref name="Titsingh, p. 320">Titsingh, p. 320.</ref> Subsequent missions developed and nurtured the contacts and exchanges between the two neighboring countries. |
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Not less than 70 diplomatic missions were dispatched from the Joseon capital to Japan before the beginning of Japan's [[Edo period]].<ref>Lewis, James Bryant. ''Frontier contact between chosŏn Korea and Tokugawa Japan'', p. 269 n. 89, citing ''Hanguk Chungse tae-il kysōpsa yŏngu'' (1996) by Na Chongpu.</ref> A diplomatic mission conventionally consisted of three envoys—the main envoy, the vice-envoy, and a document official. Also included were one or more official writers or recorders who created a detailed account of the mission.<ref>Walraven, Boudewign ''et al.'' (2007). ''Korea in the middle: Korean studies and area studies'', p. 362.</ref> Artists were also included in the diplomatic delegation. |
Not less than 70 diplomatic missions were dispatched from the Joseon capital to Japan before the beginning of Japan's [[Edo period]].<ref>Lewis, James Bryant. ''Frontier contact between chosŏn Korea and Tokugawa Japan'', p. 269 n. 89, citing ''Hanguk Chungse tae-il kysōpsa yŏngu'' (1996) by Na Chongpu.</ref> A diplomatic mission conventionally consisted of three envoys—the main envoy, the vice-envoy, and a document official. Also included were one or more official writers or recorders who created a detailed account of the mission.<ref>Walraven, Boudewign ''et al.'' (2007). ''Korea in the middle: Korean studies and area studies'', p. 362.</ref> Artists were also included in the diplomatic delegation. |
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Reciprocal missions were construed as a means of communication between Korean kings and Japanese ''shōguns'' of almost equal ranking. |
Reciprocal missions were construed as a means of communication between Korean kings and Japanese ''shōguns'' of almost equal ranking. The emperors of Japan at the time were figureheads with no actual political or military power;<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FwztKKtQ_rAC&pg=PA1 | title=The Emperors of Modern Japan| isbn=978-9004168220| last1=Shillony| first1=Ben-Ami| year=2008| publisher=BRILL}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OvzPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 |title = Jews & the Japanese: The Successful Outsiders|isbn = 9781462903962|last1 = Shillony|first1 = Ben-Ami|date = January 24, 2012| publisher=Tuttle }}</ref> the actual political and military rulers of Japan with whom Joseon communicated were the shoguns who were represented as "tycoon of Japan" in most foreign communications in order to avoid the conflict with the [[Sinocentrism|Sinocentric world order]] in which the [[emperor of China]] was the highest authority, and all rulers of tributary states were known as "kings".<ref>Kang, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA206 ''Diplomacy and Ideology'', p. 206.]</ref> |
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The history of |
The history of Joseon Korea's diplomacy with Japan can be parsed in four parts: (a) before the Japanese invasions in 1592–1598; (b) in the context of the invasion; (c) after the invasion; and (d) in modern times. |
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==Joseon missions to the Muromachi shogunate== |
==Joseon missions to the Muromachi shogunate== |
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{{See also|Joseon Tongsinsa#15th–16th century diplomatic ventures}} |
{{See also|Joseon Tongsinsa#15th–16th century diplomatic ventures}} |
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The Joseon diplomatic contacts and communication with Japan encompassed formal embassies to the [[Ashikaga shogunate|Muromachi bakufu]].<ref name="kang275" |
The Joseon diplomatic contacts and communication with Japan encompassed formal embassies to the [[Ashikaga shogunate|Muromachi bakufu]].<ref name="kang275"/> Joseon diplomacy also included the more frequent and less formal exchanges with the Japanese ''daimyo'' (feudal lord) of [[Tsushima Island]]. |
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In addition, trade missions between merchants of the area were commonplace. For example, more than 60 trade missions per year marked the period from 1450 through 1500.<ref>Ferris, William. (2009). [https://books.google.com/books?id=oEkewem1LBYC&pg=PT181 |
In addition, trade missions between merchants of the area were commonplace. For example, more than 60 trade missions per year marked the period from 1450 through 1500.<ref>Ferris, William. (2009). [https://books.google.com/books?id=oEkewem1LBYC&pg=PT181 ''Japan to 1600: A Social and Economic History'', 181.]</ref> |
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{| class="wikitable" |
{| class="wikitable" |
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|1398 |
|1398 |
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|[[Taejo of Joseon|Taejo]] |
|[[Taejo of Joseon|Taejo]] |
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|[[Pak |
|[[Pak Ton-ji]].<ref>Kang, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA275 ''Diplomacy and Ideology'', p. 275]; Titsingh, p. 322</ref> |
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|[[Ashikaga Yoshimochi]] |
|[[Ashikaga Yoshimochi]] |
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|align="left" | Response envoys; and seeking help in suppression of pirate fleets, called ''[[waegu]]'' (왜구) in Korean or ''[[Wokou|wakō]]'' (倭寇) in Japanese |
|align="left" | Response envoys; and seeking help in suppression of pirate fleets, called ''[[waegu]]'' (왜구) in Korean or ''[[Wokou|wakō]]'' (倭寇) in Japanese , [[Ōuchi Yoshihiro]] let him visit and [[Ashikaga Yoshimitsu]], the retired shōgun, sent him a letter with presents<ref name="kang275">Kang, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA275 ''Diplomacy and Ideology'', p. 275.]</ref> |
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|- align="center" |
|- align="center" |
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|1404 |
|1404 |
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Line 49: | Line 51: | ||
|[[Yeo Ui-son]]<ref name="kang275"/> |
|[[Yeo Ui-son]]<ref name="kang275"/> |
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|Ashikaga Yoshimochi |
|Ashikaga Yoshimochi |
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|align="left" | Response envoys<ref>Kang, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA275 |
|align="left" | Response envoys<ref>Kang, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA275 ''Diplomacy and Ideology'', p. 275]; Hall, John Whitney. (1997). [https://books.google.com/books?id=6RBXXJixf-sC&pg=PA242 ''The Cambridge History of Japan: Early Modern Japan'', p. 242.]</ref> |
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|- align="center" |
|- align="center" |
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|1406 |
|1406 |
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|Taejong |
|Taejong |
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|[[Yun |
|[[Yun Myŏng]]<ref name="kang275"/> |
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|Ashikaga Yoshimochi |
|Ashikaga Yoshimochi |
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|align="left" | Response envoys<ref name="kang275"/> |
|align="left" | Response envoys<ref name="kang275"/> |
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Line 59: | Line 61: | ||
|1410 |
|1410 |
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|Taejong |
|Taejong |
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|[[ |
|[[Yang Su (diplomat)|Yang Su]]<ref name="kang38">Kang, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA39 ''Diplomacy and Ideology'', p. 39.]</ref> |
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|Ashikaga Yoshimochi |
|Ashikaga Yoshimochi |
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|align="left" | Response envoys; conveying condolences on the death of Yoshimitsu;<ref name="kang275"/> and offering to send a copy of a rare Buddhist text.<ref>Titsingh, pp. 325–326.</ref> |
|align="left" | Response envoys; conveying condolences on the death of Yoshimitsu;<ref name="kang275"/> and offering to send a copy of a rare Buddhist text.<ref>Titsingh, pp. 325–326.</ref> |
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Line 71: | Line 73: | ||
|1420 |
|1420 |
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|[[Sejong of Joseon|Sejong]] |
|[[Sejong of Joseon|Sejong]] |
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|[[Song |
|[[Song Hŭi-gyŏng]]<ref name="kang275"/> |
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|Ashikaga Yoshimochi |
|Ashikaga Yoshimochi |
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|align="left" | Response envoys<ref name="kang275"/> |
|align="left" | Response envoys<ref name="kang275"/> |
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Line 77: | Line 79: | ||
|1423 |
|1423 |
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|Sejong |
|Sejong |
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|[[Pak |
|[[Pak Hŭi-chung]]<ref>Kang, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA72 ''Diplomacy and Ideology'', p. 72.]</ref> |
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|[[Ashikaga Yoshikazu]] |
|[[Ashikaga Yoshikazu]] |
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|align="left" | Response envoys;<ref name="kang275"/> and transporting a copy of a rare Buddhist text.<ref name="Titsingh, p. 330">Titsingh, p. 330.</ref> |
|align="left" | Response envoys;<ref name="kang275"/> and transporting a copy of a rare Buddhist text.<ref name="Titsingh, p. 330">Titsingh, p. 330.</ref> |
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Line 89: | Line 91: | ||
|1428 |
|1428 |
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|Sejong |
|Sejong |
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|[[Pak |
|[[Pak Sŏ-saeng]]<ref name="kang275"/> |
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|[[Ashikaga Yoshinori]] |
|[[Ashikaga Yoshinori]] |
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|align="left" | Condolences on the death of Yoshimochi; conveying congratulations on the succession of Yoshinori<ref name="kang275"/> |
|align="left" | Condolences on the death of Yoshimochi; conveying congratulations on the succession of Yoshinori<ref name="kang275"/> |
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Line 95: | Line 97: | ||
|1432 |
|1432 |
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|Sejong |
|Sejong |
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|[[Yi Ye]]<ref>Kang, ''Diplomacy and Ideology.'' p. 275; Lee, Sang Oak ''et al.'' (1998). [https://books.google.com/books?id=OQRxAAAAMAAJ&q=1432+envoy+japan |
|[[Yi Ye]]<ref>Kang, ''Diplomacy and Ideology.'' p. 275; Lee, Sang Oak ''et al.'' (1998). [https://books.google.com/books?id=OQRxAAAAMAAJ&q=1432+envoy+japan ''Perspectives on Korea'', p. 268.]</ref> |
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|Ashikaga Yoshinori |
|Ashikaga Yoshinori |
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|align="left" | Response envoys<ref name="kang275"/> |
|align="left" | Response envoys<ref name="kang275"/> |
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Line 101: | Line 103: | ||
|1439 |
|1439 |
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|Sejong |
|Sejong |
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|[[Ko |
|[[Ko Tŭk-chong]]<ref name="kang275"/> |
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|Ashikaga Yoshinori |
|Ashikaga Yoshinori |
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|align="left" | Neighborly relations; and asking help in suppression of expanded ''waegu'' (''wakō'') activities.<ref name="kang275"/> |
|align="left" | Neighborly relations; and asking help in suppression of expanded ''waegu'' (''wakō'') activities.<ref name="kang275"/> |
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Line 107: | Line 109: | ||
|1443 |
|1443 |
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|Sejong |
|Sejong |
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|[[Byeon Hyo-mun]]<ref>Kang, Jae-eun, and Suzanne Lee. (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=iB8R0oEH3kEC |
|[[Byeon Hyo-mun]]<ref>Kang, Jae-eun, and Suzanne Lee. (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=iB8R0oEH3kEC&dq=1443+Byeon+Hyo-mun&pg=PA241 ''The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism'', p. 241]; Titsingh, p. 342.</ref> |
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|[[Ashikaga Yoshimasa]] |
|[[Ashikaga Yoshimasa]] |
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|align="left" | Condolences on the death of Yoshinori; and conveying congratulations on the succession of Yoshikatsu<ref name="kang275"/> |
|align="left" | Condolences on the death of Yoshinori; and conveying congratulations on the succession of Yoshikatsu<ref name="kang275"/> |
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===1409–1410=== |
===1409–1410=== |
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In the 10th year of King Taejong's reign, an ambassador from the Joseon court was received in Kyoto. This event in 1409 (''Ōei 16, 3rd month'') was considered significant.<ref name="titsingh325">Titsingh, [https://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA325 |
In the 10th year of King Taejong's reign, an ambassador from the Joseon court was received in Kyoto. This event in 1409 (''Ōei 16, 3rd month'') was considered significant.<ref name="titsingh325">Titsingh, [https://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA325 pp. 325–326.]</ref> |
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===1413=== |
===1413=== |
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Line 140: | Line 142: | ||
===1428=== |
===1428=== |
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In the 10th year of King Sejong's reign, the Joseon court dispatched [[Pak |
In the 10th year of King Sejong's reign, the Joseon court dispatched [[Pak Sŏ-saeng]] as chief envoy of a mission to the shogunal court of [[Ashikaga Yoshinori]] in Japan.<ref name="kang275"/> |
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===1432=== |
===1432=== |
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In the 14th year of King Sejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.<ref name="lee268">Lee, Sang Oak ''et al.'' (1998). [https://books.google.com/books?id=OQRxAAAAMAAJ&q=1432+envoy+japan |
In the 14th year of King Sejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.<ref name="lee268">Lee, Sang Oak ''et al.'' (1998). [https://books.google.com/books?id=OQRxAAAAMAAJ&q=1432+envoy+japan ''Perspectives on Korea'', p. 268.]</ref> |
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===1439=== |
===1439=== |
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In the 21st year of King Sejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan. The leader of this embassy to ''shōgun'' Yoshinori was [[Ko |
In the 21st year of King Sejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan. The leader of this embassy to ''shōgun'' Yoshinori was [[Ko Tŭk-chong]].<ref name="kang275"/> |
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===1443=== |
===1443=== |
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In the 25th year of King Sejong's reign, an embassy was sent to the Japanese capital. [[Byeon Hyo-mun]] was the chief envoy sent by the Joseon court.<ref>Kang, [https://books.google.com/books?id=iB8R0oEH3kEC |
In the 25th year of King Sejong's reign, an embassy was sent to the Japanese capital. [[Byeon Hyo-mun]] was the chief envoy sent by the Joseon court.<ref>Kang, [https://books.google.com/books?id=iB8R0oEH3kEC&dq=1443+Byeon+Hyo-mun&pg=PA241 ''Land of Scholars'', p. 241]; Titsingh, p. 342.</ref> The ambassador was received in Kyoto by [[Ashikaga Yoshimasa]].<ref name="kang275"/> |
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==Joseon missions to Hideyoshi== |
==Joseon missions to Hideyoshi== |
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After the fall of the Ashikaga shogunate, the Joseon diplomatic missions to Japan were dispatched to Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who emerged as an unchallenged strong man and leader after the death of [[Oda Nobunaga]] in 1582.<ref name="kang275"/> The less formal contacts with the leaders of the [[Sō clan]] on Tsushima continued. |
After the fall of the Ashikaga shogunate, the Joseon diplomatic missions to Japan were dispatched to Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who emerged as an unchallenged strong man and leader after the death of [[Oda Nobunaga]] in 1582.<ref name="kang275"/> The less formal contacts with the leaders of the [[Sō clan]] on Tsushima continued. |
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Diplomatic relations were severed in 1592 when Japanese armies invaded Joseon territory. The ruptured bilateral relations were not restored immediately after the death of Hideyoshi in 1598; the invading forces gradually withdrew from occupied land on the Korean peninsula.<ref>Kang, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA86 ''Diplomacy and Ideology'', p. 86.]</ref> By the end of 1598 all Japanese forces had left Korea, but relations would not be normalized until several years later, during the Tokugawa shogunate. |
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{| class="wikitable" |
{| class="wikitable" |
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Line 167: | Line 169: | ||
|1590 |
|1590 |
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|[[Seonjo of Joseon|Seonjo]] |
|[[Seonjo of Joseon|Seonjo]] |
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|[[Hwang Yun-gil]]<ref name="rutt190">Rutt, Richard ''et al.'' (2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=e7pyBEWioLsC&pg=PA190 |
|[[Hwang Yun-gil]]<ref name="rutt190">Rutt, Richard ''et al.'' (2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=e7pyBEWioLsC&pg=PA190 ''Korea: a Historical and Cultural Dictionary'', p. 190.]</ref> |
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|[[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] |
|[[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] |
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|align="left" | Congratulations on the unification of Hideyoshi<ref name="kang275"/> |
|align="left" | Congratulations on the unification of Hideyoshi<ref name="kang275"/> |
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Line 173: | Line 175: | ||
|1596 |
|1596 |
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|Seonjo |
|Seonjo |
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|[[Hwang Sin]]<ref name="palais83">Palais, James B. [https://books.google.com/books?id=kwpSxkUYCSAC&pg=PA83 |
|[[Hwang Sin]]<ref name="palais83">Palais, James B. [https://books.google.com/books?id=kwpSxkUYCSAC&pg=PA83 ''Confucian Statecraft and Korean Institutions: Yu Hyŏngwŏn and the late Chosŏn Dynasty'', p. 83]; n.b., this source equates the term "formal ambassador" with "tongsinsa", without reference to signifying "normalized" bilateral relations.</ref> |
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|Toyotomi Hideyoshi |
|Toyotomi Hideyoshi |
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|align="left" | Negotiating end of hostilities, withdrawal of invading Japanese forces.<ref>Kang, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C |
|align="left" | Negotiating end of hostilities, withdrawal of invading Japanese forces.<ref>Kang, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&dq=1596+hwang+sin&pg=PA225 ''Diplomacy and Ideology'', p. 225.]</ref> |
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==Joseon missions to the Tokugawa shogunate== |
==Joseon missions to the Tokugawa shogunate== |
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{{main|Joseon Tongsinsa#17th-19th century diplomatic ventures}} |
{{main|Joseon Tongsinsa#17th-19th century diplomatic ventures}} |
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After the Japanese invaders were repulsed, Korean-Japanese diplomatic relations had to be re-established and normalized; they ultimately took on a somewhat different form than prior to 1592.<ref>Kang, Woong Joe. (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=hRAPN6SZqKUC&pg=PA44 ''The Korean struggle for International identity'', p. 44.]</ref> For starters, Japanese envoys/missions were restricted to the ''waegwan'' in Busan and prohibited from traveling to Hanseong (present-day Seoul) by the Joseon court (as the Japanese invasion forces in 1592 used the same land route in Korea as prior Japanese missions had).<ref name="english.historyfoundation.or.kr">[http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=34 "Early Modern Period." Northeast Asian History Foundation, 2007] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028164240/http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=34 |date=28 October 2009 }}</ref> Further, the missions from Joseon were no longer greeted in Japan by military commanders but only diplomats. Lastly, the costs of the Korean missions were entirely paid for by the Japanese, which by some estimates equaled the Tokugawa shogunate's entire annual budget in the years that they were dispatched.<ref name="english.historyfoundation.or.kr"></ref> |
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After the Japanese invaders were repulsed, the new Yi-Tokugawa diplomatic relations developed in a somewhat different manner than in earlier years<ref>Kang, Woong Joe. (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=hRAPN6SZqKUC&pg=PA44&dq= ''The Korean struggle for International identity'', p. 44.]</ref> |
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The Joseon court also did not resume using the term ''[[tongsinsa]]'' for missions to Japan until the 1636 mission, as the term was only used for missions under conditions of normalized relations.<ref>Lewis, James Bryant. (2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=0YIbNlliRswC&pg=RA1-PA21 ''Frontier contact between Chosŏn Korea and Tokugawa Japan,'' pp. 21–24.]</ref> |
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{| class="wikitable" |
{| class="wikitable" |
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Line 198: | Line 202: | ||
|1607 |
|1607 |
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|[[Seonjo of Joseon|Seonjo]] |
|[[Seonjo of Joseon|Seonjo]] |
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|[[Yŏ Ugil]]<ref name="kang144">Kang, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA144 |
|[[Yŏ Ugil]]<ref name="kang144">Kang, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA144 p. 144.]</ref> |
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|[[Tokugawa Hidetada]] |
|[[Tokugawa Hidetada]] |
||
|align="left" | Responding to Japanese invitation; observation of internal Japanese political situation; repatriation of prisoners.<ref name="history foundation1607">[http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=57 Northeast Asia History Foundation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303180500/http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=57 |date=March 3, 2009 }}: [http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=34 Korea-Japan relations] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028164240/http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=34 |date=October 28, 2009 }} citing ''Haesarok'' (''Records of Overseas Mission'') by [[Gyeong Seom]].</ref> |
|align="left" | Responding to Japanese invitation; observation of internal Japanese political situation; repatriation of prisoners.<ref name="history foundation1607">[http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=57 Northeast Asia History Foundation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303180500/http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=57 |date=March 3, 2009 }}: [http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=34 Korea-Japan relations] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028164240/http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=34 |date=October 28, 2009 }} citing ''Haesarok'' (''Records of Overseas Mission'') by [[Gyeong Seom]].</ref> |
||
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|1711 |
|1711 |
||
|Sukjong |
|Sukjong |
||
|[[Jo Tae-eok]]<ref name="Jo_Tae-eok1">Kim, Tae-Jun. (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ecijowh6ptwC&pg=PA119 |
|[[Jo Tae-eok]]<ref name="Jo_Tae-eok1">Kim, Tae-Jun. (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ecijowh6ptwC&pg=PA119 ''Korean Travel Literature.'' p. 119]; Walraven, p. 361; Titsingh, p. 416; n.b., the name ''Tota Yokf'' is a pre-Hepburn Japanese transliteration and ''Tchao ta ỹ'' is a pre-McCune–Reischauer Korean romanization devised by Klaproth ''et al.'' in 1834.</ref> |
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|[[Tokugawa Ienobu]] |
|[[Tokugawa Ienobu]] |
||
|align="left" | Congratulations on the succession of shōgun Ienobu.<ref name="history foundation1711">Northeast Asia History Foundation: [http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=34 Korea-Japan relations] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028164240/http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=34 |date=October 28, 2009 }} citing ''Dongsarok'' by [[Jo Tae-eok]]; ''Dongsarok'' by [[Kim Hyeon-mun]]; and ''Dongsarok'' by [[Im Su-gan]].</ref> |
|align="left" | Congratulations on the succession of shōgun Ienobu.<ref name="history foundation1711">Northeast Asia History Foundation: [http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=34 Korea-Japan relations] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028164240/http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=34 |date=October 28, 2009 }} citing ''Dongsarok'' by [[Jo Tae-eok]]; ''Dongsarok'' by [[Kim Hyeon-mun]]; and ''Dongsarok'' by [[Im Su-gan]].</ref> |
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|1748 |
|1748 |
||
|[[Yeongjo of Joseon|Yeongjo]] |
|[[Yeongjo of Joseon|Yeongjo]] |
||
|[[Hong |
|[[Hong Kyehŭi]]<ref name="walraven361_titsingh418">Walraven, p. 361; Titsingh, p. 418; n.b., the name ''Tcho ying'' is a pre-Hepburn Japanese transliteration and ''Tchao hing'' is a pre-McCune–Reischauer Korean romanization devised by Klaproth ''et al.'' in 1834.</ref> |
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|[[Tokugawa Ieshige]] |
|[[Tokugawa Ieshige]] |
||
|align="left" | Congratulations on the succession of shōgun Ieshige.<ref name="history foundation1748">Northeast Asia History Foundation: [http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=34 Korea-Japan relations] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028164240/http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=34 |date=October 28, 2009 }} citing ''Bongsa ilbon si mun gyeonnik'' (''Observation of the Janpanese Culture'') by [[Jo Myeong-chae]]; ''Susa illok'' (''Daily Records of Observations'') by [[Hong Gyeong-hae]]; and ''Ilbon ilgi'' (''Diary in Japan'') by an unidentified writer.</ref> |
|align="left" | Congratulations on the succession of shōgun Ieshige.<ref name="history foundation1748">Northeast Asia History Foundation: [http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=34 Korea-Japan relations] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028164240/http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/?sub_num=34 |date=October 28, 2009 }} citing ''Bongsa ilbon si mun gyeonnik'' (''Observation of the Janpanese Culture'') by [[Jo Myeong-chae]]; ''Susa illok'' (''Daily Records of Observations'') by [[Hong Gyeong-hae]]; and ''Ilbon ilgi'' (''Diary in Japan'') by an unidentified writer.</ref> |
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===1607=== |
===1607=== |
||
In the 40th year of the reign of King [[Seonjo of Joseon]],<ref name="history foundation1607"/> representatives of the Joseon court were dispatched to Japan. This diplomatic mission functioned to the advantage of both the Japanese and the Koreans as a channel for developing a political foundation for trade.<ref name="walker48">Walker, [https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/1811/609/1/V10N2Walker.pdf p. 48 |
In the 40th year of the reign of King [[Seonjo of Joseon]],<ref name="history foundation1607"/> representatives of the Joseon court were dispatched to Japan. This diplomatic mission functioned to the advantage of both the Japanese and the Koreans as a channel for developing a political foundation for trade.<ref name="walker48">Walker, [https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/1811/609/1/V10N2Walker.pdf p. 48]; Guilliaume, Xavier. (2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=B6_5gb3W1SsC&dq=envoy+joseon+japan&pg=PA85 "Misdirected Understanding: Narrative Matrices in the Japanese Politics of Alterity toward the West", pp. 85–116] in ''Jahrbuch des Deutschen Instituts für Japanstudien.''</ref> This embassy traveled to Edo for an audience with shōgun [[Tokugawa Hidetada]] in the 12th year of ''[[Keicho]]'', according to the [[Japanese era name]] in use at this time.<ref name="history foundation1607"/> [[Yŏ Ugil]] was the chief Joseon envoy;<ref name="kang144"/> and there was 467 others accompanying him.<ref name="history foundation1607"/> |
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===1617=== |
===1617=== |
||
In the 9th year of the reign of King [[Gwanghaegun of Joseon]],<ref name="history foundation1617"/> the Joseon court dispatched a mission to Edo; but the embassy travelled only as far as Kyoto. The delegation was received by shōgun Hidetada at [[Fushimi Castle]]<ref name="toby105n16">Toby, p. 105 n16.</ref> in the 3rd year of ''[[Genna]]'', as the Japanese reckoned time.<ref name="history foundation1617"/> The chief envoy was [[O Yun'gyŏm]]<ref name="walraven361" |
In the 9th year of the reign of King [[Gwanghaegun of Joseon]],<ref name="history foundation1617"/> the Joseon court dispatched a mission to Edo; but the embassy travelled only as far as Kyoto. The delegation was received by shōgun Hidetada at [[Fushimi Castle]]<ref name="toby105n16">Toby, p. 105 n16.</ref> in the 3rd year of ''[[Genna]]'', as the Japanese reckoned time.<ref name="history foundation1617"/> The chief envoy was [[O Yun'gyŏm]]<ref name="walraven361"/> and there were 428 others in his party.<ref name="history foundation1617"/> |
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===1624=== |
===1624=== |
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===1636=== |
===1636=== |
||
In the 14th year of King Injo's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.<ref name="history foundation1636"/> The ambassador of the Joseon king was [[Im Kwang]];<ref name="toby205-207_titsingh411"/> and he was accompanied by 478 others.<ref name="history foundation1636"/> According to the Japanese calendar, the mission reached Japan in 1635 (''[[Kan'ei]] 13, 12th month'').<ref name="titsingh411">Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). ''Annales des emperors du japon'', p. 411.</ref> This mission to the court of shōgun Iemitsu in Edo also encompassed a pilgrimage to the first shogun's mausoleum at [[Nikkō]].<ref>Toby, p. 105 n16; Walker, [https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/1811/609/1/V10N2Walker.pdf p. 50.]</ref> The grand procession of the shogun, which included the large Joseon contingent, travelled from Edo to Nikko in the 4th month of the 14th year of ''Kan'ei''.<ref name="titsingh411"/> |
In the 14th year of King Injo's reign, a diplomatic mission (the first to be titled ''tongsinsa'' since the severing of relations in 1592,<ref>Lewis, James Bryant. (2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=0YIbNlliRswC&pg=RA1-PA21 ''Frontier contact between Chosŏn Korea and Tokugawa Japan,'' pp. 21–24.]</ref> thus formally indicating full normalization of relations) was sent to Japan.<ref name="history foundation1636"/> The ambassador of the Joseon king was [[Im Kwang]];<ref name="toby205-207_titsingh411"/> and he was accompanied by 478 others.<ref name="history foundation1636"/> According to the Japanese calendar, the mission reached Japan in 1635 (''[[Kan'ei]] 13, 12th month'').<ref name="titsingh411">Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). ''Annales des emperors du japon'', p. 411.</ref> This mission to the court of shōgun Iemitsu in Edo also encompassed a pilgrimage to the first shogun's mausoleum at [[Nikkō]].<ref>Toby, p. 105 n16; Walker, [https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/1811/609/1/V10N2Walker.pdf p. 50.]</ref> The grand procession of the shogun, which included the large Joseon contingent, travelled from Edo to Nikko in the 4th month of the 14th year of ''Kan'ei''.<ref name="titsingh411"/> |
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===1643=== |
===1643=== |
||
In the 21st year of King Injo's reign,<ref name="history foundation1643"/> a mission to Edo was led by [[Yun Sunji]].<ref name=" |
In the 21st year of King Injo's reign,<ref name="history foundation1643"/> a mission to Edo was led by [[Yun Sunji]].<ref name="toby105_titsingh412b">Toby, p. 105; Titsingh, p. 412.</ref> The size of the Joseon delegation was 477.<ref name="history foundation1643"/> The delegation arrived at the shogunal court in Edo on the 20th year of ''Kan'ei'', as reckoned by the Japanese calendar.<ref>Titsingh, p. 412.</ref> This delegation was received in the court of shōgun Iemitsu; and they also completed a visit to shōgun Ieaysu's mausoleum at [[Nikkō]].<ref name="toby105n16"/> |
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===1655=== |
===1655=== |
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===1748=== |
===1748=== |
||
[[File:Chōsen Tsūshin-shi Raichō-zu.jpg|thumb|right|240px|This image of a [[Joseon Tongsinsa|Joseon ''tongsinsa'']] procession through the streets of [[Edo]] in 1748 is entitled ''Chosenjin Ukie'' by Hanegawa Tōei, c. 1748.]] |
[[File:Chōsen Tsūshin-shi Raichō-zu.jpg|thumb|right|240px|This image of a [[Joseon Tongsinsa|Joseon ''tongsinsa'']] procession through the streets of [[Edo]] in 1748 is entitled ''Chosenjin Ukie'' by Hanegawa Tōei, c. 1748.]] |
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In the 24th year of the reign of King [[Yeongjo of Joseon]], the Joseon court sent a diplomatic mission to Japan.<ref name="history foundation1748"/> The Joseon envoy and his retinue arrived in Edo in the 1st year of ''[[Kan'en]]'', according to the Japanese |
In the 24th year of the reign of King [[Yeongjo of Joseon]], the Joseon court sent a diplomatic mission to Japan.<ref name="history foundation1748"/> The Joseon envoy and his retinue arrived in Edo in the 1st year of ''[[Kan'en]]'', according to the Japanese calendar.<ref>Titsingh, p. 418.</ref> The chief envoy of this Joseon delegation was [[Hong Kyehŭi]];<ref name="walraven361_titsingh418"/> and he was accompanied by 475 others.<ref name="history foundation1748"/> |
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===1764=== |
===1764=== |
||
In the 40th year of King Yeongjo's reign, a diplomatic envoy was dispatched to Japan.<ref name="history foundation1764"/> This mission to the shogunal court of [[Tokugawa Ieharu]] arrived in the shogunal capital the 1st year of ''[[Meiwa]]'', as reckoned by the Japanese calendar.<ref>Titsingh, p. 419.</ref> [[Jo Eom]] was the chief envoy in 1764;<ref name="walraven359">Walraven, p. 359.</ref> and 477 traveled with him.<ref name="history foundation1764"/> The renowned [[Edo period]] poet [[Fukuda Chiyo-ni]] was chosen to prepare the official Japanese gift presented to the Korean Delegation, and she crafted and delivered 21 artworks based on her 21 [[haiku]].<ref> |
In the 40th year of King Yeongjo's reign, a diplomatic envoy was dispatched to Japan.<ref name="history foundation1764"/> This mission to the shogunal court of [[Tokugawa Ieharu]] arrived in the shogunal capital the 1st year of ''[[Meiwa]]'', as reckoned by the Japanese calendar.<ref>Titsingh, p. 419.</ref> [[Jo Eom]] was the chief envoy in 1764;<ref name="walraven359">Walraven, p. 359.</ref> and 477 traveled with him.<ref name="history foundation1764"/> The renowned [[Edo period]] poet [[Fukuda Chiyo-ni]] was chosen to prepare the official Japanese gift presented to the Korean Delegation, and she crafted and delivered 21 artworks based on her 21 [[haiku]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://haikukan.city.hakusan.ishikawa.jp/english/about/ |title=haikukan.city.hakusan.ishikawa.jp |access-date=January 2, 2018 |archive-date=October 26, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026222610/http://haikukan.city.hakusan.ishikawa.jp/english/about/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> This ambassador is important historical figure because he is credited with introducing [[sweet potato]]es as a food crop in Korea.<ref>Kim, Jinwung. (2012). [https://books.google.com/books?id=QFPsi3IK8gcC&pg=PA255 ''A History of Korea: From 'Land of the Morning Calm' to States in Conflict'', p. 255].</ref> The "new" food staple was encountered during the course of this diplomatic mission.<ref>Wiwŏnhoe, p. 305.</ref> |
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===1811=== |
===1811=== |
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==Joseon-Japan diplomacy adapting== |
==Joseon-Japan diplomacy adapting== |
||
Joseon-Japanese bilateral relations were affected by the increasing numbers of international contacts which required adaptation and a new kind of diplomacy.<ref name="kang38-78">Kang, Woong Joe. (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=hRAPN6SZqKUC&pg=PA38 |
Joseon-Japanese bilateral relations were affected by the increasing numbers of international contacts which required adaptation and a new kind of diplomacy.<ref name="kang38-78">Kang, Woong Joe. (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=hRAPN6SZqKUC&pg=PA38 ''Struggle for Identity'', pp. 38–78.]</ref> Japan's [[Sakoku]] period ("closed country") ended in 1854, altering all regional relations for Japan.<ref>W. G. Beasley, ''The Meiji Restoration'', {{ISBN|978-1503608269}}</ref> |
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===1876=== |
===1876=== |
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The Korea-Japan Treaty of 1876 |
The [[Korea-Japan Treaty of 1876]] marked the beginning of a new phase in bilateral relations.<ref name="kang38-78"/> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{refbegin}} |
{{refbegin}} |
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* Daehwan, Noh. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110614035130/http://www.ekoreajournal.net/upload/html/HTML43412.html "The Eclectic Development of Neo-Confucianism and Statecraft from the 18th to the 19th Century" |
* Daehwan, Noh. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110614035130/http://www.ekoreajournal.net/upload/html/HTML43412.html "The Eclectic Development of Neo-Confucianism and Statecraft from the 18th to the 19th Century"], ''Korea Journal'' (Winter 2003). |
||
* Ferris, William Wayne. (2009). ''Japan to 1600: a Social and Economic History''. Honolulu: [[University of Hawaii Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8248-3379-4}} |
* Ferris, William Wayne. (2009). ''Japan to 1600: a Social and Economic History''. Honolulu: [[University of Hawaii Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8248-3379-4}} |
||
* [[John Whitney Hall|Hall]], John Whitney. (1997). ''The Cambridge History of Japan: Early Modern Japan''. Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-521-22355-3}}; {{OCLC|174552485}} |
* [[John Whitney Hall|Hall]], John Whitney. (1997). ''The Cambridge History of Japan: Early Modern Japan''. Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-521-22355-3}}; {{OCLC|174552485}} |
||
* {{ |
* {{in lang|ko}} 한일관계사연구논집편찬위원회. (2005). 통신사・왜관과한일관계 (''Han Il kwangyesa yŏngu nonjip'', Vol. 6). 경인문화사. {{ISBN|978-89-499-0308-8}}. |
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* Hussain, Tariq. (2006). ''Diamond Dilemma: Shaping Korea for the 21st Century''. (다이아몬드딜레마). Seoul: [[Random House]]. {{ISBN|978-1-4303-0641-2}}; [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/180102797 OCLC 180102797 {{ |
* Hussain, Tariq. (2006). ''Diamond Dilemma: Shaping Korea for the 21st Century''. (다이아몬드딜레마). Seoul: [[Random House]]. {{ISBN|978-1-4303-0641-2}}; [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/180102797 OCLC 180102797 {{in lang|en}}]; [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/67712109 OCLC 67712109 {{in lang|ko}}] |
||
* Kang, Etsuko Hae-jin. (1997). ''Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations: from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century''. Basingstoke, Hampshire; Macmillan. {{ISBN|978-0-312-17370-8}}; {{OCLC|243874305}} |
* Kang, Etsuko Hae-jin. (1997). ''Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations: from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century''. Basingstoke, Hampshire; Macmillan. {{ISBN|978-0-312-17370-8}}; {{OCLC|243874305}} |
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* Kang, Jae-eun and Suzanne Lee. (2006). ''The Land of Scholars : Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism''. Paramus, New Jersey: Homa & Sekey Books. {{ISBN|978-1-931907-37-8}}; [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/60931394?referer=di&ht=edition OCLC 60931394] |
* Kang, Jae-eun and Suzanne Lee. (2006). ''The Land of Scholars : Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism''. Paramus, New Jersey: Homa & Sekey Books. {{ISBN|978-1-931907-37-8}}; [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/60931394?referer=di&ht=edition OCLC 60931394] |
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* Lee, Sang Oak and Duk-Soo Park. (1998). ''Perspectives on Korea''. Honolulu: [[University of Hawaii Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-9586526-6-7}}; {{OCLC|40261047}} |
* Lee, Sang Oak and Duk-Soo Park. (1998). ''Perspectives on Korea''. Honolulu: [[University of Hawaii Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-9586526-6-7}}; {{OCLC|40261047}} |
||
* Palais, James B. (1995). ''Confucian Statecraft and Korean Institutions: Yu Hyŏngwŏn and the late Chosŏn Dynasty''. Seattle: [[University of Washington Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-295-97455-2}}; {{OCLC|214839971}} |
* Palais, James B. (1995). ''Confucian Statecraft and Korean Institutions: Yu Hyŏngwŏn and the late Chosŏn Dynasty''. Seattle: [[University of Washington Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-295-97455-2}}; {{OCLC|214839971}} |
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* [[Isaac Titsingh|Titsingh]], Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/[[Hayashi Gahō]], 1652], ''[[Nipon o daï itsi ran]]; ou, [https://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ& |
* [[Isaac Titsingh|Titsingh]], Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/[[Hayashi Gahō]], 1652], ''[[Nipon o daï itsi ran]]; ou, [https://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&q=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.]'' Paris: [[Royal Asiatic Society|Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland]]. [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/84067437?referer=di&ht=edition OCLC 84067437] |
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* Toby, Ronald P. (1991). [https://books.google.com/books?id=2hK7tczn2QoC |
* Toby, Ronald P. (1991). [https://books.google.com/books?id=2hK7tczn2QoC&dq=State+and+Diplomacy+in+Early+Modern+Japan&pg=PP1 ''State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu.''] Stanford: [[Stanford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8047-1951-3}}; {{OCLC|25473164}} |
||
* Walker, Brett L. [https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/1811/609/1/V10N2Walker.pdf "Foreign Affairs and Frontiers in Early Modern Japan: A Historiographical Essay" |
* Walker, Brett L. [https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/1811/609/1/V10N2Walker.pdf "Foreign Affairs and Frontiers in Early Modern Japan: A Historiographical Essay"], ''Early Modern Japan''. Fall, 2002, pp. 44–62, 124–128. |
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* Walraven, Boudewijn and Remco E. Breuker. (2007). ''Korea in the middle: Korean studies and area studies; Essays in Honour of Boudewijn Walraven''. Leiden: CNWS Publications. {{ISBN|90-5789-153-0}}; {{OCLC|181625480}} |
* Walraven, Boudewijn and Remco E. Breuker. (2007). ''Korea in the middle: Korean studies and area studies; Essays in Honour of Boudewijn Walraven''. Leiden: CNWS Publications. {{ISBN|90-5789-153-0}}; {{OCLC|181625480}} |
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* Wiwŏnhoe, Yunesŭkʻo Hanʼguk. (2004). ''Korean History: Discovery of Its Characteristics and Developments''. Elizabeth, New Jersey: Hollym. {{ISBN|978-1-56591-177-2}}; {{OCLC|56107531}} |
* Wiwŏnhoe, Yunesŭkʻo Hanʼguk. (2004). ''Korean History: Discovery of Its Characteristics and Developments''. Elizabeth, New Jersey: Hollym. {{ISBN|978-1-56591-177-2}}; {{OCLC|56107531}} |
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* {{cite book |title=일동 장유가 |trans-title=Ildong Jangyuga | last=Kim |first=In-gyeom (김인겸) |publisher=Bogosa(보고사)|year=2007 |isbn= |
* {{cite book |title=일동 장유가 |trans-title=Ildong Jangyuga | last=Kim |first=In-gyeom (김인겸) |publisher=Bogosa(보고사)|year=2007 |isbn=978-8984335875}} Travel [[Gasa (poetry)|poetry]] written by an attendant of the Joseon mission to Japan. |
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{{refend}} |
{{refend}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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* [http://www.tongsinsa.com/ Joseon Tongsinsa Cultural Exchange Association {{ |
* [http://www.tongsinsa.com/ Joseon Tongsinsa Cultural Exchange Association {{in lang|ko}}]; [https://archive.today/20121205064047/http://tongsinsa.com/japan/ {{in lang|ja}}] |
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*[http:// |
*[http://alibrary.cau.ac.kr/Download.file?id=ef2af71f-6cae-417b-927d-d6e9de84d3ab 조선통신사연구 (''Journal of Studies in Joseon Tongsinsa'') {{in lang|ko}}]{{dead link|date=April 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} |
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* UNESCO: [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/69/ Map of South and North Korea in Eight Province] |
* UNESCO: [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/69/ Map of South and North Korea in Eight Province] |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Joseon Missions To Japan}} |
{{DEFAULTSORT:Joseon Missions To Japan}} |
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[[Category:Joseon |
[[Category:Joseon]] |
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[[Category:History of the foreign relations of Japan]] |
[[Category:History of the foreign relations of Japan]] |
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[[Category: |
[[Category:Feudal Japan]] |
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[[ko:조선 통신사]] |
[[ko:조선 통신사]] |
Latest revision as of 03:30, 18 October 2024
Joseon missions to Japan represent a crucial aspect of the international relations of mutual Joseon-Japanese contacts and communication.[1] In sum, these serial diplomatic ventures illustrate the persistence of Joseon's kyorin (neighborly relations) diplomacy from 1392 to 1910.[citation needed]
The chronology of one side in a bilateral relationship stands on its own. This long-term, strategic policy contrasts with the sadae (serving the great) diplomacy which characterized the Joseon-Chinese relations in this same period.[2]
The unique nature of these bilateral diplomatic exchanges evolved from a conceptual framework developed by the Chinese. Gradually, the theoretical model would be modified. The changing model mirrors the evolution of a unique relationship between two neighboring states.[3] In the 20th century, Joseon's neighborly relations diplomacy failed.
Joseon diplomacy
[edit]General Yi Sŏng-gye (posthumously known as Taejo of Joseon) established the "Kingdom of Great Joseon" in 1392–1393, and he founded the Yi dynasty which would retain power on the Korean peninsula for five hundred years. An early achievement of the new monarch was improved relations with China; and indeed, Joseon had its origin in General Yi's refusal to attack China in response to raids from Chinese bandits.[4] The Joseon foreign policy would evolve from pre-existing foundations. For example, Goryeo envoy Chŏng Mong-ju travelled to Japan in 1377;[5] and the consequences of his efforts were only seen later.
As an initial step, a diplomatic mission was dispatched to Japan in 1402. The Joseon envoy sought to bring about the re-establishment of amicable relations between the two countries and he was charged to commemorate the good relations which existed in ancient times. This mission was successful, and shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was reported to have been favorably impressed by this initial embassy.[6] Subsequent missions developed and nurtured the contacts and exchanges between the two neighboring countries.
Not less than 70 diplomatic missions were dispatched from the Joseon capital to Japan before the beginning of Japan's Edo period.[7] A diplomatic mission conventionally consisted of three envoys—the main envoy, the vice-envoy, and a document official. Also included were one or more official writers or recorders who created a detailed account of the mission.[8] Artists were also included in the diplomatic delegation.
Reciprocal missions were construed as a means of communication between Korean kings and Japanese shōguns of almost equal ranking. The emperors of Japan at the time were figureheads with no actual political or military power;[9][10] the actual political and military rulers of Japan with whom Joseon communicated were the shoguns who were represented as "tycoon of Japan" in most foreign communications in order to avoid the conflict with the Sinocentric world order in which the emperor of China was the highest authority, and all rulers of tributary states were known as "kings".[11]
The history of Joseon Korea's diplomacy with Japan can be parsed in four parts: (a) before the Japanese invasions in 1592–1598; (b) in the context of the invasion; (c) after the invasion; and (d) in modern times.
Joseon missions to the Muromachi shogunate
[edit]The Joseon diplomatic contacts and communication with Japan encompassed formal embassies to the Muromachi bakufu.[12] Joseon diplomacy also included the more frequent and less formal exchanges with the Japanese daimyo (feudal lord) of Tsushima Island.
In addition, trade missions between merchants of the area were commonplace. For example, more than 60 trade missions per year marked the period from 1450 through 1500.[13]
Year | Sender | Joseon chief envoy | Japanese shōgun | Official purpose |
---|---|---|---|---|
1392 | Taejo | – ? | Ashikaga Yoshimitsu | Re-establishment of amicable relations between the two countries, remembering good relations which existed in ancient times[14] |
1398 | Taejo | Pak Ton-ji.[15] | Ashikaga Yoshimochi | Response envoys; and seeking help in suppression of pirate fleets, called waegu (왜구) in Korean or wakō (倭寇) in Japanese , Ōuchi Yoshihiro let him visit and Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, the retired shōgun, sent him a letter with presents[12] |
1404 | Taejong | Yeo Ui-son[12] | Ashikaga Yoshimochi | Response envoys[16] |
1406 | Taejong | Yun Myŏng[12] | Ashikaga Yoshimochi | Response envoys[12] |
1410 | Taejong | Yang Su[17] | Ashikaga Yoshimochi | Response envoys; conveying condolences on the death of Yoshimitsu;[12] and offering to send a copy of a rare Buddhist text.[18] |
1413 | Taejong | Bak Bun? | Ashikaga Yoshimochi | –? |
1420 | Sejong | Song Hŭi-gyŏng[12] | Ashikaga Yoshimochi | Response envoys[12] |
1423 | Sejong | Pak Hŭi-chung[19] | Ashikaga Yoshikazu | Response envoys;[12] and transporting a copy of a rare Buddhist text.[20] |
1424 | Sejong | Pak An-sin[12] | Ashikaga Yoshikazu | Response envoys[12] |
1428 | Sejong | Pak Sŏ-saeng[12] | Ashikaga Yoshinori | Condolences on the death of Yoshimochi; conveying congratulations on the succession of Yoshinori[12] |
1432 | Sejong | Yi Ye[21] | Ashikaga Yoshinori | Response envoys[12] |
1439 | Sejong | Ko Tŭk-chong[12] | Ashikaga Yoshinori | Neighborly relations; and asking help in suppression of expanded waegu (wakō) activities.[12] |
1443 | Sejong | Byeon Hyo-mun[22] | Ashikaga Yoshimasa | Condolences on the death of Yoshinori; and conveying congratulations on the succession of Yoshikatsu[12] |
1392
[edit]In the 1st year of the reign of King Taejo of Joseon, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.[6]
1398
[edit]In the 6th year of King Taejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.[12] Pak Tong-chi and his retinue arrived in Kyoto in the early autumn of 1398 (Ōei 5, 8th month). Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimochi presented the envoy with a formal diplomatic letter; and presents were given for the envoy to convey to the Joseon court.[23]
1404
[edit]In the 4th year of King Taejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.[12]
1406
[edit]In the 6th year of King Taejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.[12]
1409–1410
[edit]In the 10th year of King Taejong's reign, an ambassador from the Joseon court was received in Kyoto. This event in 1409 (Ōei 16, 3rd month) was considered significant.[24]
1413
[edit]In the 13th year of King Taejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.[12]
1420
[edit]In the 2nd year of the reign of King Sejong the Great, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.[12]
1423
[edit]In the 5th year of King Sejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.[12][20]
1424
[edit]In the 6th year of King Sejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.[12]
1428
[edit]In the 10th year of King Sejong's reign, the Joseon court dispatched Pak Sŏ-saeng as chief envoy of a mission to the shogunal court of Ashikaga Yoshinori in Japan.[12]
1432
[edit]In the 14th year of King Sejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.[25]
1439
[edit]In the 21st year of King Sejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan. The leader of this embassy to shōgun Yoshinori was Ko Tŭk-chong.[12]
1443
[edit]In the 25th year of King Sejong's reign, an embassy was sent to the Japanese capital. Byeon Hyo-mun was the chief envoy sent by the Joseon court.[26] The ambassador was received in Kyoto by Ashikaga Yoshimasa.[12]
Joseon missions to Hideyoshi
[edit]After the fall of the Ashikaga shogunate, the Joseon diplomatic missions to Japan were dispatched to Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who emerged as an unchallenged strong man and leader after the death of Oda Nobunaga in 1582.[12] The less formal contacts with the leaders of the Sō clan on Tsushima continued.
Diplomatic relations were severed in 1592 when Japanese armies invaded Joseon territory. The ruptured bilateral relations were not restored immediately after the death of Hideyoshi in 1598; the invading forces gradually withdrew from occupied land on the Korean peninsula.[27] By the end of 1598 all Japanese forces had left Korea, but relations would not be normalized until several years later, during the Tokugawa shogunate.
Year | Sender | Joseon chief envoy | Taiko[28] | Official purpose |
---|---|---|---|---|
1590 | Seonjo | Hwang Yun-gil[29] | Toyotomi Hideyoshi | Congratulations on the unification of Hideyoshi[12] |
1596 | Seonjo | Hwang Sin[30] | Toyotomi Hideyoshi | Negotiating end of hostilities, withdrawal of invading Japanese forces.[31] |
1590
[edit]In the 23rd year of the reign of King Seonjo, a diplomatic mission led by Hwang Yun-gil was sent by the Joseon court to Japan.[29] The Joseon ambassador was received by the Japanese leader, Toyotomi Hideyoshi.[12]
1596
[edit]In the 29th year of King Seonjo's reign, a diplomatic mission headed by Hwang Sin accompanied the Ming ambassadors who traveled to Japan.[30]
Joseon missions to the Tokugawa shogunate
[edit]After the Japanese invaders were repulsed, Korean-Japanese diplomatic relations had to be re-established and normalized; they ultimately took on a somewhat different form than prior to 1592.[32] For starters, Japanese envoys/missions were restricted to the waegwan in Busan and prohibited from traveling to Hanseong (present-day Seoul) by the Joseon court (as the Japanese invasion forces in 1592 used the same land route in Korea as prior Japanese missions had).[33] Further, the missions from Joseon were no longer greeted in Japan by military commanders but only diplomats. Lastly, the costs of the Korean missions were entirely paid for by the Japanese, which by some estimates equaled the Tokugawa shogunate's entire annual budget in the years that they were dispatched.[33]
The Joseon court also did not resume using the term tongsinsa for missions to Japan until the 1636 mission, as the term was only used for missions under conditions of normalized relations.[34]
Year | Sender | Joseon chief envoy | Japanese shōgun | Official purpose |
---|---|---|---|---|
1607 | Seonjo | Yŏ Ugil[35] | Tokugawa Hidetada | Responding to Japanese invitation; observation of internal Japanese political situation; repatriation of prisoners.[36] |
1617 | Gwanghaegun | O Yun'gyŏm[37] | Tokugawa Hidetada | Responding to Japanese invitation; congratulations on victory in Siege of Osaka; repatriation of prisoners.[38] |
1624 | Injo | Chŏng Ip[39] | Tokugawa Iemitsu | Responding to Japanese invitation; congratulations on succession of shōgun Iemitsu; repatriation of prisoners.[40] |
1636 | Injo | Im Kwang[41] | Tokugawa Iemitsu | Celebrating prosperity.[42] |
1643 | Injo | Yun Sunji[43] | Tokugawa Iemitsu | Celebrating birthday of shōgun Iemitsu.[44] |
1655 | Hyojong | Cho Hyŏng[45] | Tokugawa Ietsuna | Congratulations on the succession of shōgun Ietsuna.[46] |
1682 | Sukjong | Yun Jiwan[47] | Tokugawa Tsunayoshi | Congratulions on the succession of shōgun Tsunayoshi.[48] |
1711 | Sukjong | Jo Tae-eok[49] | Tokugawa Ienobu | Congratulations on the succession of shōgun Ienobu.[50] |
1719 | Sukjong | Hong Ch'ijung[51] | Tokugawa Yoshimune | Congratulations on the succession of shōgun Yoshimune.[52] |
1748 | Yeongjo | Hong Kyehŭi[53] | Tokugawa Ieshige | Congratulations on the succession of shōgun Ieshige.[54] |
1764 | Yeongjo | Jo Eom[55] | Tokugawa Ieharu | Congratulations on the succession of shōgun Ieharu.[56] |
1811 | Sunjo | Kim Igyo[37] | Tokugawa Ienari | Congratulations on the succession of shōgun Ienari.[57] |
1607
[edit]In the 40th year of the reign of King Seonjo of Joseon,[36] representatives of the Joseon court were dispatched to Japan. This diplomatic mission functioned to the advantage of both the Japanese and the Koreans as a channel for developing a political foundation for trade.[58] This embassy traveled to Edo for an audience with shōgun Tokugawa Hidetada in the 12th year of Keicho, according to the Japanese era name in use at this time.[36] Yŏ Ugil was the chief Joseon envoy;[35] and there was 467 others accompanying him.[36]
1617
[edit]In the 9th year of the reign of King Gwanghaegun of Joseon,[38] the Joseon court dispatched a mission to Edo; but the embassy travelled only as far as Kyoto. The delegation was received by shōgun Hidetada at Fushimi Castle[59] in the 3rd year of Genna, as the Japanese reckoned time.[38] The chief envoy was O Yun'gyŏm[37] and there were 428 others in his party.[38]
1624
[edit]In the 2nd year of the reign of King Injo of Joseon,[40] a delegation was sent to Edo with Chŏng Ip as its chief envoy.[37] The size of this diplomatic numbered 460.[40] shōgun Tokugawa Iemitsu received the ambassador in Edo.[39] The Joseon embassy was considered a significant event in the 1st year of Kan'ei, according to the Japanese calendar,[40]
1636
[edit]In the 14th year of King Injo's reign, a diplomatic mission (the first to be titled tongsinsa since the severing of relations in 1592,[60] thus formally indicating full normalization of relations) was sent to Japan.[42] The ambassador of the Joseon king was Im Kwang;[41] and he was accompanied by 478 others.[42] According to the Japanese calendar, the mission reached Japan in 1635 (Kan'ei 13, 12th month).[61] This mission to the court of shōgun Iemitsu in Edo also encompassed a pilgrimage to the first shogun's mausoleum at Nikkō.[62] The grand procession of the shogun, which included the large Joseon contingent, travelled from Edo to Nikko in the 4th month of the 14th year of Kan'ei.[61]
1643
[edit]In the 21st year of King Injo's reign,[44] a mission to Edo was led by Yun Sunji.[63] The size of the Joseon delegation was 477.[44] The delegation arrived at the shogunal court in Edo on the 20th year of Kan'ei, as reckoned by the Japanese calendar.[64] This delegation was received in the court of shōgun Iemitsu; and they also completed a visit to shōgun Ieaysu's mausoleum at Nikkō.[59]
1655
[edit]In the 6th year of the reign of King Hyojong of Joseon, the Joseon court sent a mission to the shogunal court of Tokugawa Ietsuna.[46] This mission arrived in Japan during the 1st year of Meireki, according to in the Japanese dating system.[65] Cho Hyŏng was the chief envoy of the Joseon embassy,[45] and his retinue numbered 485.[46] After the embassy was received in the shogunate court at Edo; and the delegation proceeded the Tōshō-gū at Nikkō.[59]
1682
[edit]In the 8th year of the reign of King Sukjong of Joseon, a diplomatic mission to the shogunal court of Tokugawa Tsunayoshi was dispatched from the Joseon court.[48] Yun Jiwan was the chief emissary;[37] and he was accompanied by 473 others, traveling to Edo during the 2nd year of Tenna according to the Japanese calendar.[48]
1711
[edit]In the 37th year King Sukjong's reign, an envoy was sent to the shogunal court of Tokugawa Ienobu.[50] This embassy arrived in the 1st year of Shōtoku, according to the Japanese calendar.[66] Jo Tae-eok was the chief envoy of this diplomatic embassy;[37] and the size of his delegation numbered 500.[50]
1719
[edit]In the 45th year of King Sukjong's reign, an embassy was dispatched to Japan.[52] The Joseon envoy and his party arrived in Japan in the 10th month of the 4th year of Kyōhō, as reckoned by the Japanese calendar in use at that time.[67] King Sukjong sent Hong Ch'ijung with a retinue of 475.[52] The Joseon ambassador was granted an audience with shōgun Tokugawa Yoshimune.
1748
[edit]In the 24th year of the reign of King Yeongjo of Joseon, the Joseon court sent a diplomatic mission to Japan.[54] The Joseon envoy and his retinue arrived in Edo in the 1st year of Kan'en, according to the Japanese calendar.[68] The chief envoy of this Joseon delegation was Hong Kyehŭi;[53] and he was accompanied by 475 others.[54]
1764
[edit]In the 40th year of King Yeongjo's reign, a diplomatic envoy was dispatched to Japan.[56] This mission to the shogunal court of Tokugawa Ieharu arrived in the shogunal capital the 1st year of Meiwa, as reckoned by the Japanese calendar.[69] Jo Eom was the chief envoy in 1764;[70] and 477 traveled with him.[56] The renowned Edo period poet Fukuda Chiyo-ni was chosen to prepare the official Japanese gift presented to the Korean Delegation, and she crafted and delivered 21 artworks based on her 21 haiku.[71] This ambassador is important historical figure because he is credited with introducing sweet potatoes as a food crop in Korea.[72] The "new" food staple was encountered during the course of this diplomatic mission.[73]
1811
[edit]In the 11th year of the reign of King Sunjo of Joseon, the king sent a mission to the shogunal court of Tokugawa Ienari.[57] The embassy did not travel any further than Tsushima. The representatives of shōgun Ienari met the mission on the island which is located in the middle of the Korea Strait between the Korean Peninsula and Kyushu.[70] The chief envoy of this mission was Kim Igyo;[37] and there were 336 in his retinue.[57]
Joseon-Japan diplomacy adapting
[edit]Joseon-Japanese bilateral relations were affected by the increasing numbers of international contacts which required adaptation and a new kind of diplomacy.[74] Japan's Sakoku period ("closed country") ended in 1854, altering all regional relations for Japan.[75]
1876
[edit]The Korea-Japan Treaty of 1876 marked the beginning of a new phase in bilateral relations.[74]
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^ 한일관계사연구논집편찬위원회. (2005). 통신사・왜관과한일관계 (Han Il kwangyesa yŏngu nonjip), Vol. 6, p. 29.
- ^ Kang, Etsuko H. (1997). Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations: from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century, p. 49.
- ^ Toby, Ronald P. (1991). State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu, p. 87.
- ^ Hussain, Tariq. (2006). Diamond Dilemma: Shaping Korea for the 21st Century, p. 45; Hodge, Carl Cavanagh. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Age of Imperialism, 1800–1914: A-K, p. 401.
- ^ Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, p. 313; Korea-Japan Relations> Middle Ages> 4. Waegu and the Korea-Japan Relationship. Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Titsingh, p. 320.
- ^ Lewis, James Bryant. Frontier contact between chosŏn Korea and Tokugawa Japan, p. 269 n. 89, citing Hanguk Chungse tae-il kysōpsa yŏngu (1996) by Na Chongpu.
- ^ Walraven, Boudewign et al. (2007). Korea in the middle: Korean studies and area studies, p. 362.
- ^ Shillony, Ben-Ami (2008). The Emperors of Modern Japan. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004168220.
- ^ Shillony, Ben-Ami (January 24, 2012). Jews & the Japanese: The Successful Outsiders. Tuttle. ISBN 9781462903962.
- ^ Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 206.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 275.
- ^ Ferris, William. (2009). Japan to 1600: A Social and Economic History, 181.
- ^ Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, p. 320.
- ^ Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 275; Titsingh, p. 322
- ^ Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 275; Hall, John Whitney. (1997). The Cambridge History of Japan: Early Modern Japan, p. 242.
- ^ Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 39.
- ^ Titsingh, pp. 325–326.
- ^ Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 72.
- ^ a b Titsingh, p. 330.
- ^ Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology. p. 275; Lee, Sang Oak et al. (1998). Perspectives on Korea, p. 268.
- ^ Kang, Jae-eun, and Suzanne Lee. (2006). The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism, p. 241; Titsingh, p. 342.
- ^ Titsingh, p. 322.
- ^ Titsingh, pp. 325–326.
- ^ Lee, Sang Oak et al. (1998). Perspectives on Korea, p. 268.
- ^ Kang, Land of Scholars, p. 241; Titsingh, p. 342.
- ^ Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 86.
- ^ Taikō (太閤) a title given to a retired Kampaku regent in Japan; a title commonly associated with Toyotomi Hideyoshi
- ^ a b Rutt, Richard et al. (2003). Korea: a Historical and Cultural Dictionary, p. 190.
- ^ a b Palais, James B. Confucian Statecraft and Korean Institutions: Yu Hyŏngwŏn and the late Chosŏn Dynasty, p. 83; n.b., this source equates the term "formal ambassador" with "tongsinsa", without reference to signifying "normalized" bilateral relations.
- ^ Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 225.
- ^ Kang, Woong Joe. (2005). The Korean struggle for International identity, p. 44.
- ^ a b "Early Modern Period." Northeast Asian History Foundation, 2007 Archived 28 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Lewis, James Bryant. (2003). Frontier contact between Chosŏn Korea and Tokugawa Japan, pp. 21–24.
- ^ a b Kang, p. 144.
- ^ a b c d Northeast Asia History Foundation Archived March 3, 2009, at the Wayback Machine: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Haesarok (Records of Overseas Mission) by Gyeong Seom.
- ^ a b c d e f g Walraven, Boudewijn et al. (2007). Korea in the middle: Korean studies and area studies, p. 361.
- ^ a b c d Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Dongsasang illok (Daily Records of Mission to Japan) by Oh Yun-gyeom; Dongsa ilgi (Diary of Mission to Japan) by Bak Jae; and Busangnok (Journal of Travel to Japan) by Yi Gyeong-jik.
- ^ a b Toby, p. 70.
- ^ a b c d Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Dongsarok (Record of Mission to Japan) by Kang Hong-jung.
- ^ a b Toby, p. 205–207; Titsingh, p. 411; n.b., the name Nin kwô is a pre-Hepburn Japanese transliteration and Jin kuang is a pre-McCune–Reischauer, Korean romanization devised by Julius Klaproth and Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat in 1834.
- ^ a b c Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Byeongja ilbon ilgi (Diary of Travel to Japan in 1636) by Im Gwang; Haesarok by Kim Seryeom; and Dongsarok by Hwang Ho.
- ^ Toby, p. 105; Titsingh, p. 412; n.b., the name Inzioun si is a pre-Hepburn Japanese transliteration devised by Klaproth et al. in 1834.
- ^ a b c Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Dongsarok by Jo Gyeong; Haesarok by Sin Yu; and Gyemi dongsarok (Records of 1643 Mission to Japan) by an unidentified writer.
- ^ a b Walraven, p. 361; Titsingh, p. 413; n.b., the name Tcho ying is a pre-Hepburn Japanese transliteration and Tchao hing is a pre-McCune–Reischauer Korean romanization devised by Klaproth et al. in 1834.
- ^ a b c Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Busang ilgi (Diary of Travel to Japan) by Jogyeong; and Busangnok by Nam Yong-ik.
- ^ Cultural Heritage Administration, Name of Cultural Properties, Yakjojechalbi (Stele of agreement), 2006.
- ^ a b c Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Dongsa illok (Daily Records of Travel to Japan) by Kim Jinam; and Dongsarok by Hong U-jae.
- ^ Kim, Tae-Jun. (2006). Korean Travel Literature. p. 119; Walraven, p. 361; Titsingh, p. 416; n.b., the name Tota Yokf is a pre-Hepburn Japanese transliteration and Tchao ta ỹ is a pre-McCune–Reischauer Korean romanization devised by Klaproth et al. in 1834.
- ^ a b c Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Dongsarok by Jo Tae-eok; Dongsarok by Kim Hyeon-mun; and Dongsarok by Im Su-gan.
- ^ Walraven, p. 361; Titsingh, p. 417; n.b., the name Kô tsi tsiou is a pre-Hepburn Japanese transliteration and Hong tschi tchoung is a pre-McCune–Reischauer Korean romanization devised by Klaproth et al. in 1834.
- ^ a b c Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Haesa illok (Daily Records of Overseas Mission) by Hong Chi-jung; Haeyurok (Records of Sea Voyage) by Shin Yu-han; Busang gihaeng (Journal of Travel to Japan) by Jeong Hu-gyo; and Busangnok by Kim Heup.
- ^ a b Walraven, p. 361; Titsingh, p. 418; n.b., the name Tcho ying is a pre-Hepburn Japanese transliteration and Tchao hing is a pre-McCune–Reischauer Korean romanization devised by Klaproth et al. in 1834.
- ^ a b c Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Bongsa ilbon si mun gyeonnik (Observation of the Janpanese Culture) by Jo Myeong-chae; Susa illok (Daily Records of Observations) by Hong Gyeong-hae; and Ilbon ilgi (Diary in Japan) by an unidentified writer.
- ^ 염정섭 (Yeom Jeong-Seop). 조선 후기 고구마의 도입과 재배법의 정리 과정 ("The Introduction of Sweet Potatoes and the Development of Cultivation Methods during Late Joseon Korea"), 韩国史硏究 No. 134, January 2006. pp. 111–147.
- ^ a b c Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Haesa ilgi (Diary of Overseas Mission) by Jo Eom; Gyemi sahaeng ilgi (Diary of 1764 Mission to Japan) by Oh Dae-ryeong; and Ilbonnok (Record of Japan) by Seong Dae-jung.
- ^ a b c Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Dongsarok by Yusang-pil; and Doyurok (Record of Voyage to Japan) by Kim Cheong-san.
- ^ Walker, p. 48; Guilliaume, Xavier. (2003). "Misdirected Understanding: Narrative Matrices in the Japanese Politics of Alterity toward the West", pp. 85–116 in Jahrbuch des Deutschen Instituts für Japanstudien.
- ^ a b c Toby, p. 105 n16.
- ^ Lewis, James Bryant. (2003). Frontier contact between Chosŏn Korea and Tokugawa Japan, pp. 21–24.
- ^ a b Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des emperors du japon, p. 411.
- ^ Toby, p. 105 n16; Walker, p. 50.
- ^ Toby, p. 105; Titsingh, p. 412.
- ^ Titsingh, p. 412.
- ^ Titsingh, p. 413.
- ^ Titsingh, p. 416.
- ^ Titsingh, p. 417.
- ^ Titsingh, p. 418.
- ^ Titsingh, p. 419.
- ^ a b Walraven, p. 359.
- ^ "haikukan.city.hakusan.ishikawa.jp". Archived from the original on October 26, 2020. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
- ^ Kim, Jinwung. (2012). A History of Korea: From 'Land of the Morning Calm' to States in Conflict, p. 255.
- ^ Wiwŏnhoe, p. 305.
- ^ a b Kang, Woong Joe. (2005). Struggle for Identity, pp. 38–78.
- ^ W. G. Beasley, The Meiji Restoration, ISBN 978-1503608269
References
[edit]- Daehwan, Noh. "The Eclectic Development of Neo-Confucianism and Statecraft from the 18th to the 19th Century", Korea Journal (Winter 2003).
- Ferris, William Wayne. (2009). Japan to 1600: a Social and Economic History. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3379-4
- Hall, John Whitney. (1997). The Cambridge History of Japan: Early Modern Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22355-3; OCLC 174552485
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