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{{Short description|Imaging technique using inaudible air blasts}}
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'''Ultrasound computer tomography''' ('''USCT'''), sometimes also ''Ultrasound computed tomography'', ''Ultrasound computerized tomography''<ref name="kak&slaney"/> or just ''Ultrasound tomography'',<ref name="softvue">{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267756977_Clinical_breast_imaging_with_ultrasound_tomography_A_description_of_the_SoftVue_system|title=Clinical breast imaging with ultrasound tomography: A description of the SoftVue system |authors=Neb Duric,Peter J Littrup, Olivier Roy, Cuiping Li, Steve Schmidt, Xiaoyang Cheng, Roman Janer |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |date=2014-04-01 |issue=135(4) |pages=2155 |DOI=10.1121/1.4876990}}</ref> is a form of [[medical ultrasound]] [[tomography]] involving [[ultrasound]] as physical [[wave]] used for [[imaging]]. It is mostly in use for [[soft tissue]] medical imaging, especially [[breast imaging]].,<ref name="softvue"/><ref name="andre2012">{{cite paper |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233761018_Quantitative_volumetric_breast_imaging_with_3D_inverse_scatter_computed_tomography |title=Quantitative volumetric breast imaging with 3D inverse scatter computed tomography |authors=Michael P Andre, James Wiskin, D Borup, Sahirah Johnson, Haydee Ojeda-fournier, Linda K. Olson |publisher=IEEE |work=Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine |date=2012-01-01 |DOI=10.1109/EMBC.2012.6346129 }}</ref><ref name="ruiter2012">{{cite journal | authors=N.V. Ruiter, M. Zapf, T. Hopp, R. Dapp, E. Kretzek, M. Birk, B. Kohout, H. Gemmeke |title=3D Ultrasound Computertomography of the Breast (3D USCT): a new era |publisher=European Journal of Radiology |year=2012}}</ref>
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'''Ultrasound computer tomography''' ('''USCT'''), sometimes also ''Ultrasound computed tomography'', ''Ultrasound computerized tomography''<ref name="kak&slaney"/> or just ''Ultrasound tomography'',<ref name="softvue">{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267756977|title=Clinical breast imaging with ultrasound tomography: A description of the SoftVue system |author=Neb Duric |author2=Peter J Littrup |author3=Olivier Roy |author4=Cuiping Li |author5=Steve Schmidt |author6=Xiaoyang Cheng |author7=Roman Janer |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |volume=135 |date=2014-04-01 |issue=4 |page=2155 |doi=10.1121/1.4876990|bibcode=2014ASAJ..135.2155D }}</ref> is a form of [[medical ultrasound]] [[tomography]] utilizing [[ultrasound]] [[wave]]s as [[physical phenomenon]] for [[imaging science|imaging]]. It is mostly in use for [[soft tissue]] medical imaging, especially [[breast imaging]].<ref name="softvue"/><ref name="andre2012">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233761018 |author=Michael P Andre |author2=James Wiskin |author3=D Borup |author4=Sahirah Johnson |author5=Haydee Ojeda-fournier |author6=Linda K. Olson |title=2012 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society |chapter=Quantitative volumetric breast imaging with 3D inverse scatter computed tomography |publisher=IEEE |volume=2012 |pages=1110–1113 |date=2012-01-01 |doi=10.1109/EMBC.2012.6346129 |pmid=23366090 |isbn=978-1-4577-1787-1 |s2cid=14695153 }}</ref><ref name="ruiter2012">{{cite journal | last=Ruiter | first=Nicole V. | last2=Zapf | first2=Michael | last3=Hopp | first3=Torsten | last4=Dapp | first4=Robin | last5=Kretzek | first5=Ernst | last6=Birk | first6=Matthias | last7=Kohout | first7=Benedikt | last8=Gemmeke | first8=Hartmut | title=3D ultrasound computer tomography of the breast: a new era? | journal=European Journal of Radiology | volume=81 Suppl 1 | date=2012 | issn=1872-7727 | pmid=23083562 | doi=10.1016/S0720-048X(12)70055-4 | pages=S133–134}}</ref>


== Description ==
== Description ==
[[File:Usct-Animation-of-a-measurement.gif|thumb|Measurement procedure of a 3D USCT: semi-spherical water filled measurement container lined with ultrasound transducer arrays in cylindrical housings (transducer elements as green dots). Centrally placed a simple object (red). Spherical wave emitted (semi-transparent blue), all other transducers gather data. Wave-front interacts with object and re-emits a secondary wave (semi-transparent purple). Repeated iteratively for all transducers.]]
''Ultrasound computer tomographs'' use [[ultrasound]] [[wave]]s for creating images. In the first measurement step a defined ultrasound wave is generated with typically [[Piezoelectric]] [[ultrasound transducer]]s, transmitted in direction of the measurement object and received with other or the same ultrasound transducers. While traversing and interacting with the object the ultrasound wave is changed by the object and carries now information about the object. After being recorded the information from the modulated waves can be extracted and used to create an image of the object in a second step. Unlike [[X-ray]] or other physical properties, who provide typically one image information, ultrasound provides multiple information of the object: the [[attenuation]] the wave's [[sound pressure]] experiences indicate on the object's [[attenuation coefficient]], the [[time-of-flight]] of the wave gives [[speed of sound]] information, and the received reflection distribution indicates on the reflectivity properties of the object (e.g. [[refraction index]], surface morphology, etc). Unlike conventional ultrasound [[sonography]] most USCT systems don't use a [[phased array]] for [[beamforming]] but unfocused spherical waves for imaging. Most USCT systems aiming for 3D-imaging, either by synthesizing ("stacking") 2D images or by full 3D aperture setups.
''Ultrasound computer tomographs'' use [[ultrasound]] [[wave]]s to create images. In the first measurement step, a defined ultrasound wave is generated with typically [[Piezoelectric]] [[ultrasound transducer]]s, transmitted in direction of the measurement object and received with other or the same ultrasound transducers. While traversing and interacting with the object the ultrasound wave is changed by the object and carries now information about the object. After being recorded the information from the modulated waves can be extracted and used to create an image of the object in a second step. Unlike [[X-ray]] or other physical properties which provide typically only one information, ultrasound provides multiple information of the object for imaging: the [[attenuation]] the wave's [[sound pressure]] experiences indicate on the object's [[attenuation coefficient]], the [[time-of-flight]] of the wave gives [[speed of sound]] information, and the [[scattering theory|scattered wave]] indicates on the [[echogenicity]] of the object (e.g. [[refraction index]], surface morphology, etc.). Unlike conventional ultrasound [[sonography]], which uses [[phased array]] technology for [[beamforming]], most USCT systems utilize unfocused [[spherical wave]]s for imaging. Most USCT systems aiming for 3D-imaging, either by synthesizing ("stacking") 2D images or by full 3D aperture setups. Another aim is [[Quantitative property|quantitative]] [[Medical imaging|imaging]] instead of only [[Qualitative data|qualitative]] imaging.


The idea of ''Ultrasound computer tomography'' goes back to the 1950s with analogue compounding setups,<ref>[http://www.ob-ultrasound.net/dussik_apparatus.html Acta Neurochirurgica, Springer Verlag Wien, Volume 2, Numbers 3-4, September 1952, 379 - 401.]</ref><ref>{{cite paper|year=1954 |authors=Holmes, J., Howry, D., Posakony, G., and Cushman, C.|title=The ultrasonic visualization of soft tissue structures in the human body.|work=Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association |issue=66 |pages=208}}</ref><ref>[http://people.csail.mit.edu/wachinger/articles/Thesis.pdf Ultrasound Mosaicing and Motion Modeling - Applications in Medical Image Registration] Christian Wachinger, PhD Thesis, [[TU München]] (2011)</ref> in the mid 1970s the first "computed" USCT systems were built up, utilizing digital technology.<ref name="kak&slaney_hist">{{Cite book|title = Principles of Computerized Tomographic Imaging |authors=Avinash C. Kak, Malcolm Slaney |publisher=IEEE Press. Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers. |year =1988 |isbn = 978-0898714944|location = |pages = |url = https://engineering.purdue.edu/~malcolm/pct/CTI_Ch04.3.pdf |quote=''The first such tomograms were made by Greenleaf et al. [Gre74], [Gre75], followed by Carson et al. [Car76], Jackowatz and Kak [Jak76], and Glover and Sharp [Glo77].''|chapter=4}}</ref> The "computer" in the USCT concept indicates the heavy reliance on computational intensive advanced digital [[signal processing]], [[image reconstruction]] and [[image processing]] [[algorithm]]s for imaging. Successfully realization of USCT systems in the last decades was possible through the continuously growing availability of [[computing power]] and [[data bandwidth]] provided by the [[digital revolution]].
The idea of ''Ultrasound computer tomography'' goes back to the 1950s with analogue compounding setups,<ref>[http://www.ob-ultrasound.net/dussik_apparatus.html Acta Neurochirurgica, Springer Verlag Wien, Volume 2, Numbers 3-4, September 1952, 379 - 401.]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |year=1954 |author=Holmes, J. |author2=Howry, D. |author3=Posakony, G. |author4=Cushman, C. |title=The ultrasonic visualization of soft tissue structures in the human body. |journal=Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association |volume=66 |issue=66 |pages=208–225|pmid=13256588 |pmc=2248901 }}</ref><ref>[http://people.csail.mit.edu/wachinger/articles/Thesis.pdf Ultrasound Mosaicing and Motion Modeling - Applications in Medical Image Registration] Christian Wachinger, PhD Thesis, [[TU München]] (2011)</ref> in the mid 1970s the first "computed" USCT systems were built up, utilizing digital technology.<ref name="kak&slaney_hist">{{cite book|title = Principles of Computerized Tomographic Imaging |author=[[Avinash Kak|Avinash C. Kak]] |author2=[[Malcolm Slaney]] |publisher=IEEE Press. [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]]. |year =1988 |isbn = 978-0-89871-494-4|chapter-url = https://engineering.purdue.edu/~malcolm/pct/CTI_Ch04.3.pdf |quote=The first such tomograms were made by Greenleaf et al. [Gre74], [Gre75], followed by Carson et al. [Car76], Jackowatz and Kak [Jak76], and Glover and Sharp [Glo77]. |chapter=4}}</ref> The "computer" in the USCT concept indicates the heavy reliance on computational intensive advanced digital [[signal processing]], [[image reconstruction]] and [[image processing]] [[algorithm]]s for imaging. Successfully realization of USCT systems in the last decades was possible through the continuously growing availability of [[computing power]] and [[data bandwidth]] provided by the [[digital revolution]].


== Setup ==
== Setup ==
USCT systems designed for [[medical imaging]] of [[soft tissue]] typically aim for [[Resolution|resolution]] in order of [[centimeters]] to [[millimeter]]s and require therefore ultrasound waves in the order of [[mega]]-[[hertz]] [[frequency]]. This requires typically water as low-attenuating [[Transmission medium|transmission medium]] between ultrasound transducers and object to retain suitable sound pressures.<ref name="kak&slaney">{{Cite book|title = Principles of Computerized Tomographic Imaging |authors=Avinash C. Kak, Malcolm Slaney |publisher=IEEE Press. Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers. |year =1988 |isbn = 978-0898714944 |location = |pages = |url = https://engineering.purdue.edu/~malcolm/pct/CTI_Ch04.3.pdf |chapter=4}}</ref>
USCT systems designed for [[medical imaging]] of [[soft tissue]] typically aim for [[Image resolution|resolution]] in the order of [[centimeters]] to [[millimeter]]s and require therefore ultrasound waves in the order of [[Mega-|mega]]-[[hertz]] [[frequency]]. This requires typically water as low-attenuating [[transmission medium]] between ultrasound transducers and object to retain suitable sound pressures.<ref name="kak&slaney">{{cite book|title = Principles of Computerized Tomographic Imaging |author=Avinash C. Kak |author2=Malcolm Slaney |publisher=IEEE Press. [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]]. |year =1988 |isbn = 978-0-89871-494-4 |chapter-url = https://engineering.purdue.edu/~malcolm/pct/CTI_Ch04.3.pdf |chapter=4}}</ref>


USCT systems share with the common [[Tomography]] the fundamental architectural similarity that the [[aperture]], the active imaging elements, surround the object. For the distribution of ultrasound transducers around the measurement object, forming the [[aperture]], multiple design approaches exist. There exist mono-, bi- and multistatic setups of transducer configurations. Common are 1D- or 2D- linear arrays of ultrasound transducers acting as emitters on one side of the object, on the opposing side of the object a similar array acting as receiver is placed, forming a [[parallel]] setup. Sometimes accompanied with the additional ability to be moved to gather more information from additional angles. While cost efficient to build the main disadvantage of such an setup is the limited ability (or inability) of gathering reflectivity information, as such an aperture is limited to only transmission information. Another aperture approach is a ring setup of transducers,<ref>[http://proceedings.spiedigitallibrary.org/proceeding.aspx?articleid=2209818 Transducer elements position calibration in a ring array USCT system] Satoshi Tamano ; Takashi Azuma ; Haruka Imoto ; Shu Takagi ; Shin-ichiro Umemura ; Yoichiro Matsumoto, Proc. SPIE 9419, Medical Imaging 2015: Ultrasonic Imaging and Tomography, 94190P (March 17, 2015); doi:10.1117/12.2082323</ref> sometimes with the degree of freedom of lifting, to be able to synthesize 3d images by gathering additional information over the height. Full 3D setups, with no inherent need for aperture movements, exist in form of apertures formed by semi-spherical distributed transducers. While the most expensive setup they offer the advantage of nearly-uniform data gathering from many directions and are also fast in data taking as they don't require the time-costly mechanical movements.
USCT systems share with the common [[tomography]] the fundamental architectural similarity that the [[aperture]], the active imaging elements, surround the object. For the distribution of ultrasound transducers around the measurement object, forming the [[aperture]], multiple design approaches exist. There exist mono-, [[Bistatic angle|bi-]] and multistatic setups of transducer configurations. Common are 1D- or 2D- linear arrays of ultrasound transducers acting as emitters on one side of the object, on the opposing side of the object a similar array acting as receiver is placed, forming a [[parallel (geometry)|parallel]] setup. Sometimes accompanied by the additional ability to be moved to gather more information from additional angles. While cost-efficient to build the main disadvantage of such a setup is the limited ability (or inability) of gathering reflectivity information, as such an aperture is limited to only transmission information. Another aperture approach is a ring of transducers,<ref>[http://proceedings.spiedigitallibrary.org/proceeding.aspx?articleid=2209818 Transducer elements position calibration in a ring array USCT system] Satoshi Tamano; Takashi Azuma; Haruka Imoto; Shu Takagi; Shin-ichiro Umemura; Yoichiro Matsumoto, Proc. [[SPIE]] 9419, Medical Imaging 2015: Ultrasonic Imaging and Tomography, 94190P (March 17, 2015); doi:10.1117/12.2082323</ref> sometimes with the degree of freedom of motorized lifting for gathering additional information over the height for 3D imaging ("stacking"). Full 3D setups, with no inherent need for aperture movements, exist in the form of apertures formed by semi-spherical distributed transducers. While the most expensive setup they offer the advantage of nearly-uniform data, gathered from many directions. Also, they are fast in data taking as they don't require time-costly mechanical movements.


== Imaging methods ==
== Imaging methods and algorithms ==

⚫
Classical [[radon transform|inverse radon transform]] and [[fourier slice theorem]] based methods are in use for transmission information based imaging with USCT systems, [[Algebraic Reconstruction Technique|ART]]-based approaches are an advanced alternative also in use. For high resolution and [[speckle noise]] reduced reflectivity imaging synthetic aperture focusing techniques (SAFT), similar to [[radar]]'s [[Synthetic aperture radar|SAR]] and [[sonar]]'s [[Synthetic aperture sonar|SAS]], are widely used. Iterative [[wave equation]] inversion approaches for imaging are under academic research but currently a big challenge computational and memory constraint wise for real world applications.
{{Rough translation|Japanese|date=August 2022}}

⚫
[[Tomographic reconstruction]] methods used in USCT systems for transmission information based imaging are classical [[radon transform|inverse radon transform]] and [[fourier slice theorem]] and derived algorithms ([[Cone beam reconstruction|cone beam]] etc.). As advanced alternatives, [[Algebraic Reconstruction Technique|ART]]-based approaches are also utilized. For high-resolution and [[speckle noise]] reduced reflectivity imaging ''Synthetic Aperture Focusing Techniques'' (SAFT), similar to [[radar]]'s [[Synthetic aperture radar|SAR]] and [[sonar]]'s [[Synthetic aperture sonar|SAS]], are widely used. Iterative [[wave equation]] inversion approaches as imaging method coming from the [[seismology]] are under academic research, but usage for real world applications is due to the enormous computational and memory burden still a challenge.<ref>[http://repository.tudelft.nl/assets/uuid:d53a71d8-013b-4328-a0ac-e3d5a5b84e51/N.Ozmen_thesis_repositoryTUDelft.pdf Ultrasound Imaging Methods for Breast Cancer Detection] [[Technische Universiteit Delft]], 13 November 2014, Neslihan Ozmen</ref>

== Application and usage ==
Many USCT systems are designed for soft tissue imaging and for [[breast cancer]] [[Diagnostic procedure|diagnosis]] specifically.<ref name="softvue"/><ref name="andre2012"/><ref name="ruiter2012"/> As an ultrasound-based method with low [[sound pressure]]s, USCT is a harmless and risk-free imaging method, suitable for periodical [[Breast cancer screening|screening]]. As USCT setups are fixed or motor moved without direct contact with the breast the reproduction of images is easier as with common, manually guided methods (e.g. [[Breast ultrasound]]) which rely on the individual examiners' performance and experience. In comparison with conventional screening methods like [[mammography]], USCT systems offer potentially an increased [[Specificity (statistics)|specificity]] for breast cancer detection, as multiple breast cancer characteristic properties are imaged at the same time: speed-of-sound, attenuation and morphology.<ref name="greenleaf">{{cite journal|title=Clinical Imaging with Transmissive Ultrasonic Computerized Tomography |author=James F. Greenleaf |author2=Robert C. Bahn |date=1981 |journal=IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering |volume=BME-28 |issue=28, 2|pages=177–185|doi=10.1109/TBME.1981.324789 |pmid=7287021 |s2cid=9058315 }}</ref>


== See also ==
== See also ==
Line 21: Line 51:


==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist|30em}}


[[Category:Tomography]]
[[Category:Tomography]]
[[Category:Medical imaging]]
[[Category:Medical ultrasonography]]
[[Category:Acoustics]]
[[Category:Acoustics]]
[[Category:Medical equipment]]
[[Category:Medical equipment]]

Latest revision as of 20:03, 19 October 2024

Ultrasound computer tomography
Purposeuse for soft tissue medical imaging

Ultrasound computer tomography (USCT), sometimes also Ultrasound computed tomography, Ultrasound computerized tomography[1] or just Ultrasound tomography,[2] is a form of medical ultrasound tomography utilizing ultrasound waves as physical phenomenon for imaging. It is mostly in use for soft tissue medical imaging, especially breast imaging.[2][3][4]

Description

[edit]
Measurement procedure of a 3D USCT: semi-spherical water filled measurement container lined with ultrasound transducer arrays in cylindrical housings (transducer elements as green dots). Centrally placed a simple object (red). Spherical wave emitted (semi-transparent blue), all other transducers gather data. Wave-front interacts with object and re-emits a secondary wave (semi-transparent purple). Repeated iteratively for all transducers.

Ultrasound computer tomographs use ultrasound waves to create images. In the first measurement step, a defined ultrasound wave is generated with typically Piezoelectric ultrasound transducers, transmitted in direction of the measurement object and received with other or the same ultrasound transducers. While traversing and interacting with the object the ultrasound wave is changed by the object and carries now information about the object. After being recorded the information from the modulated waves can be extracted and used to create an image of the object in a second step. Unlike X-ray or other physical properties which provide typically only one information, ultrasound provides multiple information of the object for imaging: the attenuation the wave's sound pressure experiences indicate on the object's attenuation coefficient, the time-of-flight of the wave gives speed of sound information, and the scattered wave indicates on the echogenicity of the object (e.g. refraction index, surface morphology, etc.). Unlike conventional ultrasound sonography, which uses phased array technology for beamforming, most USCT systems utilize unfocused spherical waves for imaging. Most USCT systems aiming for 3D-imaging, either by synthesizing ("stacking") 2D images or by full 3D aperture setups. Another aim is quantitative imaging instead of only qualitative imaging.

The idea of Ultrasound computer tomography goes back to the 1950s with analogue compounding setups,[5][6][7] in the mid 1970s the first "computed" USCT systems were built up, utilizing digital technology.[8] The "computer" in the USCT concept indicates the heavy reliance on computational intensive advanced digital signal processing, image reconstruction and image processing algorithms for imaging. Successfully realization of USCT systems in the last decades was possible through the continuously growing availability of computing power and data bandwidth provided by the digital revolution.

Setup

[edit]

USCT systems designed for medical imaging of soft tissue typically aim for resolution in the order of centimeters to millimeters and require therefore ultrasound waves in the order of mega-hertz frequency. This requires typically water as low-attenuating transmission medium between ultrasound transducers and object to retain suitable sound pressures.[1]

USCT systems share with the common tomography the fundamental architectural similarity that the aperture, the active imaging elements, surround the object. For the distribution of ultrasound transducers around the measurement object, forming the aperture, multiple design approaches exist. There exist mono-, bi- and multistatic setups of transducer configurations. Common are 1D- or 2D- linear arrays of ultrasound transducers acting as emitters on one side of the object, on the opposing side of the object a similar array acting as receiver is placed, forming a parallel setup. Sometimes accompanied by the additional ability to be moved to gather more information from additional angles. While cost-efficient to build the main disadvantage of such a setup is the limited ability (or inability) of gathering reflectivity information, as such an aperture is limited to only transmission information. Another aperture approach is a ring of transducers,[9] sometimes with the degree of freedom of motorized lifting for gathering additional information over the height for 3D imaging ("stacking"). Full 3D setups, with no inherent need for aperture movements, exist in the form of apertures formed by semi-spherical distributed transducers. While the most expensive setup they offer the advantage of nearly-uniform data, gathered from many directions. Also, they are fast in data taking as they don't require time-costly mechanical movements.

Imaging methods and algorithms

[edit]

Tomographic reconstruction methods used in USCT systems for transmission information based imaging are classical inverse radon transform and fourier slice theorem and derived algorithms (cone beam etc.). As advanced alternatives, ART-based approaches are also utilized. For high-resolution and speckle noise reduced reflectivity imaging Synthetic Aperture Focusing Techniques (SAFT), similar to radar's SAR and sonar's SAS, are widely used. Iterative wave equation inversion approaches as imaging method coming from the seismology are under academic research, but usage for real world applications is due to the enormous computational and memory burden still a challenge.[10]

Application and usage

[edit]

Many USCT systems are designed for soft tissue imaging and for breast cancer diagnosis specifically.[2][3][4] As an ultrasound-based method with low sound pressures, USCT is a harmless and risk-free imaging method, suitable for periodical screening. As USCT setups are fixed or motor moved without direct contact with the breast the reproduction of images is easier as with common, manually guided methods (e.g. Breast ultrasound) which rely on the individual examiners' performance and experience. In comparison with conventional screening methods like mammography, USCT systems offer potentially an increased specificity for breast cancer detection, as multiple breast cancer characteristic properties are imaged at the same time: speed-of-sound, attenuation and morphology.[11]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Avinash C. Kak; Malcolm Slaney (1988). "4" (PDF). Principles of Computerized Tomographic Imaging. IEEE Press. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. ISBN 978-0-89871-494-4.
  2. ^ a b c Neb Duric; Peter J Littrup; Olivier Roy; Cuiping Li; Steve Schmidt; Xiaoyang Cheng; Roman Janer (2014-04-01). "Clinical breast imaging with ultrasound tomography: A description of the SoftVue system". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 135 (4): 2155. Bibcode:2014ASAJ..135.2155D. doi:10.1121/1.4876990.
  3. ^ a b Michael P Andre; James Wiskin; D Borup; Sahirah Johnson; Haydee Ojeda-fournier; Linda K. Olson (2012-01-01). "Quantitative volumetric breast imaging with 3D inverse scatter computed tomography". 2012 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Vol. 2012. IEEE. pp. 1110–1113. doi:10.1109/EMBC.2012.6346129. ISBN 978-1-4577-1787-1. PMID 23366090. S2CID 14695153.
  4. ^ a b Ruiter, Nicole V.; Zapf, Michael; Hopp, Torsten; Dapp, Robin; Kretzek, Ernst; Birk, Matthias; Kohout, Benedikt; Gemmeke, Hartmut (2012). "3D ultrasound computer tomography of the breast: a new era?". European Journal of Radiology. 81 Suppl 1: S133–134. doi:10.1016/S0720-048X(12)70055-4. ISSN 1872-7727. PMID 23083562.
  5. ^ Acta Neurochirurgica, Springer Verlag Wien, Volume 2, Numbers 3-4, September 1952, 379 - 401.
  6. ^ Holmes, J.; Howry, D.; Posakony, G.; Cushman, C. (1954). "The ultrasonic visualization of soft tissue structures in the human body". Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association. 66 (66): 208–225. PMC 2248901. PMID 13256588.
  7. ^ Ultrasound Mosaicing and Motion Modeling - Applications in Medical Image Registration Christian Wachinger, PhD Thesis, TU München (2011)
  8. ^ Avinash C. Kak; Malcolm Slaney (1988). "4" (PDF). Principles of Computerized Tomographic Imaging. IEEE Press. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. ISBN 978-0-89871-494-4. The first such tomograms were made by Greenleaf et al. [Gre74], [Gre75], followed by Carson et al. [Car76], Jackowatz and Kak [Jak76], and Glover and Sharp [Glo77].
  9. ^ Transducer elements position calibration in a ring array USCT system Satoshi Tamano; Takashi Azuma; Haruka Imoto; Shu Takagi; Shin-ichiro Umemura; Yoichiro Matsumoto, Proc. SPIE 9419, Medical Imaging 2015: Ultrasonic Imaging and Tomography, 94190P (March 17, 2015); doi:10.1117/12.2082323
  10. ^ Ultrasound Imaging Methods for Breast Cancer Detection Technische Universiteit Delft, 13 November 2014, Neslihan Ozmen
  11. ^ James F. Greenleaf; Robert C. Bahn (1981). "Clinical Imaging with Transmissive Ultrasonic Computerized Tomography". IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering. BME-28 (28, 2): 177–185. doi:10.1109/TBME.1981.324789. PMID 7287021. S2CID 9058315.
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