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{{Short description|Irregular plural forms in Semitic and other Afroasiatic languages}}
In [[linguistics]], '''broken plurals''' are a grammatical phenomenon typical in many [[Semitic languages]] of the [[Middle East]] and [[Ethiopia]] in which a singular noun is "broken" to form a plural by having its root consonant embedded in a different "frame", rather than by merely adding a [[Prefix (linguistics)|prefix]] or [[Affix|suffix]] to the original singular noun.
{{About|plurals formed by changes within a word rather than by attaching an affix|plurals where the affix is attached internally|Postpositive adjective#Plurals of expressions with postpositives}}
In [[linguistics]], a '''broken plural''' (or internal plural) is an irregular plural form of a noun or adjective found in the [[Semitic languages]] and other [[Afroasiatic languages]] such as the [[Berber languages]]. Broken plurals are formed by changing the pattern of consonants and vowels inside the singular form. They contrast with '''sound plurals''' (or external plurals), which are formed by adding a [[suffix]], but are also formally distinct from phenomena like the [[Germanic umlaut]], a form of vowel mutation used in plural forms in Germanic languages.


There have been a variety of theoretical approaches to understanding these processes and varied attempts to produce systems or rules that can systematize these plural forms.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ratcliffe|first=Robert R.|title=The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic|series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168|date=1998|publisher=John Benjamins|place=Amsterdam/Philadelphia|isbn=978-9027236739}}</ref> However, the question of the origin of the broken plurals for the languages that exhibit them is not settled, though there are certain probabilities in distributions of specific plural forms in relation to specific singular patterns. As the conversions outgo by far the extent of mutations caused by the [[Germanic umlaut]] that is evidenced to be caused by inflectional suffixes, the sheer multiplicity of shapes corresponds to multiplex attempts at historical explanation ranging from proposals of [[transphonologization]]s and multiple accentual changes to switches between the categories of collectives, abstracta and plurals or [[noun class]] switches.<ref>An overview of the theories is given by {{cite book|last=Ratcliffe|first=Robert R.|title=The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic|series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168|date=1998|publisher=John Benjamins|place=Amsterdam/Philadelphia|isbn=978-9027236739|pages=117 seqq}}</ref>
In other words, it means that even though a language may possess a ''regular'' form of making a plural (like the suffix ''-s'' in English), some words will form ''irregular'' plurals expressed by vocalization patterns of the [[triliteral]] rather than by suffixation.


==Arabic==
While the phenomenon is known from several Semitic languages, nowhere has it become as productive as in [[Arabic language|Arabic]].
While the phenomenon is known from several Semitic languages, it is most productive in [[Arabic language|Arabic]].


In [[Arabic language|Arabic]], the regular way of making a plural for a masculine noun is adding the suffix {{transl|ar|-ūn[a]}} (for the nominative) or {{transl|ar|-īn[a]}} (for the accusative and genitive) at the end. For feminine nouns, the regular way is to add the suffix {{transl|ar|-āt}}. However, not all plurals follow these simple rules. One class of nouns in both spoken and written Arabic produce plurals by changing the pattern of vowels inside the word, sometimes also with the addition of a prefix or suffix. This system is not fully regular, and it is used mainly for masculine non-human nouns; human nouns are pluralized regularly or irregularly.
==Broken plurals in Arabic==
In [[Arabic language|Arabic]], the ''regular'' way of making a plural for a masculine noun is adding the suffix ''-ūn'' at the end. For feminine nouns, the regular way is to add the suffix ''-āt.'' Yet one finds that less than 10% of all plurals used in everyday speech or in written texts (modern and classical, even the [[Qur'an]]) adhere to these simple rules. Instead, spoken and written Arabic produces plurals using a system of groups based on the vocalization of the word. This system is not fully regular, as can be seen in the examples and the article below.


Broken plurals are known as "Jam' Takseer" (جمع تكسير) in [[Arabic grammar]]. These plurals are one of the most bizarre aspects of the language, given the very strong and highly detailed grammar and derivation rules that govern the written language.
Broken plurals are known as {{transl|ar|ALA|jam‘ taksīr}} ({{lang|ar|جَمْعُ تَكْسِيرٍ}}, literally "plural of breaking") in [[Arabic grammar]]. These plurals constitute one of the most unusual aspects of the language, given the very strong and highly detailed grammar and derivation rules that govern the written language. Broken plurals can also be found in languages that have borrowed words from Arabic, for instance [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Pashto language|Pashto]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], and [[Urdu language|Urdu]]. Sometimes in these languages the same noun has both a broken plural Arabic form and a local plural.


In Persian this kind of plural is known by its Arabic term {{transl|fa|jam'-e mokassar}} ({{lang|fa|جَمِع مُکَسَّر}}, literally "broken plural"). However the Persian Academy of Literature (Farhangestan) does not recommend the usage of such Arabic plural forms, but instead the native Persian plural suffix {{transl|fa|-hā}}.
Full knowledge of these plurals comes with extended exposure to the language. Much like spelling in English, this system has so many special cases that can be known only by reading a lot of Arabic texts. (An example from English spelling: ''sheik'' is spelled with "-eik" and ''shriek'' with "-iek.")

Full knowledge of these plurals can come only with extended exposure to the Arabic language, though a few rules can be noted. One study computed the probability that the pattern of vowels in the singular would predict the pattern in the broken plural (or vice versa) and found values ranging from 20% to 100% for different patterns.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ratcliffe|first=Robert R.|title=The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic|series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168|date=1998|publisher=John Benjamins|place=Amsterdam/Philadelphia|isbn=978-9027236739|pages=72–79}}</ref>

A statistical analysis of a list of the 3000 most frequent Arabic words shows that 978 (59%) of the 1670 most frequent nominal forms take a sound plural, while the remaining 692 (41%) take a broken plural.<ref name=Boudelaa&Gaskell>{{cite journal|last1=Boudelaa|first1=Sami|last2=Gaskell|first2=M. Gareth|title=A re-examination of the default system for Arabic plurals|journal=Language and Cognitive Processes|date=21 September 2010|volume=17|issue=3|pages=321–343|doi=10.1080/01690960143000245|s2cid=145307357 }}</ref> Another estimate of all existing nominal forms gives over 90,000 forms with a sound plural and just 9540 with a broken one.<ref name=Boudelaa&Gaskell/> This is due to the almost boundless number of participles and derived nominals in "-ī", most of which take a sound plural.


===Example===
===Example===
As Semitic languages typically form [[triconsonantal]] roots, forming a "grid" into which vowels may be inserted without affecting the basic root.
Semitic languages typically utilize [[triconsonantal]] roots, forming a "grid" into which vowels may be inserted without affecting the basic root.


Here are a few examples; note that the commonality is in the consonants, not the vowels.
Here are a few examples; note that the commonality is in the root consonants (capitalized), not the vowels.


*''KiTāB'' كتاب "book" → ''KuTuB'' كتب "books"
*{{transl|ar|KiTāB}} {{lang|ar|كِتَاب}} "book" → {{transl|ar|KuTuB}} {{lang|ar|كُتُب}} "books"
*''KāTiB'' كاتب "writer, scribe" → ''KuTTāB'' كتاب "writers, scribes"
*{{transl|ar|KāTiB}} {{lang|ar|كَاتِب}} "writer, scribe" → {{transl|ar|KuTTāB}} {{lang|ar|كُتَّاب}} “writers, scribes"
*''maKTūB'' مكتوب "letter" → ''maKāTīB'' مكاتيب "letters"
*{{transl|ar|maKTūB}} {{lang|ar|مَكْتُوب}} "letter" → {{transl|ar|maKāTīB}} {{lang|ar|مَكَاتِيب}} "letters"
*{{transl|ar|maKTaB}} {{lang|ar|مَكْتَب}} "desk, office" → {{transl|ar|maKāTiB}} {{lang|ar|مَكَاتِب}} "offices"
:note: these three words all have a common word root, ''K-T-B'' ك – ت – ب "to write"
:note: these four words all have a common root, ''K-T-B'' {{wikt-lang|ar|ك ت ب|ك – ت – ب}} "to write"


In the non-semitic Persian language it is current to use:


* {{transl|fa|KiTāB}} {{lang|fa|کِتَاب‌}} "book" → {{transl|fa|KiTāBhā}} {{lang|fa|کِتَاب‌ْهَا}} "books"
*''WaLaD'' ولد "boy" → ''aWLāD'' أولاد "boys, children"
* {{transl|fa|KāTiB}} {{lang|fa|كَاتِبْ‌}} "writer, scribe" → {{transl|ar|KāTiBhā}} {{lang|fa|كَاتِبْ‌هَا}} "writers, scribes"
:''WaRaQ'' ورق "paper" → ''aWRāQ'' أوراق "papers"
:''SHaJaR'' شجر "tree" → ''aSHJāR'' أشجار "trees, timber"
:but: ''JaMaL'' جمل "camel" → ''JiMāL'' جمال "camels"


===Patterns in Arabic===


*''maKTaB'' مكتب "desk, office" → ''maKāTiB'' مكاتب "desks, offices"
:''maLBaS'' ملبس "dress, garb" → ''maLāBiS'' ملابس "apparel, clothes"


{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Singular<br/>form
! Plural<br/>form
!colspan=3| Singular example
!colspan=3| Plural example
! Other examples
! Notes
|-
| CiCāC
| rowspan="5" | CuCuC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|كِتَاب}}
| {{transl|ar|'''k'''i'''t'''ā'''b'''}}
| ‘book’
| {{lang|ar|كُتُب}}
| {{transl|ar|'''k'''u'''t'''u'''b'''}}
| ‘books’
|
|
|-
| CaCīCah
| {{wikt-lang|ar|سَفِينَة}}
| {{transl|ar|'''s'''a'''f'''ī'''n'''ah}}
| ‘ship’
| {{lang|ar|سُفُن}}
| {{transl|ar|'''s'''u'''f'''u'''n'''}}
| ‘ships’
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:جزيرة|juzur]]}} (islands),<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:مدينة|mudun]]}} (cities)
|
|-
|rowspan="3"|CaCv̄C
|{{wikt-lang|ar|أساس|أَسَاس}}
|{{transl|ar|ʾasās}}
| ‘foundation’
|{{lang|ar|أُسُس|rtl=yes}}
|{{transl|ar|ʾusus}}
| ‘foundations’
|
|
|-
| {{wikt-lang|ar|سَبِيل}}
| {{transl|ar|'''s'''a'''b'''ī'''l'''}}
| ‘path’
|{{lang|ar|سُبُل}}
| {{transl|ar|'''s'''u'''b'''u'''l'''}}
| ‘paths’
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:طريق|turuq]]}} (paths)
|
|-
|{{wikt-lang|ar|رسول|رَسُول}}
|{{transl|ar|rasūl}}
| ‘messenger’
|{{lang|ar|رُسُل|rtl=yes}}
|{{transl|ar|rusul}}
| ‘messengers’
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3"|CvCCah
| CuCaC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|شَقَّة}}
| {{transl|ar|'''š'''a'''qq'''ah}}
| ‘apartment’
| {{lang|ar|شُقَق}}
| {{transl|ar|'''š'''u'''q'''a'''q'''}}
| ‘apartments’
|
|
|-
| CiCaC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|قِطّة}}
| {{transl|ar|'''q'''i'''ṭṭ'''ah}}
| ‘cat’
| {{lang|ar|قِطَط}}
| {{transl|ar|'''q'''i'''ṭ'''a'''ṭ'''}}
| ‘cats’
|
|
|-
| CuCaC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|غُرْفَة}}
| {{transl|ar|ġurfah}}
| ‘room’
| {{lang|ar|غُرَف}}
| {{transl|ar|ġuraf}}
| ‘rooms’
|
|
|-
| CiCC
| rowspan="2" | CiCaCah
| {{wikt-lang|ar|هِرّ}}
| {{transl|ar|'''h'''i'''rr'''}}
| ‘cat’
| {{lang|ar|هِرَرَة}}
| {{transl|ar|'''h'''i'''r'''a'''r'''ah}}
| ‘cats’
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:فيل|fiyalah]]}} (elephants)<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:قرد|qiradah]]}} (apes)
|
|-
|CuCC
|{{wikt-lang|ar|دب|دُبّ}}
|{{transl|ar|'''d'''u'''bb'''}}
|‘bear’
|{{lang|ar|دِبَبَة|rtl=yes}}
|{{transl|ar|'''d'''i'''b'''a'''b'''ah}}
|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="6"|CvCC
|rowspan=3 | CuCūC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|قَلْب}}
| {{transl|ar|'''q'''a'''lb'''}}
| ‘heart’
| {{lang|ar|قُلُوب}}
| {{transl|ar|'''q'''u'''l'''ū'''b'''}}
| ‘hearts’
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:فن|funūn]]}} (arts), {{transl|ar|[[wikt:بيت|buyūt]]}} (houses)<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:جد|judūd]]}} (grandfathers)
|
|-
| {{wikt-lang|ar|عِلْم}}
| {{transl|ar|'''ʿ'''i'''lm'''}}
| ‘science’
| {{lang|ar|عُلُوم}}
| {{transl|ar|'''ʿ'''u'''l'''ū'''m'''}}
| ‘sciences’
|
|
|-
| {{wikt-lang|ar|جُحْر}}
| {{transl|ar|'''j'''u'''ḥr'''}}
| ‘hole’
| {{lang|ar|جُحُور}}
| {{transl|ar|'''j'''u'''ḥ'''ū'''r'''}}
| ‘holes’
|
|
|-
|rowspan=5| CiCāC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|كَلْب}}
| {{transl|ar|kalb}}
| ‘dog’
| {{lang|ar|كِلَاب}}
| {{transl|ar|kilāb}}
| ‘dogs’
|
|
|-
| {{wikt-lang|ar|ظِلّ}}
| {{transl|ar|ẓill}}
| ‘shadow’
| {{lang|ar|ظِلَال}}
| {{transl|ar|ẓilāl}}
| ‘shadows’
|
|
|-
| {{wikt-lang|ar|رُمْح}}
| {{transl|ar|rumḥ}}
| ‘spear’
| {{lang|ar|رِمَاح}}
| {{transl|ar|rimāḥ}}
| ‘spears’
|
|
|-
| CaCaC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|جَمَل}}
| {{transl|ar|jamal}}
| ‘camel’
| {{lang|ar|جِمَال}}
| {{transl|ar|jimāl}}
| ‘camels’
|
|
|-
| CaCuC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|رَجُل}}
| {{transl|ar|rajul}}
| ‘man’
| {{lang|ar|رِجَال}}
| {{transl|ar|rijāl}}
| ‘men’
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3"|CvCC
|rowspan=5| ʾaCCāC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|يَوْم}}
| {{transl|ar|yawm}}
| ‘day’
| {{lang|ar|أَيَّام}}
| {{transl|ar|ʾayyām}}
| ‘days’
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:رب|ʾarbāb]]}} (masters)<br/>{{transl|ar|[[wikt:جد|ʾajdād]]}} (grandfathers)
|
|-
| {{wikt-lang|ar|جِنْس}}
| {{transl|ar|jins}}
| ‘kind, type’
| {{lang|ar|أَجْنَاس}}
| {{transl|ar|ʾajnās}}
| ‘kinds, types’
|
|
|-
| {{wikt-lang|ar|لغز|لُغْز}}
| {{transl|ar|luḡz}}
| ‘mystery’
| {{lang|ar|أَلْغَاز|rtl=yes}}
| {{transl|ar|ʾalḡāz}}
| ‘mysteries’
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:عمق|ʾaʿmaq]]}} (deeps)
|
|-
| CaCaC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|سَبَب}}
| {{transl|ar|sabab}}
| ‘cause’
| {{lang|ar|أَسْبَاب}}
| {{transl|ar|ʾasbāb}}
| ‘causes’
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:ولد|ʾawlād]]}} (boys),<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:قلم|ʾaqlām]]}} (pens)
|
|-
| CuCuC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|عمر|عُمُر}}
| {{transl|ar|ʿumur}}
| ‘lifespan’
| {{lang|ar|أَعْمَار|rtl=yes}}
| {{transl|ar|ʾaʿmār}}
| ‘lifespans’
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:ربع|ʾarbāʿ]]}} (quarters)
|
|-
| CaCūC
| ʾaCCiCah
| {{wikt-lang|ar|عَمُود}}
| {{transl|ar|ʿamūd}}
| ‘pole’
| {{lang|ar|أَعْمِدَة}}
| {{transl|ar|ʾaʿmidah}}
| ‘poles’
|
|Ends with {{transl|ar|[[Taw|taʾ marbuta]]}}
|-
| CaCīC
| ʾaCCiCāʾ
| {{wikt-lang|ar|صَدِيق}}
| {{transl|ar|ṣadīq}}
| ‘friend’
| {{lang|ar|أَصْدِقَاء}}
| {{transl|ar|ʾaṣdiqāʾ}}
| ‘friends’
|
|
|-
| CaCīC
| CuCaCāʾ
| {{wikt-lang|ar|سَعِيد}}
| {{transl|ar|saʿīd}}
| ‘happy’
| {{lang|ar|سُعَدَاء}}
| {{transl|ar|suʿadāʾ}}
| ‘happy’
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:وزير|wuzarāʾ]]}} (ministers) <br> {{transl|ar|[[wikt:بخيل|bukhalāʾ]]}} (cheapskates)
| mostly for adjectives and occupational nouns
|-
| CāCiC
| CuCCāC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|كَاتِب}}
| {{transl|ar|kātib}}
| ‘writer’
| {{lang|ar|كُتَّاب}}
| {{transl|ar|kuttāb}}
| ‘writers’
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:طالب|ṭullāb]]}} (students) <br/> {{transl|ar|[[wikt:ساكن|sukkān]]}} (residents)
| Gemination of the second root; mostly for the active participle of Form I verbs
|-
|CāCiC
|CaCaCah
|{{wikt-lang|ar|جاهل|جَاهِل}}
|{{transl|ar|jāhil}}
| ‘ignorant’
|{{lang|ar|جَهَلَة|rtl=yes}}
|{{transl|ar|jahalah}}
| ‘ignorant’
|
|
|-
|CāCiC
| rowspan="2" |CuCCaC
|{{wikt-lang|ar|ساجد|سَاجِد}}
|{{transl|ar|sājid}}
| ‘prostrated’
| rowspan="2" |{{lang|ar|سُجَّد|rtl=yes}}
| rowspan="2" |{{transl|ar|sujjad}}
|
|
|
|-
|CāCiCah
|{{wikt-lang|ar|ساجدة|سَاجِدَة}}
|{{transl|ar|sājidah}}
| ‘prostrated’ (Fem.)
|
|
|
|-
| CāCiCah
| CawāCiC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|قَائِمَة}}
| {{transl|ar|qāʾimah}}
| ‘list’
| {{lang|ar|قَوَائِم}}
| {{transl|ar|qawāʾim}}
| ‘lists’
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:بارجة|bawārij]]}} (battleships)
|
|-
| CāCūC
| CawāCīC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|صَارُوخ}}
| {{transl|ar|ṣārūḫ}}
| ‘rocket’
| {{lang|ar|صَوَارِيخ}}
| {{transl|ar|ṣawārīḫ}}
| ‘rockets’
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:حاسوب|ḥawāsīb]]}} (computers),
''[[wikt:طاووس|ṭawāwīs]]'' (peacocks)
|
|-
| CiCāCah
|rowspan=2| CaCāʾiC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|رِسَالَة}}
| {{transl|ar|risāla}}
| ‘message’
| {{lang|ar|رَسَائِل}}
| {{transl|ar|rasāʾil}}
| ‘messages’
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:بطاقة|biṭāqah baṭāʾiq]]}} (cards)
|
|-
| CaCīCah
| {{wikt-lang|ar|جَزِيرَة}}
| {{transl|ar|jazīrah}}
| ‘island’
| {{lang|ar|جَزَائِر}}
| {{transl|ar|jazāʾir}}
| ‘islands’
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:حقيبة|haqāʾib]]}} (suitcases),<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:دقيقة|daqāʾiq]]}} (minutes)
|
|-
| CaCCaC
|rowspan=2| CaCāCiC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|دَفْتَر}}
| {{transl|ar|daftar}}
| ‘notebook’
| {{lang|ar|دَفَاتِر}}
| {{transl|ar|dafātir}}
| ‘notebooks’
|
|rowspan=2| applies to all four-literal nouns with short second vowel
|-
| CuCCuC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|فُنْدُق}}
| {{transl|ar|funduq}}
| ‘hotel’
| {{lang|ar|فَنَادِق}}
| {{transl|ar|fanādiq}}
| ‘hotels’
|
|-
| maCCaC
|rowspan=3| maCāCiC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مَلْبَس}}
| {{transl|ar|malbas}}
| ‘apparel’
| {{lang|ar|مَلَابِس}}
| {{transl|ar|malābis}}
| ‘apparels’
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:مكتب|makātib]]}} (offices)
| rowspan="2" | Subcase of previous, with {{transl|ar|m}} as first literal
|-
| maCCiC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مَسْجِد}}
| {{transl|ar|masjid}}
| ‘mosque’
| {{lang|ar|مَسَاجِد}}
| {{transl|ar|masājid}}
| ‘mosques’
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:منزل|manāzil]]}} (houses)
|-
| miCCaCah
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مِنْطَقَة}}
| {{transl|ar|minṭaqah}}
| ‘area’
| {{lang|ar|مَنَاطِق}}
| {{transl|ar|manāṭiq}}
| ‘areas’
|
|
|-
| CvCCv̄C
| CaCāCīC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|صَنْدُوق}}
| {{transl|ar|ṣandūq}}
| ‘box’
| {{lang|ar|صَنَادِيق}}
| {{transl|ar|ṣanādīq}}
| ‘boxes’
|
| applies to all four-literal nouns with long second vowel
|-
| miCCāC
|rowspan=2| maCāCīC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مِفْتَاح}}
| {{transl|ar|miftāḥ}}
| ‘key’
| {{lang|ar|مَفَاتِيح}}
| {{transl|ar|mafātīḥ}}
| ‘keys’
|
|rowspan=2| Subcase of previous, with {{transl|ar|m}} as first literal
|-
| maCCūC
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مَكْتُوب}}
| {{transl|ar|maktūb}}
| ‘message’
| {{lang|ar|مَكَاتِيب}}
| {{transl|ar|makātīb}}
| ‘messages’
|
|}


==Hebrew==
*''JaDD'' جدّ "grandfather" → ''JuDūD'' جدود "grandfathers"
In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], though all plurals must take either the {{transl|he|ISO|-īm}} {{wikt-lang|he|־ים}} (generally masculine) or {{transl|he|ISO|-ōt}} {{wikt-lang|he|־ות}} (generally feminine) plural suffixes, the historical stem alternations of the so-called [[segolate]] or consonant-cluster nouns between CVCC in the singular and CVCaC in the plural have often been compared to broken plural forms in other Semitic languages. Thus the form {{transl|he|ISO|malkī}} {{Script/Hebrew|מַלְכִּי}} "my king" in the singular is opposed to {{transl|he|ISO|məlāxīm}} {{Script/Hebrew|מְלָכִים}} "kings" in the plural.<ref>"Ge'ez (Axum)" by Gene Gragg in ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages'' edited by Roger D. Woodard (2004) {{ISBN|0-521-56256-2}}, p. 440.</ref>
:''FaNN'' فنّ "art" → ''FuNūN'' فنون "arts"

:but: ''RaBB'' ربّ "master, owner" → ''aRBāB'' أرباب "masters"
In addition, there are many other cases where historical sound changes have resulted in [[Allomorph#Stem_allomorphy|stem allomorphy]] between singular and plural forms in Hebrew (or between absolute state and construct state, or between forms with pronominal suffixes and unsuffixed forms etc.), though such alternations do not operate according to general templates accommodating root consonants, and so are not usually considered to be true broken plurals by linguists.<ref>“Hebrew” by [[P. Kyle McCarter Jr.]] in ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages'' edited by Roger D. Woodard (2004) {{ISBN|0-521-56256-2}}, p. 342.</ref>

== Geʽez (Ethiopic) ==
Broken plurals were formerly used in some Ethiopic nouns. Examples include ''ˁanbässa'' "lion" with ''ˁanabəst'' "lions", ''kokäb'' "star" with ''kwakəbt'' "stars", ''ganen'' "demon" with ''aganənt'' "demons", and ''hagar'' "region" with ''ˀahgur'' "regions".<ref>Leslau, Wolf (1991). ''Comparative Dictionary of Geʿez (Classical Ethiopic)''. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp. 64, 280, 198, 216</ref> Some of these broken plurals are still used in [[Amharic]] today, but they are generally seen as archaic.


==See also==
==See also==
*[[Elative (gradation)]]
*[[Semitic root | Triconsonantal roots]]
*[[Nonconcatenative morphology]]
*[[Apophony]]


==References==
* [[Triliteral|Triconsonantal root]]
{{reflist}}
* [[Nonconcatenative morphology]]
* [[Apophony#Apophony vs. transfixation (root-and-pattern)]]


==External links==
==External links==
*[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0388000113000685 ''Pattern-and-root inflectional morphology: the Arabic broken plural'']
*[http://libra.sfsu.edu/~vcs/Manouba_2002.pdf ''The Arabic Noun System Generation'']
*[https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~violetta/Manouba_2002.pdf ''The Arabic Noun System Generation'']
*[http://www.learnarabiconline.com/arabic-plurals.shtml ''A detailed account of plurality in Arabic'']
*[http://www.learnarabiconline.com/broken-plurals.shtml ''On the way to an algorithm for forming broken plurals in Arabic'']


[[Category:Arabic language]]
[[Category:Arabic language]]
[[Category:Semitic linguistics]]
[[Category:Semitic linguistics]]
[[Category:Linguistic morphology]]
[[Category:Linguistic morphology]]
[[Category:Grammatical number]]

[[it:Plurale fratto]]
[[Category:Arabic grammar]]

Latest revision as of 00:01, 20 October 2024

This article is about plurals formed by changes within a word rather than by attaching an affix. For plurals where the affix is attached internally, see Postpositive adjective § Plurals of expressions with postpositives.

In linguistics, a broken plural (or internal plural) is an irregular plural form of a noun or adjective found in the Semitic languages and other Afroasiatic languages such as the Berber languages. Broken plurals are formed by changing the pattern of consonants and vowels inside the singular form. They contrast with sound plurals (or external plurals), which are formed by adding a suffix, but are also formally distinct from phenomena like the Germanic umlaut, a form of vowel mutation used in plural forms in Germanic languages.

There have been a variety of theoretical approaches to understanding these processes and varied attempts to produce systems or rules that can systematize these plural forms.[1] However, the question of the origin of the broken plurals for the languages that exhibit them is not settled, though there are certain probabilities in distributions of specific plural forms in relation to specific singular patterns. As the conversions outgo by far the extent of mutations caused by the Germanic umlaut that is evidenced to be caused by inflectional suffixes, the sheer multiplicity of shapes corresponds to multiplex attempts at historical explanation ranging from proposals of transphonologizations and multiple accentual changes to switches between the categories of collectives, abstracta and plurals or noun class switches.[2]

Arabic

[edit]

While the phenomenon is known from several Semitic languages, it is most productive in Arabic.

In Arabic, the regular way of making a plural for a masculine noun is adding the suffix -ūn[a] (for the nominative) or -īn[a] (for the accusative and genitive) at the end. For feminine nouns, the regular way is to add the suffix -āt. However, not all plurals follow these simple rules. One class of nouns in both spoken and written Arabic produce plurals by changing the pattern of vowels inside the word, sometimes also with the addition of a prefix or suffix. This system is not fully regular, and it is used mainly for masculine non-human nouns; human nouns are pluralized regularly or irregularly.

Broken plurals are known as jam‘ taksīr (جَمْعُ تَكْسِيرٍ, literally "plural of breaking") in Arabic grammar. These plurals constitute one of the most unusual aspects of the language, given the very strong and highly detailed grammar and derivation rules that govern the written language. Broken plurals can also be found in languages that have borrowed words from Arabic, for instance Persian, Pashto, Turkish, Azerbaijani, Sindhi, and Urdu. Sometimes in these languages the same noun has both a broken plural Arabic form and a local plural.

In Persian this kind of plural is known by its Arabic term jam'-e mokassar (جَمِع مُکَسَّر, literally "broken plural"). However the Persian Academy of Literature (Farhangestan) does not recommend the usage of such Arabic plural forms, but instead the native Persian plural suffix -hā.

Full knowledge of these plurals can come only with extended exposure to the Arabic language, though a few rules can be noted. One study computed the probability that the pattern of vowels in the singular would predict the pattern in the broken plural (or vice versa) and found values ranging from 20% to 100% for different patterns.[3]

A statistical analysis of a list of the 3000 most frequent Arabic words shows that 978 (59%) of the 1670 most frequent nominal forms take a sound plural, while the remaining 692 (41%) take a broken plural.[4] Another estimate of all existing nominal forms gives over 90,000 forms with a sound plural and just 9540 with a broken one.[4] This is due to the almost boundless number of participles and derived nominals in "-ī", most of which take a sound plural.

Example

[edit]

Semitic languages typically utilize triconsonantal roots, forming a "grid" into which vowels may be inserted without affecting the basic root.

Here are a few examples; note that the commonality is in the root consonants (capitalized), not the vowels.

  • KiTāB كِتَاب "book" → KuTuB كُتُب "books"
  • KāTiB كَاتِب "writer, scribe" → KuTTāB كُتَّاب “writers, scribes"
  • maKTūB مَكْتُوب "letter" → maKāTīB مَكَاتِيب "letters"
  • maKTaB مَكْتَب "desk, office" → maKāTiB مَكَاتِب "offices"
note: these four words all have a common root, K-T-B ‏ك – ت – ب‎ "to write"

In the non-semitic Persian language it is current to use:

  • KiTāB کِتَاب‌ "book" → KiTāBhā کِتَاب‌ْهَا "books"
  • KāTiB كَاتِبْ‌ "writer, scribe" → KāTiBhā كَاتِبْ‌هَا "writers, scribes"

Patterns in Arabic

[edit]
Singular
form 		Plural
form 		Singular example Plural example Other examples Notes
CiCāC CuCuC ‏كِتَاب‎ kitāb ‘book’ كُتُب kutub ‘books’
CaCīCah ‏سَفِينَة‎ safīnah ‘ship’ سُفُن sufun ‘ships’ [[[wikt:جزيرة|juzur]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (islands),
[[[wikt:مدينة|mudun]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (cities)
CaCv̄C ‏أَسَاس‎ ʾasās ‘foundation’ أُسُس ʾusus ‘foundations’
‏سَبِيل‎ sabīl ‘path’ سُبُل subul ‘paths’ [[[wikt:طريق|turuq]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (paths)
‏رَسُول‎ rasūl ‘messenger’ رُسُل rusul ‘messengers’
CvCCah CuCaC ‏شَقَّة‎ šaqqah ‘apartment’ شُقَق šuqaq ‘apartments’
CiCaC ‏قِطّة‎ qiṭṭah ‘cat’ قِطَط qiṭaṭ ‘cats’
CuCaC ‏غُرْفَة‎ ġurfah ‘room’ غُرَف ġuraf ‘rooms’
CiCC CiCaCah ‏هِرّ‎ hirr ‘cat’ هِرَرَة hirarah ‘cats’ [[[wikt:فيل|fiyalah]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (elephants)
[[[wikt:قرد|qiradah]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (apes)
CuCC ‏دُبّ‎ dubb ‘bear’ دِبَبَة dibabah
CvCC CuCūC ‏قَلْب‎ qalb ‘heart’ قُلُوب qulūb ‘hearts’ [[[wikt:فن|funūn]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (arts), [[[wikt:بيت|buyūt]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (houses)
[[[wikt:جد|judūd]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (grandfathers)
‏عِلْم‎ ʿilm ‘science’ عُلُوم ʿulūm ‘sciences’
‏جُحْر‎ juḥr ‘hole’ جُحُور juḥūr ‘holes’
CiCāC ‏كَلْب‎ kalb ‘dog’ كِلَاب kilāb ‘dogs’
‏ظِلّ‎ ẓill ‘shadow’ ظِلَال ẓilāl ‘shadows’
‏رُمْح‎ rumḥ ‘spear’ رِمَاح rimāḥ ‘spears’
CaCaC ‏جَمَل‎ jamal ‘camel’ جِمَال jimāl ‘camels’
CaCuC ‏رَجُل‎ rajul ‘man’ رِجَال rijāl ‘men’
CvCC ʾaCCāC ‏يَوْم‎ yawm ‘day’ أَيَّام ʾayyām ‘days’ [[[wikt:رب|ʾarbāb]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (masters)
[[[wikt:جد|ʾajdād]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (grandfathers)
‏جِنْس‎ jins ‘kind, type’ أَجْنَاس ʾajnās ‘kinds, types’
‏لُغْز‎ luḡz ‘mystery’ أَلْغَاز ʾalḡāz ‘mysteries’ [[[wikt:عمق|ʾaʿmaq]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (deeps)
CaCaC ‏سَبَب‎ sabab ‘cause’ أَسْبَاب ʾasbāb ‘causes’ [[[wikt:ولد|ʾawlād]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (boys),
[[[wikt:قلم|ʾaqlām]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (pens)
CuCuC ‏عُمُر‎ ʿumur ‘lifespan’ أَعْمَار ʾaʿmār ‘lifespans’ [[[wikt:ربع|ʾarbāʿ]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (quarters)
CaCūC ʾaCCiCah ‏عَمُود‎ ʿamūd ‘pole’ أَعْمِدَة ʾaʿmidah ‘poles’ Ends with taʾ marbuta
CaCīC ʾaCCiCāʾ ‏صَدِيق‎ ṣadīq ‘friend’ أَصْدِقَاء ʾaṣdiqāʾ ‘friends’
CaCīC CuCaCāʾ ‏سَعِيد‎ saʿīd ‘happy’ سُعَدَاء suʿadāʾ ‘happy’ [[[wikt:وزير|wuzarāʾ]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (ministers)
[[[wikt:بخيل|bukhalāʾ]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (cheapskates) 		mostly for adjectives and occupational nouns
CāCiC CuCCāC ‏كَاتِب‎ kātib ‘writer’ كُتَّاب kuttāb ‘writers’ [[[wikt:طالب|ṭullāb]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (students)
[[[wikt:ساكن|sukkān]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (residents) 		Gemination of the second root; mostly for the active participle of Form I verbs
CāCiC CaCaCah ‏جَاهِل‎ jāhil ‘ignorant’ جَهَلَة jahalah ‘ignorant’
CāCiC CuCCaC ‏سَاجِد‎ sājid ‘prostrated’ سُجَّد sujjad
CāCiCah ‏سَاجِدَة‎ sājidah ‘prostrated’ (Fem.)
CāCiCah CawāCiC ‏قَائِمَة‎ qāʾimah ‘list’ قَوَائِم qawāʾim ‘lists’ [[[wikt:بارجة|bawārij]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (battleships)
CāCūC CawāCīC ‏صَارُوخ‎ ṣārūḫ ‘rocket’ صَوَارِيخ ṣawārīḫ ‘rockets’ [[[wikt:حاسوب|ḥawāsīb]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (computers),

ṭawāwīs (peacocks)

CiCāCah CaCāʾiC ‏رِسَالَة‎ risāla ‘message’ رَسَائِل rasāʾil ‘messages’ [[[wikt:بطاقة|biṭāqah baṭāʾiq]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (cards)
CaCīCah ‏جَزِيرَة‎ jazīrah ‘island’ جَزَائِر jazāʾir ‘islands’ [[[wikt:حقيبة|haqāʾib]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (suitcases),
[[[wikt:دقيقة|daqāʾiq]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (minutes)
CaCCaC CaCāCiC ‏دَفْتَر‎ daftar ‘notebook’ دَفَاتِر dafātir ‘notebooks’ applies to all four-literal nouns with short second vowel
CuCCuC ‏فُنْدُق‎ funduq ‘hotel’ فَنَادِق fanādiq ‘hotels’
maCCaC maCāCiC ‏مَلْبَس‎ malbas ‘apparel’ مَلَابِس malābis ‘apparels’ [[[wikt:مكتب|makātib]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (offices) Subcase of previous, with m as first literal
maCCiC ‏مَسْجِد‎ masjid ‘mosque’ مَسَاجِد masājid ‘mosques’ [[[wikt:منزل|manāzil]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (houses)
miCCaCah ‏مِنْطَقَة‎ minṭaqah ‘area’ مَنَاطِق manāṭiq ‘areas’
CvCCv̄C CaCāCīC ‏صَنْدُوق‎ ṣandūq ‘box’ صَنَادِيق ṣanādīq ‘boxes’ applies to all four-literal nouns with long second vowel
miCCāC maCāCīC ‏مِفْتَاح‎ miftāḥ ‘key’ مَفَاتِيح mafātīḥ ‘keys’ Subcase of previous, with m as first literal
maCCūC ‏مَكْتُوب‎ maktūb ‘message’ مَكَاتِيب makātīb ‘messages’

Hebrew

[edit]

In Hebrew, though all plurals must take either the -īm ־ים (generally masculine) or -ōt ־ות (generally feminine) plural suffixes, the historical stem alternations of the so-called segolate or consonant-cluster nouns between CVCC in the singular and CVCaC in the plural have often been compared to broken plural forms in other Semitic languages. Thus the form malkī מַלְכִּי‎ "my king" in the singular is opposed to məlāxīm מְלָכִים‎ "kings" in the plural.[5]

In addition, there are many other cases where historical sound changes have resulted in stem allomorphy between singular and plural forms in Hebrew (or between absolute state and construct state, or between forms with pronominal suffixes and unsuffixed forms etc.), though such alternations do not operate according to general templates accommodating root consonants, and so are not usually considered to be true broken plurals by linguists.[6]

Geʽez (Ethiopic)

[edit]

Broken plurals were formerly used in some Ethiopic nouns. Examples include ˁanbässa "lion" with ˁanabəst "lions", kokäb "star" with kwakəbt "stars", ganen "demon" with aganənt "demons", and hagar "region" with ˀahgur "regions".[7] Some of these broken plurals are still used in Amharic today, but they are generally seen as archaic.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Ratcliffe, Robert R. (1998). The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. ISBN 978-9027236739.
  2. ^ An overview of the theories is given by Ratcliffe, Robert R. (1998). The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. pp. 117 seqq. ISBN 978-9027236739.
  3. ^ Ratcliffe, Robert R. (1998). The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. pp. 72–79. ISBN 978-9027236739.
  4. ^ a b Boudelaa, Sami; Gaskell, M. Gareth (21 September 2010). "A re-examination of the default system for Arabic plurals". Language and Cognitive Processes. 17 (3): 321–343. doi:10.1080/01690960143000245. S2CID 145307357.
  5. ^ "Ge'ez (Axum)" by Gene Gragg in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages edited by Roger D. Woodard (2004) ISBN 0-521-56256-2, p. 440.
  6. ^ “Hebrew” by P. Kyle McCarter Jr. in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages edited by Roger D. Woodard (2004) ISBN 0-521-56256-2, p. 342.
  7. ^ Leslau, Wolf (1991). Comparative Dictionary of Geʿez (Classical Ethiopic). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp. 64, 280, 198, 216
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