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{{Short description|Irregular plural forms in Semitic and other Afroasiatic languages}} |
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In [[linguistics]], a '''broken plural''' (or internal plural) is an irregular plural form of a noun or adjective found in the [[Semitic languages]] and other [[Afroasiatic languages]] such as [[Berber languages|Berber]]. Broken plurals are formed by changing the pattern of consonants and vowels inside the singular form. They contrast with '''sound plurals''' (or external plurals), which are formed by adding a [[suffix]], but are also formally distinct from phenomena like the [[Germanic umlaut]], a form of vowel mutation used in plural forms in Germanic languages. |
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{{About|plurals formed by changes within a word rather than by attaching an affix|plurals where the affix is attached internally|Postpositive adjective#Plurals of expressions with postpositives}} |
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In [[linguistics]], a '''broken plural''' (or internal plural) is an irregular plural form of a noun or adjective found in the [[Semitic languages]] and other [[Afroasiatic languages]] such as the [[Berber languages]]. Broken plurals are formed by changing the pattern of consonants and vowels inside the singular form. They contrast with '''sound plurals''' (or external plurals), which are formed by adding a [[suffix]], but are also formally distinct from phenomena like the [[Germanic umlaut]], a form of vowel mutation used in plural forms in Germanic languages. |
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There have been a variety of theoretical approaches to understanding these processes and varied attempts to produce systems or rules that can systematize these plural forms.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ratcliffe|first=Robert R.|title=The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic|series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168|date=1998|publisher=John Benjamins|place=Amsterdam/Philadelphia|isbn=978-9027236739}}</ref> However, the question of the origin of the broken plurals for the languages that exhibit them is not settled, though there are certain probabilities in distributions of specific plural forms in relation to specific singular patterns. As the conversions outgo by far the extent of mutations caused by the [[Germanic umlaut]] that is evidenced to be caused by inflectional suffixes, the sheer multiplicity of shapes corresponds to multiplex attempts at historical explanation ranging from proposals of [[transphonologization]]s and multiple accentual changes to switches between the categories of collectives, abstracta and plurals or [[noun class]] switches.<ref>An overview of the theories is given by {{cite book|last=Ratcliffe|first=Robert R.|title=The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic|series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168|date=1998|publisher=John Benjamins|place=Amsterdam/Philadelphia|isbn=978-9027236739|pages=117 seqq}}</ref> |
There have been a variety of theoretical approaches to understanding these processes and varied attempts to produce systems or rules that can systematize these plural forms.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ratcliffe|first=Robert R.|title=The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic|series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168|date=1998|publisher=John Benjamins|place=Amsterdam/Philadelphia|isbn=978-9027236739}}</ref> However, the question of the origin of the broken plurals for the languages that exhibit them is not settled, though there are certain probabilities in distributions of specific plural forms in relation to specific singular patterns. As the conversions outgo by far the extent of mutations caused by the [[Germanic umlaut]] that is evidenced to be caused by inflectional suffixes, the sheer multiplicity of shapes corresponds to multiplex attempts at historical explanation ranging from proposals of [[transphonologization]]s and multiple accentual changes to switches between the categories of collectives, abstracta and plurals or [[noun class]] switches.<ref>An overview of the theories is given by {{cite book|last=Ratcliffe|first=Robert R.|title=The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic|series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168|date=1998|publisher=John Benjamins|place=Amsterdam/Philadelphia|isbn=978-9027236739|pages=117 seqq}}</ref> |
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In [[Arabic language|Arabic]], the regular way of making a plural for a masculine noun is adding the suffix {{transl|ar|-ūn[a]}} (for the nominative) or {{transl|ar|-īn[a]}} (for the accusative and genitive) at the end. For feminine nouns, the regular way is to add the suffix {{transl|ar|-āt}}. However, not all plurals follow these simple rules. One class of nouns in both spoken and written Arabic produce plurals by changing the pattern of vowels inside the word, sometimes also with the addition of a prefix or suffix. This system is not fully regular, and it is used mainly for masculine non-human nouns; human nouns are pluralized regularly or irregularly. |
In [[Arabic language|Arabic]], the regular way of making a plural for a masculine noun is adding the suffix {{transl|ar|-ūn[a]}} (for the nominative) or {{transl|ar|-īn[a]}} (for the accusative and genitive) at the end. For feminine nouns, the regular way is to add the suffix {{transl|ar|-āt}}. However, not all plurals follow these simple rules. One class of nouns in both spoken and written Arabic produce plurals by changing the pattern of vowels inside the word, sometimes also with the addition of a prefix or suffix. This system is not fully regular, and it is used mainly for masculine non-human nouns; human nouns are pluralized regularly or irregularly. |
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Broken plurals |
Broken plurals are known as {{transl|ar|ALA|jam‘ taksīr}} ({{lang|ar|جَمْعُ تَكْسِيرٍ}}, literally "plural of breaking") in [[Arabic grammar]]. These plurals constitute one of the most unusual aspects of the language, given the very strong and highly detailed grammar and derivation rules that govern the written language. Broken plurals can also be found in languages that have borrowed words from Arabic, for instance [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Pashto language|Pashto]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], and [[Urdu language|Urdu]]. Sometimes in these languages the same noun has both a broken plural Arabic form and a local plural. |
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In Persian this kind of plural is known by its Arabic term {{transl|fa|jam'-e mokassar}} ({{lang|fa|جَمِع مُکَسَّر}}, literally "broken plural"). However the Persian Academy of Literature (Farhangestan) does not recommend the usage of such Arabic plural forms, but instead the native Persian plural suffix {{transl|fa|-hā}}. |
In Persian this kind of plural is known by its Arabic term {{transl|fa|jam'-e mokassar}} ({{lang|fa|جَمِع مُکَسَّر}}, literally "broken plural"). However the Persian Academy of Literature (Farhangestan) does not recommend the usage of such Arabic plural forms, but instead the native Persian plural suffix {{transl|fa|-hā}}. |
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Full knowledge of these plurals can come only with extended exposure to the Arabic language, though a few rules can be noted. One study computed the probability that the pattern of vowels in the singular would predict the pattern in the broken plural (or vice versa) and found values ranging from 20% to 100% for different patterns.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ratcliffe|first=Robert R.|title=The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic|series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168|date=1998|publisher=John Benjamins|place=Amsterdam/Philadelphia|isbn=978-9027236739|pages=72–79}}</ref> |
Full knowledge of these plurals can come only with extended exposure to the Arabic language, though a few rules can be noted. One study computed the probability that the pattern of vowels in the singular would predict the pattern in the broken plural (or vice versa) and found values ranging from 20% to 100% for different patterns.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ratcliffe|first=Robert R.|title=The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic|series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168|date=1998|publisher=John Benjamins|place=Amsterdam/Philadelphia|isbn=978-9027236739|pages=72–79}}</ref> |
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A statistical analysis of a list of the 3000 most frequent Arabic words shows that 978 (59%) of the 1670 most frequent nominal forms take a sound plural, while the remaining 692 (41%) take a broken plural.<ref name=Boudelaa&Gaskell>{{cite journal|last1=Boudelaa|first1=Sami|last2=Gaskell|first2=M. Gareth|title=A re-examination of the default system for Arabic plurals|journal=Language and Cognitive Processes|date=21 September 2010|volume=17|issue=3|pages=321–343|doi=10.1080/01690960143000245}}</ref> Another estimate of all existing nominal forms gives over 90,000 forms with a sound plural and just 9540 with a broken one.<ref name=Boudelaa&Gaskell/> This is due to the almost boundless number of participles and derived nominals in "-ī", most of which take a sound plural. |
A statistical analysis of a list of the 3000 most frequent Arabic words shows that 978 (59%) of the 1670 most frequent nominal forms take a sound plural, while the remaining 692 (41%) take a broken plural.<ref name=Boudelaa&Gaskell>{{cite journal|last1=Boudelaa|first1=Sami|last2=Gaskell|first2=M. Gareth|title=A re-examination of the default system for Arabic plurals|journal=Language and Cognitive Processes|date=21 September 2010|volume=17|issue=3|pages=321–343|doi=10.1080/01690960143000245|s2cid=145307357 }}</ref> Another estimate of all existing nominal forms gives over 90,000 forms with a sound plural and just 9540 with a broken one.<ref name=Boudelaa&Gaskell/> This is due to the almost boundless number of participles and derived nominals in "-ī", most of which take a sound plural. |
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===Example=== |
===Example=== |
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In the non-semitic Persian language it is current to use: |
In the non-semitic Persian language it is current to use: |
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* {{transl|fa|KiTāB}} {{lang|fa|کِتَاب}} "book" → {{transl|fa|KiTāBhā}} |
* {{transl|fa|KiTāB}} {{lang|fa|کِتَاب}} "book" → {{transl|fa|KiTāBhā}} {{lang|fa|کِتَابْهَا}} "books" |
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* {{transl|fa|KāTiB}} {{lang|fa|كَاتِبْ}} "writer, scribe" → {{transl|ar|KāTiBhā}} |
* {{transl|fa|KāTiB}} {{lang|fa|كَاتِبْ}} "writer, scribe" → {{transl|ar|KāTiBhā}} {{lang|fa|كَاتِبْهَا}} "writers, scribes" |
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===Patterns in Arabic=== |
===Patterns in Arabic=== |
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{| class="wikitable" |
{| class="wikitable" |
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|- |
|- |
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! Singular<br>form |
! Singular<br/>form |
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! Plural<br>form |
! Plural<br/>form |
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!colspan=3| Singular example |
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! Example |
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!colspan=3| Plural example |
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! Transliteration |
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! Plural |
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! Transliteration |
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! Other examples |
! Other examples |
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! Notes |
! Notes |
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|- |
|- |
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| CiCāC |
| CiCāC |
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| rowspan=" |
| rowspan="5" | CuCuC |
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| {{wikt-lang|ar|كِتَاب}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|كِتَاب}} |
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| {{transl|ar|'''k'''i'''t'''ā'''b'''}} |
| {{transl|ar|'''k'''i'''t'''ā'''b'''}} |
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| ‘book’ |
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| {{lang|ar|كُتُب}} |
| {{lang|ar|كُتُب}} |
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| {{transl|ar|'''k'''u'''t'''u'''b'''}} |
| {{transl|ar|'''k'''u'''t'''u'''b'''}} |
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| ‘books’ |
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| |
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| CaCīCah |
| CaCīCah |
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| {{wikt-lang|ar|سَفِينَة}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|سَفِينَة}} |
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| {{transl|ar|'''s'''a'''f'''ī'''n'''ah}} |
| {{transl|ar|'''s'''a'''f'''ī'''n'''ah}} |
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| ‘ship’ |
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| {{lang|ar|سُفُن}} |
| {{lang|ar|سُفُن}} |
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| {{transl|ar|'''s'''u'''f'''u'''n'''}} |
| {{transl|ar|'''s'''u'''f'''u'''n'''}} |
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| ‘ships’ |
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| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:جزيرة|juzur]]}} (islands),<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:مدينة|mudun]]}} (cities) |
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:جزيرة|juzur]]}} (islands),<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:مدينة|mudun]]}} (cities) |
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| |
| |
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|- |
|- |
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|rowspan="3"|CaCv̄C |
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| CaCīC |
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| {{wikt-lang|ar|سَبِيل}} |
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| {{transl|ar|'''s'''a'''b'''ī'''l'''}} (path) |
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|{{lang|ar|سُبُل}} |
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| {{transl|ar|'''s'''u'''b'''u'''l'''}} (paths) |
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| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:طريق|turuq]]}} (paths) |
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| |
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|- |
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|CiCāC |
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|{{wikt-lang|ar|كتاب|كِتَاب}} |
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|kitāb (book) |
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|{{lang|ar|كُتُب}} |
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|{{transl|ar|kutub}} (books) |
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| |
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| |
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|- |
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|CaCāC |
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|{{wikt-lang|ar|أساس|أَسَاس}} |
|{{wikt-lang|ar|أساس|أَسَاس}} |
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|ʾasās |
|{{transl|ar|ʾasās}} |
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| ‘foundation’ |
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|{{lang|ar|أُسُس|rtl=yes}} |
|{{lang|ar|أُسُس|rtl=yes}} |
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|ʾusus |
|{{transl|ar|ʾusus}} |
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| ‘foundations’ |
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| |
| |
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| |
| |
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|- |
|- |
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| {{wikt-lang|ar|سَبِيل}} |
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|CaCūC |
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| {{transl|ar|'''s'''a'''b'''ī'''l'''}} |
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| ‘path’ |
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|{{lang|ar|سُبُل}} |
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| {{transl|ar|'''s'''u'''b'''u'''l'''}} |
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| ‘paths’ |
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| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:طريق|turuq]]}} (paths) |
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| |
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|- |
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|{{wikt-lang|ar|رسول|رَسُول}} |
|{{wikt-lang|ar|رسول|رَسُول}} |
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|rasūl |
|{{transl|ar|rasūl}} |
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| ‘messenger’ |
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|{{lang|ar|رُسُل|rtl=yes}} |
|{{lang|ar|رُسُل|rtl=yes}} |
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|{{transl|ar|rusul}} |
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|rusul (messengers) |
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| ‘messengers’ |
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| |
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| |
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|- |
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| CuCCah |
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|rowspan=2| CuCaC |
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| {{wikt-lang|ar|غُرْفَة}} |
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| {{transl|ar|ġurfah}} (room) |
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| {{lang|ar|غُرَف}} |
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| {{transl|ar|ġuraf}} (rooms) |
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| |
| |
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| |
| |
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|- |
|- |
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| rowspan="3"|CvCCah |
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| CaCCah |
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| CuCaC |
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| {{wikt-lang|ar|شَقَّة}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|شَقَّة}} |
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| {{transl|ar|'''š'''a'''qq'''ah}} |
| {{transl|ar|'''š'''a'''qq'''ah}} |
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| ‘apartment’ |
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| {{lang|ar|شُقَق}} |
| {{lang|ar|شُقَق}} |
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| {{transl|ar|'''š'''u'''q'''a'''q'''}} |
| {{transl|ar|'''š'''u'''q'''a'''q'''}} |
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| ‘apartments’ |
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| |
| |
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| |
| |
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|- |
|- |
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| CiCCah |
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| CiCaC |
| CiCaC |
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| {{wikt-lang|ar|قِطّة}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|قِطّة}} |
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| {{transl|ar|'''q'''i'''ṭṭ'''ah}} |
| {{transl|ar|'''q'''i'''ṭṭ'''ah}} |
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| ‘cat’ |
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| {{lang|ar|قِطَط}} |
| {{lang|ar|قِطَط}} |
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| {{transl|ar|'''q'''i'''ṭ'''a'''ṭ'''}} |
| {{transl|ar|'''q'''i'''ṭ'''a'''ṭ'''}} |
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| ‘cats’ |
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| |
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| |
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|- |
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| CuCaC |
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| {{wikt-lang|ar|غُرْفَة}} |
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| {{transl|ar|ġurfah}} |
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| ‘room’ |
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| {{lang|ar|غُرَف}} |
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| {{transl|ar|ġuraf}} |
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| ‘rooms’ |
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| |
| |
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| |
| |
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|- |
|- |
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| CiCC |
| CiCC |
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| CiCaCah |
| rowspan="2" | CiCaCah |
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| {{wikt-lang|ar|هِرّ}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|هِرّ}} |
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| {{transl|ar|'''h'''i'''rr'''}} |
| {{transl|ar|'''h'''i'''rr'''}} |
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| ‘cat’ |
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| {{lang|ar|هِرَرَة}} |
| {{lang|ar|هِرَرَة}} |
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| {{transl|ar|'''h'''i'''r'''a'''r'''ah}} |
| {{transl|ar|'''h'''i'''r'''a'''r'''ah}} |
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| ‘cats’ |
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| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:فيل|fiyalah]]}} (elephants)<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:قرد|qiradah]]}} (apes) |
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:فيل|fiyalah]]}} (elephants)<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:قرد|qiradah]]}} (apes) |
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| |
| |
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|- |
|- |
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|CuCC |
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| CaCC |
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|{{wikt-lang|ar|دب|دُبّ}} |
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|{{transl|ar|'''d'''u'''bb'''}} |
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|‘bear’ |
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|{{lang|ar|دِبَبَة|rtl=yes}} |
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|{{transl|ar|'''d'''i'''b'''a'''b'''ah}} |
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| |
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| |
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| |
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|- |
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| rowspan="6"|CvCC |
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|rowspan=3 | CuCūC |
|rowspan=3 | CuCūC |
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| {{wikt-lang|ar|قَلْب}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|قَلْب}} |
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| {{transl|ar|'''q'''a'''lb'''}} |
| {{transl|ar|'''q'''a'''lb'''}} |
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| ‘heart’ |
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| {{lang|ar|قُلُوب}} |
| {{lang|ar|قُلُوب}} |
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| {{transl|ar|'''q'''u'''l'''ū'''b'''}} |
| {{transl|ar|'''q'''u'''l'''ū'''b'''}} |
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| ‘hearts’ |
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| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:فن|funūn]]}} (arts), {{transl|ar|[[wikt:بيت|buyūt]]}} (houses)<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:جد|judūd]]}} (grandfathers) |
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:فن|funūn]]}} (arts), {{transl|ar|[[wikt:بيت|buyūt]]}} (houses)<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:جد|judūd]]}} (grandfathers) |
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| |
| |
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|- |
|- |
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|CiCC |
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| {{wikt-lang|ar|عِلْم}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|عِلْم}} |
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| {{transl|ar|'''ʿ'''i'''lm'''}} |
| {{transl|ar|'''ʿ'''i'''lm'''}} |
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| ‘science’ |
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| {{lang|ar|عُلُوم}} |
| {{lang|ar|عُلُوم}} |
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| {{transl|ar|'''ʿ'''u'''l'''ū'''m'''}} |
| {{transl|ar|'''ʿ'''u'''l'''ū'''m'''}} |
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| ‘sciences’ |
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| |
| |
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| |
| |
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|- |
|- |
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|CuCC |
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| {{wikt-lang|ar|جُحْر}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|جُحْر}} |
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| {{transl|ar|'''j'''u'''ḥr'''}} |
| {{transl|ar|'''j'''u'''ḥr'''}} |
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| ‘hole’ |
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| {{lang|ar|جُحُور}} |
| {{lang|ar|جُحُور}} |
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| {{transl|ar|'''j'''u'''ḥ'''ū'''r'''}} |
| {{transl|ar|'''j'''u'''ḥ'''ū'''r'''}} |
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| ‘holes’ |
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| |
| |
||
| |
| |
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|- |
|- |
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| CvCC |
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|rowspan=5| CiCāC |
|rowspan=5| CiCāC |
||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|كَلْب}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|كَلْب}} |
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| {{transl|ar|kalb}} |
| {{transl|ar|kalb}} |
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| ‘dog’ |
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| {{lang|ar|كِلَاب}} |
| {{lang|ar|كِلَاب}} |
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| {{transl|ar|kilāb}} |
| {{transl|ar|kilāb}} |
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| ‘dogs’ |
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| |
| |
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| |
| |
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|- |
|- |
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|CiCC |
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| {{wikt-lang|ar|ظِلّ}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|ظِلّ}} |
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| {{transl|ar|ẓill}} |
| {{transl|ar|ẓill}} |
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| ‘shadow’ |
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| {{lang|ar|ظِلَال}} |
| {{lang|ar|ظِلَال}} |
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| {{transl|ar|ẓilāl}} |
| {{transl|ar|ẓilāl}} |
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| ‘shadows’ |
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| |
| |
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| |
| |
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|- |
|- |
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|CuCC |
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| {{wikt-lang|ar|رُمْح}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|رُمْح}} |
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| {{transl|ar|rumḥ}} |
| {{transl|ar|rumḥ}} |
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| ‘spear’ |
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| {{lang|ar|رِمَاح}} |
| {{lang|ar|رِمَاح}} |
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| {{transl|ar|rimāḥ}} |
| {{transl|ar|rimāḥ}} |
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| ‘spears’ |
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| CaCaC |
| CaCaC |
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| {{wikt-lang|ar|جَمَل}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|جَمَل}} |
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| {{transl|ar|jamal}} |
| {{transl|ar|jamal}} |
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| ‘camel’ |
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| {{lang|ar|جِمَال}} |
| {{lang|ar|جِمَال}} |
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| {{transl|ar|jimāl}} |
| {{transl|ar|jimāl}} |
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| ‘camels’ |
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| CaCuC |
| CaCuC |
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| {{wikt-lang|ar|رَجُل}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|رَجُل}} |
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| {{transl|ar|rajul}} |
| {{transl|ar|rajul}} |
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| ‘man’ |
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| {{lang|ar|رِجَال}} |
| {{lang|ar|رِجَال}} |
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| {{transl|ar|rijāl}} |
| {{transl|ar|rijāl}} |
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| ‘men’ |
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|- |
|- |
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| rowspan="3"|CvCC |
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| CaCC |
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|rowspan=5| ʾaCCāC |
|rowspan=5| ʾaCCāC |
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| {{wikt-lang|ar|يَوْم}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|يَوْم}} |
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| {{transl|ar|yawm}} |
| {{transl|ar|yawm}} |
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| ‘day’ |
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| {{lang|ar|أَيَّام}} |
| {{lang|ar|أَيَّام}} |
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| {{transl|ar|ʾayyām}} |
| {{transl|ar|ʾayyām}} |
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| ‘days’ |
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| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:رب|ʾarbāb]]}} (masters)<br/>{{transl|ar|[[wikt:جد|ʾajdād]]}} (grandfathers) |
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:رب|ʾarbāb]]}} (masters)<br/>{{transl|ar|[[wikt:جد|ʾajdād]]}} (grandfathers) |
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| |
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|- |
|- |
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| {{wikt-lang|ar|جِنْس}} |
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|CiCC |
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| {{ |
| {{transl|ar|jins}} |
||
| ‘kind, type’ |
|||
| {{transl|ar|ḥilm}} (prudence) |
|||
| {{lang|ar| |
| {{lang|ar|أَجْنَاس}} |
||
| {{transl|ar| |
| {{transl|ar|ʾajnās}} |
||
| ‘kinds, types’ |
|||
| |
|||
| |
| |
||
| Archaic. Another plural is {{lang|ar|حلوم}} {{transl|ar|ḥulūm}}. |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
|CuCC |
|||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|لغز|لُغْز}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|لغز|لُغْز}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|luḡz}} |
| {{transl|ar|luḡz}} |
||
| ‘mystery’ |
|||
| {{lang|ar|أَلْغَاز|rtl=yes}} |
| {{lang|ar|أَلْغَاز|rtl=yes}} |
||
| {{transl|ar| |
| {{transl|ar|ʾalḡāz}} |
||
| ‘mysteries’ |
|||
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:عمق|ʾaʿmaq]]}} (deeps) |
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:عمق|ʾaʿmaq]]}} (deeps) |
||
| |
| |
||
| Line 221: | Line 255: | ||
| CaCaC |
| CaCaC |
||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|سَبَب}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|سَبَب}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|sabab}} |
| {{transl|ar|sabab}} |
||
| ‘cause’ |
|||
| {{lang|ar|أَسْبَاب}} |
| {{lang|ar|أَسْبَاب}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|ʾasbāb}} |
| {{transl|ar|ʾasbāb}} |
||
| ‘causes’ |
|||
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:ولد|ʾawlād]]}} (boys),<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:قلم|ʾaqlām]]}} (pens) |
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:ولد|ʾawlād]]}} (boys),<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:قلم|ʾaqlām]]}} (pens) |
||
| |
| |
||
| Line 229: | Line 265: | ||
| CuCuC |
| CuCuC |
||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|عمر|عُمُر}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|عمر|عُمُر}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|ʿumur}} |
| {{transl|ar|ʿumur}} |
||
| ‘lifespan’ |
|||
| {{lang|ar|أَعْمَار|rtl=yes}} |
| {{lang|ar|أَعْمَار|rtl=yes}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|ʾaʿmār}} |
| {{transl|ar|ʾaʿmār}} |
||
| ‘lifespans’ |
|||
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:ربع|ʾarbāʿ]]}} (quarters) |
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:ربع|ʾarbāʿ]]}} (quarters) |
||
| |
| |
||
| Line 238: | Line 276: | ||
| ʾaCCiCah |
| ʾaCCiCah |
||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|عَمُود}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|عَمُود}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|ʿamūd}} |
| {{transl|ar|ʿamūd}} |
||
| ‘pole’ |
|||
| {{lang|ar|أَعْمِدَة}} |
| {{lang|ar|أَعْمِدَة}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|ʾaʿmidah}} |
| {{transl|ar|ʾaʿmidah}} |
||
| ‘poles’ |
|||
| |
| |
||
|Ends with {{transl|ar|[[Taw|taʾ marbuta]]}} |
|Ends with {{transl|ar|[[Taw|taʾ marbuta]]}} |
||
| Line 247: | Line 287: | ||
| ʾaCCiCāʾ |
| ʾaCCiCāʾ |
||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|صَدِيق}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|صَدِيق}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|ṣadīq}} |
| {{transl|ar|ṣadīq}} |
||
| ‘friend’ |
|||
| {{lang|ar|أَصْدِقَاء}} |
| {{lang|ar|أَصْدِقَاء}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|ʾaṣdiqāʾ}} |
| {{transl|ar|ʾaṣdiqāʾ}} |
||
| ‘friends’ |
|||
| |
| |
||
| |
| |
||
| Line 256: | Line 298: | ||
| CuCaCāʾ |
| CuCaCāʾ |
||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|سَعِيد}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|سَعِيد}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|saʿīd}} |
| {{transl|ar|saʿīd}} |
||
| ‘happy’ |
|||
| {{lang|ar|سُعَدَاء}} |
| {{lang|ar|سُعَدَاء}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|suʿadāʾ}} |
| {{transl|ar|suʿadāʾ}} |
||
| ‘happy’ |
|||
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:وزير|wuzarāʾ]]}} (ministers) |
|||
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:وزير|wuzarāʾ]]}} (ministers) <br> {{transl|ar|[[wikt:بخيل|bukhalāʾ]]}} (cheapskates) |
|||
| mostly for adjectives and occupational nouns |
| mostly for adjectives and occupational nouns |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| Line 265: | Line 309: | ||
| CuCCāC |
| CuCCāC |
||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|كَاتِب}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|كَاتِب}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|kātib}} |
| {{transl|ar|kātib}} |
||
| ‘writer’ |
|||
| {{lang|ar|كُتَّاب}} |
| {{lang|ar|كُتَّاب}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|kuttāb}} |
| {{transl|ar|kuttāb}} |
||
| ‘writers’ |
|||
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:طالب|ṭullāb]]}} (students) <br> {{transl|ar|[[wikt:ساكن|sukkān]]}} (residents) |
|||
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:طالب|ṭullāb]]}} (students) <br/> {{transl|ar|[[wikt:ساكن|sukkān]]}} (residents) |
|||
| Gemination of the second root; mostly for the active participle of Form I verbs |
| Gemination of the second root; mostly for the active participle of Form I verbs |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| Line 274: | Line 320: | ||
|CaCaCah |
|CaCaCah |
||
|{{wikt-lang|ar|جاهل|جَاهِل}} |
|{{wikt-lang|ar|جاهل|جَاهِل}} |
||
|{{transl|ar|jāhil}} |
|{{transl|ar|jāhil}} |
||
| ‘ignorant’ |
|||
|{{lang|ar|جَهَلَة|rtl=yes}} |
|{{lang|ar|جَهَلَة|rtl=yes}} |
||
|{{transl|ar|jahalah}} |
|{{transl|ar|jahalah}} |
||
| ‘ignorant’ |
|||
| |
| |
||
| |
| |
||
| Line 284: | Line 332: | ||
|{{wikt-lang|ar|ساجد|سَاجِد}} |
|{{wikt-lang|ar|ساجد|سَاجِد}} |
||
|{{transl|ar|sājid}} |
|{{transl|ar|sājid}} |
||
| ‘prostrated’ |
|||
| rowspan="2" |{{lang|ar|سُجَّد|rtl=yes}} |
| rowspan="2" |{{lang|ar|سُجَّد|rtl=yes}} |
||
| rowspan="2" |{{transl|ar|sujjad}} |
| rowspan="2" |{{transl|ar|sujjad}} |
||
| |
|||
| |
| |
||
| |
| |
||
| Line 292: | Line 342: | ||
|{{wikt-lang|ar|ساجدة|سَاجِدَة}} |
|{{wikt-lang|ar|ساجدة|سَاجِدَة}} |
||
|{{transl|ar|sājidah}} |
|{{transl|ar|sājidah}} |
||
| ‘prostrated’ (Fem.) |
|||
| |
|||
| |
| |
||
| |
| |
||
| Line 298: | Line 350: | ||
| CawāCiC |
| CawāCiC |
||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|قَائِمَة}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|قَائِمَة}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|qāʾimah}} |
| {{transl|ar|qāʾimah}} |
||
| ‘list’ |
|||
| {{lang|ar|قَوَائِم}} |
| {{lang|ar|قَوَائِم}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|qawāʾim}} |
| {{transl|ar|qawāʾim}} |
||
| ‘lists’ |
|||
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:بارجة|bawārij]]}} (battleships) |
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:بارجة|bawārij]]}} (battleships) |
||
| |
| |
||
| Line 307: | Line 361: | ||
| CawāCīC |
| CawāCīC |
||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|صَارُوخ}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|صَارُوخ}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|ṣārūḫ}} |
| {{transl|ar|ṣārūḫ}} |
||
| ‘rocket’ |
|||
| {{lang|ar|صَوَارِيخ}} |
| {{lang|ar|صَوَارِيخ}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|ṣawārīḫ}} |
| {{transl|ar|ṣawārīḫ}} |
||
| ‘rockets’ |
|||
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:حاسوب|ḥawāsīb]]}} (computers), |
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:حاسوب|ḥawāsīb]]}} (computers), |
||
''[[wikt:طاووس|ṭawāwīs]]'' (peacocks) |
''[[wikt:طاووس|ṭawāwīs]]'' (peacocks) |
||
| Line 317: | Line 373: | ||
|rowspan=2| CaCāʾiC |
|rowspan=2| CaCāʾiC |
||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|رِسَالَة}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|رِسَالَة}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|risāla}} |
| {{transl|ar|risāla}} |
||
| ‘message’ |
|||
| {{lang|ar|رَسَائِل}} |
| {{lang|ar|رَسَائِل}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|rasāʾil}} |
| {{transl|ar|rasāʾil}} |
||
| ‘messages’ |
|||
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:بطاقة|biṭāqah baṭāʾiq]]}} (cards) |
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:بطاقة|biṭāqah baṭāʾiq]]}} (cards) |
||
| |
| |
||
| Line 325: | Line 383: | ||
| CaCīCah |
| CaCīCah |
||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|جَزِيرَة}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|جَزِيرَة}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|jazīrah}} |
| {{transl|ar|jazīrah}} |
||
| ‘island’ |
|||
| {{lang|ar|جَزَائِر}} |
| {{lang|ar|جَزَائِر}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|jazāʾir}} |
| {{transl|ar|jazāʾir}} |
||
| ‘islands’ |
|||
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:حقيبة|haqāʾib]]}} (suitcases),<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:دقيقة|daqāʾiq]]}} (minutes) |
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:حقيبة|haqāʾib]]}} (suitcases),<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:دقيقة|daqāʾiq]]}} (minutes) |
||
| |
| |
||
| Line 334: | Line 394: | ||
|rowspan=2| CaCāCiC |
|rowspan=2| CaCāCiC |
||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|دَفْتَر}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|دَفْتَر}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|daftar}} |
| {{transl|ar|daftar}} |
||
| ‘notebook’ |
|||
| {{lang|ar|دَفَاتِر}} |
| {{lang|ar|دَفَاتِر}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|dafātir}} |
| {{transl|ar|dafātir}} |
||
| ‘notebooks’ |
|||
| |
| |
||
|rowspan=2| applies to all four-literal nouns with short second vowel |
|rowspan=2| applies to all four-literal nouns with short second vowel |
||
| Line 342: | Line 404: | ||
| CuCCuC |
| CuCCuC |
||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|فُنْدُق}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|فُنْدُق}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|funduq}} |
| {{transl|ar|funduq}} |
||
| ‘hotel’ |
|||
| {{lang|ar|فَنَادِق}} |
| {{lang|ar|فَنَادِق}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|fanādiq}} |
| {{transl|ar|fanādiq}} |
||
| ‘hotels’ |
|||
| |
| |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| Line 350: | Line 414: | ||
|rowspan=3| maCāCiC |
|rowspan=3| maCāCiC |
||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مَلْبَس}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مَلْبَس}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|malbas}} |
| {{transl|ar|malbas}} |
||
| ‘apparel’ |
|||
| {{lang|ar|مَلَابِس}} |
| {{lang|ar|مَلَابِس}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|malābis}} |
| {{transl|ar|malābis}} |
||
| ‘apparels’ |
|||
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:مكتب|makātib]]}} (offices) |
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:مكتب|makātib]]}} (offices) |
||
| rowspan="2" | Subcase of previous, with {{transl|ar|m}} as first literal |
| rowspan="2" | Subcase of previous, with {{transl|ar|m}} as first literal |
||
| Line 358: | Line 424: | ||
| maCCiC |
| maCCiC |
||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مَسْجِد}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مَسْجِد}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|masjid}} |
| {{transl|ar|masjid}} |
||
| ‘mosque’ |
|||
| {{lang|ar|مَسَاجِد}} |
| {{lang|ar|مَسَاجِد}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|masājid}} |
| {{transl|ar|masājid}} |
||
| ‘mosques’ |
|||
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:منزل|manāzil]]}} (houses) |
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:منزل|manāzil]]}} (houses) |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| miCCaCah |
| miCCaCah |
||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مِنْطَقَة}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مِنْطَقَة}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|minṭaqah}} |
| {{transl|ar|minṭaqah}} |
||
| ‘area’ |
|||
| {{lang|ar|مَنَاطِق}} |
| {{lang|ar|مَنَاطِق}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|manāṭiq}} |
| {{transl|ar|manāṭiq}} |
||
| ‘areas’ |
|||
| |
| |
||
| |
| |
||
| Line 374: | Line 444: | ||
| CaCāCīC |
| CaCāCīC |
||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|صَنْدُوق}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|صَنْدُوق}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|ṣandūq}} |
| {{transl|ar|ṣandūq}} |
||
| ‘box’ |
|||
| {{lang|ar|صَنَادِيق}} |
| {{lang|ar|صَنَادِيق}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|ṣanādīq}} |
| {{transl|ar|ṣanādīq}} |
||
| ‘boxes’ |
|||
| |
| |
||
| applies to all four-literal nouns with long second vowel |
| applies to all four-literal nouns with long second vowel |
||
| Line 383: | Line 455: | ||
|rowspan=2| maCāCīC |
|rowspan=2| maCāCīC |
||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مِفْتَاح}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مِفْتَاح}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|miftāḥ}} |
| {{transl|ar|miftāḥ}} |
||
| ‘key’ |
|||
| {{lang|ar|مَفَاتِيح}} |
| {{lang|ar|مَفَاتِيح}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|mafātīḥ}} |
| {{transl|ar|mafātīḥ}} |
||
| ‘keys’ |
|||
| |
| |
||
|rowspan=2| Subcase of previous, with {{transl|ar|m}} as first literal |
|rowspan=2| Subcase of previous, with {{transl|ar|m}} as first literal |
||
| Line 391: | Line 465: | ||
| maCCūC |
| maCCūC |
||
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مَكْتُوب}} |
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مَكْتُوب}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|maktūb}} |
| {{transl|ar|maktūb}} |
||
| ‘message’ |
|||
| {{lang|ar|مَكَاتِيب}} |
| {{lang|ar|مَكَاتِيب}} |
||
| {{transl|ar|makātīb}} |
| {{transl|ar|makātīb}} |
||
| ‘messages’ |
|||
| |
| |
||
|} |
|} |
||
==Hebrew== |
==Hebrew== |
||
In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], though all plurals must take either the |
In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], though all plurals must take either the {{transl|he|ISO|-īm}} {{wikt-lang|he|־ים}} (generally masculine) or {{transl|he|ISO|-ōt}} {{wikt-lang|he|־ות}} (generally feminine) plural suffixes, the historical stem alternations of the so-called [[segolate]] or consonant-cluster nouns between CVCC in the singular and CVCaC in the plural have often been compared to broken plural forms in other Semitic languages. Thus the form {{transl|he|ISO|malkī}} {{Script/Hebrew|מַלְכִּי}} "my king" in the singular is opposed to {{transl|he|ISO|məlāxīm}} {{Script/Hebrew|מְלָכִים}} "kings" in the plural.<ref>"Ge'ez (Axum)" by Gene Gragg in ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages'' edited by Roger D. Woodard (2004) {{ISBN|0-521-56256-2}}, p. 440.</ref> |
||
In addition, there are many other cases where historical sound changes have resulted in [[Allomorph#Stem_allomorphy|stem allomorphy]] between singular and plural forms in Hebrew (or between absolute state and construct state, or between forms with pronominal suffixes and unsuffixed forms etc.), though such alternations do not operate according to general templates accommodating root consonants, and so are not usually considered to be true broken plurals by linguists.<ref>“Hebrew” by [[P. Kyle McCarter Jr.]] in ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages'' edited by Roger D. Woodard (2004) {{ISBN|0-521-56256-2}}, p. 342.</ref> |
In addition, there are many other cases where historical sound changes have resulted in [[Allomorph#Stem_allomorphy|stem allomorphy]] between singular and plural forms in Hebrew (or between absolute state and construct state, or between forms with pronominal suffixes and unsuffixed forms etc.), though such alternations do not operate according to general templates accommodating root consonants, and so are not usually considered to be true broken plurals by linguists.<ref>“Hebrew” by [[P. Kyle McCarter Jr.]] in ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages'' edited by Roger D. Woodard (2004) {{ISBN|0-521-56256-2}}, p. 342.</ref> |
||
== |
== Geʽez (Ethiopic) == |
||
Broken plurals were formerly used in some Ethiopic nouns. Examples include ''ˁanbässa'' "lion" with ''ˁanabəst'' "lions", ''kokäb'' "star" with ''kwakəbt'' "stars", ''ganen'' "demon" with ''aganənt'' "demons", and ''hagar'' "region" with ''ˀahgur'' "regions".<ref>Leslau, Wolf (1991). ''Comparative Dictionary of Geʿez (Classical Ethiopic)''. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp. 64, 280, 198, 216</ref> Some of these broken plurals are still used in [[Amharic]] today, but they are generally seen as archaic. |
Broken plurals were formerly used in some Ethiopic nouns. Examples include ''ˁanbässa'' "lion" with ''ˁanabəst'' "lions", ''kokäb'' "star" with ''kwakəbt'' "stars", ''ganen'' "demon" with ''aganənt'' "demons", and ''hagar'' "region" with ''ˀahgur'' "regions".<ref>Leslau, Wolf (1991). ''Comparative Dictionary of Geʿez (Classical Ethiopic)''. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp. 64, 280, 198, 216</ref> Some of these broken plurals are still used in [[Amharic]] today, but they are generally seen as archaic. |
||
==See also== |
==See also== |
||
*[[Elative (gradation)]] |
*[[Elative (gradation)]] |
||
*[[Semitic root |
*[[Semitic root | Triconsonantal roots]] |
||
*[[Nonconcatenative morphology]] |
*[[Nonconcatenative morphology]] |
||
*[[Apophony]] |
|||
*[[Apophony#Apophony versus transfixation (root-and-pattern)|Apophony]] |
|||
==References== |
==References== |
||
Latest revision as of 00:01, 20 October 2024
In linguistics, a broken plural (or internal plural) is an irregular plural form of a noun or adjective found in the Semitic languages and other Afroasiatic languages such as the Berber languages. Broken plurals are formed by changing the pattern of consonants and vowels inside the singular form. They contrast with sound plurals (or external plurals), which are formed by adding a suffix, but are also formally distinct from phenomena like the Germanic umlaut, a form of vowel mutation used in plural forms in Germanic languages.
There have been a variety of theoretical approaches to understanding these processes and varied attempts to produce systems or rules that can systematize these plural forms.[1] However, the question of the origin of the broken plurals for the languages that exhibit them is not settled, though there are certain probabilities in distributions of specific plural forms in relation to specific singular patterns. As the conversions outgo by far the extent of mutations caused by the Germanic umlaut that is evidenced to be caused by inflectional suffixes, the sheer multiplicity of shapes corresponds to multiplex attempts at historical explanation ranging from proposals of transphonologizations and multiple accentual changes to switches between the categories of collectives, abstracta and plurals or noun class switches.[2]
Arabic
[edit]While the phenomenon is known from several Semitic languages, it is most productive in Arabic.
In Arabic, the regular way of making a plural for a masculine noun is adding the suffix -ūn[a] (for the nominative) or -īn[a] (for the accusative and genitive) at the end. For feminine nouns, the regular way is to add the suffix -āt. However, not all plurals follow these simple rules. One class of nouns in both spoken and written Arabic produce plurals by changing the pattern of vowels inside the word, sometimes also with the addition of a prefix or suffix. This system is not fully regular, and it is used mainly for masculine non-human nouns; human nouns are pluralized regularly or irregularly.
Broken plurals are known as jam‘ taksīr (جَمْعُ تَكْسِيرٍ, literally "plural of breaking") in Arabic grammar. These plurals constitute one of the most unusual aspects of the language, given the very strong and highly detailed grammar and derivation rules that govern the written language. Broken plurals can also be found in languages that have borrowed words from Arabic, for instance Persian, Pashto, Turkish, Azerbaijani, Sindhi, and Urdu. Sometimes in these languages the same noun has both a broken plural Arabic form and a local plural.
In Persian this kind of plural is known by its Arabic term jam'-e mokassar (جَمِع مُکَسَّر, literally "broken plural"). However the Persian Academy of Literature (Farhangestan) does not recommend the usage of such Arabic plural forms, but instead the native Persian plural suffix -hā.
Full knowledge of these plurals can come only with extended exposure to the Arabic language, though a few rules can be noted. One study computed the probability that the pattern of vowels in the singular would predict the pattern in the broken plural (or vice versa) and found values ranging from 20% to 100% for different patterns.[3]
A statistical analysis of a list of the 3000 most frequent Arabic words shows that 978 (59%) of the 1670 most frequent nominal forms take a sound plural, while the remaining 692 (41%) take a broken plural.[4] Another estimate of all existing nominal forms gives over 90,000 forms with a sound plural and just 9540 with a broken one.[4] This is due to the almost boundless number of participles and derived nominals in "-ī", most of which take a sound plural.
Example
[edit]Semitic languages typically utilize triconsonantal roots, forming a "grid" into which vowels may be inserted without affecting the basic root.
Here are a few examples; note that the commonality is in the root consonants (capitalized), not the vowels.
- KiTāB كِتَاب "book" → KuTuB كُتُب "books"
- KāTiB كَاتِب "writer, scribe" → KuTTāB كُتَّاب “writers, scribes"
- maKTūB مَكْتُوب "letter" → maKāTīB مَكَاتِيب "letters"
- maKTaB مَكْتَب "desk, office" → maKāTiB مَكَاتِب "offices"
- note: these four words all have a common root, K-T-B ك – ت – ب "to write"
In the non-semitic Persian language it is current to use:
- KiTāB کِتَاب "book" → KiTāBhā کِتَابْهَا "books"
- KāTiB كَاتِبْ "writer, scribe" → KāTiBhā كَاتِبْهَا "writers, scribes"
Patterns in Arabic
[edit]| Singular form |
Plural form |
Singular example | Plural example | Other examples | Notes | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CiCāC | CuCuC | كِتَاب | kitāb | ‘book’ | كُتُب | kutub | ‘books’ | ||
| CaCīCah | سَفِينَة | safīnah | ‘ship’ | سُفُن | sufun | ‘ships’ | [[[wikt:جزيرة|juzur]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (islands), [[[wikt:مدينة|mudun]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (cities) |
||
| CaCv̄C | أَسَاس | ʾasās | ‘foundation’ | أُسُس | ʾusus | ‘foundations’ | |||
| سَبِيل | sabīl | ‘path’ | سُبُل | subul | ‘paths’ | [[[wikt:طريق|turuq]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (paths) | |||
| رَسُول | rasūl | ‘messenger’ | رُسُل | rusul | ‘messengers’ | ||||
| CvCCah | CuCaC | شَقَّة | šaqqah | ‘apartment’ | شُقَق | šuqaq | ‘apartments’ | ||
| CiCaC | قِطّة | qiṭṭah | ‘cat’ | قِطَط | qiṭaṭ | ‘cats’ | |||
| CuCaC | غُرْفَة | ġurfah | ‘room’ | غُرَف | ġuraf | ‘rooms’ | |||
| CiCC | CiCaCah | هِرّ | hirr | ‘cat’ | هِرَرَة | hirarah | ‘cats’ | [[[wikt:فيل|fiyalah]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (elephants) [[[wikt:قرد|qiradah]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (apes) |
|
| CuCC | دُبّ | dubb | ‘bear’ | دِبَبَة | dibabah | ||||
| CvCC | CuCūC | قَلْب | qalb | ‘heart’ | قُلُوب | qulūb | ‘hearts’ | [[[wikt:فن|funūn]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (arts), [[[wikt:بيت|buyūt]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (houses) [[[wikt:جد|judūd]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (grandfathers) |
|
| عِلْم | ʿilm | ‘science’ | عُلُوم | ʿulūm | ‘sciences’ | ||||
| جُحْر | juḥr | ‘hole’ | جُحُور | juḥūr | ‘holes’ | ||||
| CiCāC | كَلْب | kalb | ‘dog’ | كِلَاب | kilāb | ‘dogs’ | |||
| ظِلّ | ẓill | ‘shadow’ | ظِلَال | ẓilāl | ‘shadows’ | ||||
| رُمْح | rumḥ | ‘spear’ | رِمَاح | rimāḥ | ‘spears’ | ||||
| CaCaC | جَمَل | jamal | ‘camel’ | جِمَال | jimāl | ‘camels’ | |||
| CaCuC | رَجُل | rajul | ‘man’ | رِجَال | rijāl | ‘men’ | |||
| CvCC | ʾaCCāC | يَوْم | yawm | ‘day’ | أَيَّام | ʾayyām | ‘days’ | [[[wikt:رب|ʾarbāb]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (masters) [[[wikt:جد|ʾajdād]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (grandfathers) |
|
| جِنْس | jins | ‘kind, type’ | أَجْنَاس | ʾajnās | ‘kinds, types’ | ||||
| لُغْز | luḡz | ‘mystery’ | أَلْغَاز | ʾalḡāz | ‘mysteries’ | [[[wikt:عمق|ʾaʿmaq]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (deeps) | |||
| CaCaC | سَبَب | sabab | ‘cause’ | أَسْبَاب | ʾasbāb | ‘causes’ | [[[wikt:ولد|ʾawlād]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (boys), [[[wikt:قلم|ʾaqlām]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (pens) |
||
| CuCuC | عُمُر | ʿumur | ‘lifespan’ | أَعْمَار | ʾaʿmār | ‘lifespans’ | [[[wikt:ربع|ʾarbāʿ]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (quarters) | ||
| CaCūC | ʾaCCiCah | عَمُود | ʿamūd | ‘pole’ | أَعْمِدَة | ʾaʿmidah | ‘poles’ | Ends with taʾ marbuta | |
| CaCīC | ʾaCCiCāʾ | صَدِيق | ṣadīq | ‘friend’ | أَصْدِقَاء | ʾaṣdiqāʾ | ‘friends’ | ||
| CaCīC | CuCaCāʾ | سَعِيد | saʿīd | ‘happy’ | سُعَدَاء | suʿadāʾ | ‘happy’ | [[[wikt:وزير|wuzarāʾ]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (ministers) [[[wikt:بخيل|bukhalāʾ]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (cheapskates) |
mostly for adjectives and occupational nouns |
| CāCiC | CuCCāC | كَاتِب | kātib | ‘writer’ | كُتَّاب | kuttāb | ‘writers’ | [[[wikt:طالب|ṭullāb]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (students) [[[wikt:ساكن|sukkān]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (residents) |
Gemination of the second root; mostly for the active participle of Form I verbs |
| CāCiC | CaCaCah | جَاهِل | jāhil | ‘ignorant’ | جَهَلَة | jahalah | ‘ignorant’ | ||
| CāCiC | CuCCaC | سَاجِد | sājid | ‘prostrated’ | سُجَّد | sujjad | |||
| CāCiCah | سَاجِدَة | sājidah | ‘prostrated’ (Fem.) | ||||||
| CāCiCah | CawāCiC | قَائِمَة | qāʾimah | ‘list’ | قَوَائِم | qawāʾim | ‘lists’ | [[[wikt:بارجة|bawārij]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (battleships) | |
| CāCūC | CawāCīC | صَارُوخ | ṣārūḫ | ‘rocket’ | صَوَارِيخ | ṣawārīḫ | ‘rockets’ | [[[wikt:حاسوب|ḥawāsīb]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (computers),
ṭawāwīs (peacocks) |
|
| CiCāCah | CaCāʾiC | رِسَالَة | risāla | ‘message’ | رَسَائِل | rasāʾil | ‘messages’ | [[[wikt:بطاقة|biṭāqah baṭāʾiq]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (cards) | |
| CaCīCah | جَزِيرَة | jazīrah | ‘island’ | جَزَائِر | jazāʾir | ‘islands’ | [[[wikt:حقيبة|haqāʾib]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (suitcases), [[[wikt:دقيقة|daqāʾiq]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (minutes) |
||
| CaCCaC | CaCāCiC | دَفْتَر | daftar | ‘notebook’ | دَفَاتِر | dafātir | ‘notebooks’ | applies to all four-literal nouns with short second vowel | |
| CuCCuC | فُنْدُق | funduq | ‘hotel’ | فَنَادِق | fanādiq | ‘hotels’ | |||
| maCCaC | maCāCiC | مَلْبَس | malbas | ‘apparel’ | مَلَابِس | malābis | ‘apparels’ | [[[wikt:مكتب|makātib]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (offices) | Subcase of previous, with m as first literal |
| maCCiC | مَسْجِد | masjid | ‘mosque’ | مَسَاجِد | masājid | ‘mosques’ | [[[wikt:منزل|manāzil]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (houses) | ||
| miCCaCah | مِنْطَقَة | minṭaqah | ‘area’ | مَنَاطِق | manāṭiq | ‘areas’ | |||
| CvCCv̄C | CaCāCīC | صَنْدُوق | ṣandūq | ‘box’ | صَنَادِيق | ṣanādīq | ‘boxes’ | applies to all four-literal nouns with long second vowel | |
| miCCāC | maCāCīC | مِفْتَاح | miftāḥ | ‘key’ | مَفَاتِيح | mafātīḥ | ‘keys’ | Subcase of previous, with m as first literal | |
| maCCūC | مَكْتُوب | maktūb | ‘message’ | مَكَاتِيب | makātīb | ‘messages’ | |||
Hebrew
[edit]In Hebrew, though all plurals must take either the -īm ־ים (generally masculine) or -ōt ־ות (generally feminine) plural suffixes, the historical stem alternations of the so-called segolate or consonant-cluster nouns between CVCC in the singular and CVCaC in the plural have often been compared to broken plural forms in other Semitic languages. Thus the form malkī מַלְכִּי "my king" in the singular is opposed to məlāxīm מְלָכִים "kings" in the plural.[5]
In addition, there are many other cases where historical sound changes have resulted in stem allomorphy between singular and plural forms in Hebrew (or between absolute state and construct state, or between forms with pronominal suffixes and unsuffixed forms etc.), though such alternations do not operate according to general templates accommodating root consonants, and so are not usually considered to be true broken plurals by linguists.[6]
Geʽez (Ethiopic)
[edit]Broken plurals were formerly used in some Ethiopic nouns. Examples include ˁanbässa "lion" with ˁanabəst "lions", kokäb "star" with kwakəbt "stars", ganen "demon" with aganənt "demons", and hagar "region" with ˀahgur "regions".[7] Some of these broken plurals are still used in Amharic today, but they are generally seen as archaic.
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Ratcliffe, Robert R. (1998). The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. ISBN 978-9027236739.
- ^ An overview of the theories is given by Ratcliffe, Robert R. (1998). The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. pp. 117 seqq. ISBN 978-9027236739.
- ^ Ratcliffe, Robert R. (1998). The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. pp. 72–79. ISBN 978-9027236739.
- ^ a b Boudelaa, Sami; Gaskell, M. Gareth (21 September 2010). "A re-examination of the default system for Arabic plurals". Language and Cognitive Processes. 17 (3): 321–343. doi:10.1080/01690960143000245. S2CID 145307357.
- ^ "Ge'ez (Axum)" by Gene Gragg in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages edited by Roger D. Woodard (2004) ISBN 0-521-56256-2, p. 440.
- ^ “Hebrew” by P. Kyle McCarter Jr. in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages edited by Roger D. Woodard (2004) ISBN 0-521-56256-2, p. 342.
- ^ Leslau, Wolf (1991). Comparative Dictionary of Geʿez (Classical Ethiopic). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp. 64, 280, 198, 216