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The stems grow up to 1–2&nbsp;m long. The [[leaf|leaves]] are arranged in whorls of two to eight around the stem, each leaf 5–20&nbsp;mm long and 0.7–2&nbsp;mm broad, with serrations or small spines along the leaf margins; the leaf midrib is often reddish when fresh. It is [[plant sexuality|monoecious]] (sometimes [[plant sexuality|dioecious]]), with male and female [[flower]]s produced separately on a single plant; the flowers are small, with three sepals and three petals, the petals 3–5&nbsp;mm long, transparent with red streaks. It reproduces primarily [[Vegetative reproduction|vegetatively]] by fragmentation and by rhizomes and [[turion (botany)|turions]] (overwintering), and flowers are rarely seen.<ref name=ft/><ref name=fnwe>Flora of NW Europe: [http://ip30.eti.uva.nl/BIS/flora.php?selected=beschrijving&menuentry=soorten&id=4171 ''Hydrilla verticillata''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208024427/http://ip30.eti.uva.nl/BIS/flora.php?selected=beschrijving&menuentry=soorten&id=4171 |date=2007-12-08 }}</ref><ref name=blamey>Blamey, M. & Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). ''Flora of Britain and Northern Europe''. {{ISBN|0-340-40170-2}}</ref><ref name=rhs>Huxley, A., ed. (1992). ''New RHS Dictionary of Gardening''. Macmillan {{ISBN|0-333-47494-5}}.</ref> They have air spaces to keep them upright.
The stems grow up to 1–2&nbsp;m long. The [[leaf|leaves]] are arranged in whorls of two to eight around the stem, each leaf 5–20&nbsp;mm long and 0.7–2&nbsp;mm broad, with serrations or small spines along the leaf margins; the leaf midrib is often reddish when fresh. It is [[plant sexuality|monoecious]] (sometimes [[plant sexuality|dioecious]]), with male and female [[flower]]s produced separately on a single plant; the flowers are small, with three sepals and three petals, the petals 3–5&nbsp;mm long, transparent with red streaks. It reproduces primarily [[Vegetative reproduction|vegetatively]] by fragmentation and by rhizomes and [[turion (botany)|turions]] (overwintering), and flowers are rarely seen.<ref name=ft/><ref name=fnwe>Flora of NW Europe: [http://ip30.eti.uva.nl/BIS/flora.php?selected=beschrijving&menuentry=soorten&id=4171 ''Hydrilla verticillata''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208024427/http://ip30.eti.uva.nl/BIS/flora.php?selected=beschrijving&menuentry=soorten&id=4171 |date=2007-12-08 }}</ref><ref name=blamey>Blamey, M. & Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). ''Flora of Britain and Northern Europe''. {{ISBN|0-340-40170-2}}</ref><ref name=rhs>Huxley, A., ed. (1992). ''New RHS Dictionary of Gardening''. Macmillan {{ISBN|0-333-47494-5}}.</ref> They have air spaces to keep them upright.


''Hydrilla'' has a high resistance to [[salinity]] compared to many other freshwater associated aquatic plants.
''Hydrilla'' has a high resistance to [[salinity]] compared to many other freshwater aquatic plants.


==Taxonomy and naming==
==Taxonomy and naming==
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==Ecology==
==Ecology==
''Hydrilla verticillata'' is allelopathic to the common hornwort (''[[Ceratophyllum demersum]]'') and prickly hornwort (''[[Ceratophyllum muricatum|C. muricatum]]''), that is, it produces compounds that inhibit growth of the latter two species.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Manjula Kulshreshtha |author2=B. Gopal |date=1983|title=Allelopathic influence of ''Hydrilla verticillata'' (L.F.) Royle on the distribution of ''Ceratophyllum'' species|journal=Aquatic Botany|volume=16|issue=2|pages= 207–09|doi=10.1016/0304-3770(83)90095-5|bibcode=1983AqBot..16..207K }}</ref>
''Hydrilla verticillata'' is [[Allelopathy|allelopathic]] to the common hornwort (''[[Ceratophyllum demersum]]'') and prickly hornwort (''[[Ceratophyllum muricatum|C. muricatum]]''), that is, it produces compounds that inhibit growth of the latter two species.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Manjula Kulshreshtha |author2=B. Gopal |date=1983|title=Allelopathic influence of ''Hydrilla verticillata'' (L.F.) Royle on the distribution of ''Ceratophyllum'' species|journal=Aquatic Botany|volume=16|issue=2|pages= 207–09|doi=10.1016/0304-3770(83)90095-5|bibcode=1983AqBot..16..207K }}</ref>

As aquatic macrophytes, ''Hydrilla'' play critical roles in the ecosystem. They influence [[nutrient cycle]]s and the ecology of the body of water, as well as the sediments.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barko |first1=John W. |last2=Smart |first2=R. Michael |last3=McFarland |first3=Dwilette G. |last4=Chen |first4=Rex L. |date=1988 |title=Interrelationships between the growth of Hydrilla Verticillata (L.f.) Royle and sediment nutrient availability |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3770(88)90116-7 |journal=Aquatic Botany |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=205–216|doi=10.1016/0304-3770(88)90116-7 |bibcode=1988AqBot..32..205B }}</ref> ''Hydrilla'' interacts with other organisms, supplying food and nutrients as well as habitats and shelters.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pelicice |first1=Fernando Mayer |last2=Agostinho |first2=Angelo Antonio |last3=Thomaz |first3=Sidiniei Magela |date=2005 |title=Fish assemblages associated with Egeria in a tropical reservoir: investigating the effects of plant biomass and diel period. |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actao.2004.08.004 |journal=Acta Oecologica |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=9–16|doi=10.1016/j.actao.2004.08.004 |bibcode=2005AcO....27....9P }}</ref>

''Hydrilla'' can have negative impacts in aquatic communities. When abundant, they affect dissolved oxygen levels, which can lead to decline in populations of fish, invertebrates, and other plant species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Simberloff |first=Daniel |date=2021 |title=Maintenance management and eradication of established quatic invaders |journal=Hydrobiologia |volume=848 |issue=9 |pages=2399–2420|doi=10.1007/s10750-020-04352-5 |pmid=32836349 |pmc=7407435 }}</ref>


==Status as an invasive plant==
==Status as an invasive plant==
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===Introduction===
===Introduction===
[[Image:Plant - Hydrilla verticillata - Batu kawa.jpg|left|thumb|Foliage detail]]
[[Image:Plant - Hydrilla verticillata - Batu kawa.jpg|left|thumb|Foliage detail]]
''Hydrilla'' is [[naturalisation (biology)|naturalized]] and [[invasive species|invasive]] in the [[United States]] following release in the 1950s and 1960s from aquariums into waterways in [[Florida]], due to the [[aquarium trade]].<ref name=WADoE>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/plants/weeds/hydrilla.html|title=General Information About Hydrilla|publisher=State of Washington, Department of Ecology|access-date=December 20, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220102925/http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/plants/weeds/hydrilla.html|archive-date=2014-12-20|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is now established in Canada and the southeast from [[Connecticut]] to [[Texas]], and also in [[California]].<ref name=fna>Flora of North America: [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=200024721 ''Hydrilla verticillata'']</ref> By the 1990s control and management were costing millions of dollars each year.<ref name=NEANS>{{cite web|url=http://www.northeastans.org/hydrilla/ecoleconhydrilla.htm|title=Ecological and Economic Costs Associated with Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata)|publisher=Northeast Aquatic Nuisance Species Panel|access-date=December 20, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220102826/http://www.northeastans.org/hydrilla/ecoleconhydrilla.htm|archive-date=December 20, 2014|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
''Hydrilla'' is [[naturalisation (biology)|naturalized]] and [[invasive species|invasive]] in the [[United States]] following release in the 1950s and 1960s from aquariums into waterways in [[Florida]], due to the [[aquarium trade]].<ref name=WADoE>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/plants/weeds/hydrilla.html|title=General Information About Hydrilla|publisher=State of Washington, Department of Ecology|access-date=December 20, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220102925/http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/plants/weeds/hydrilla.html|archive-date=2014-12-20|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is now established in parts of southern Canada and in the United States from [[Connecticut]] to [[Texas]], and also in [[California]].<ref name=fna>Flora of North America: [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=200024721 ''Hydrilla verticillata'']</ref> By the 1990s control and management were costing millions of dollars each year.<ref name=NEANS>{{cite web|url=http://www.northeastans.org/hydrilla/ecoleconhydrilla.htm|title=Ecological and Economic Costs Associated with Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata)|publisher=Northeast Aquatic Nuisance Species Panel|access-date=December 20, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220102826/http://www.northeastans.org/hydrilla/ecoleconhydrilla.htm|archive-date=December 20, 2014|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref>


Specifically, a Florida west coast aquarium dealer shipped live ''Hydrilla'' from [[Sri Lanka]] under the common name "Indian star-vine."<ref name=SMS>{{cite tech report|last=Masterson|first=J.|url= http://www.sms.si.edu/irlspec/Hydrilla_verticillata.htm|title=''Hydrilla verticillata''|publisher=Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce|date=October 4, 2007|access-date=December 20, 2014}}</ref> After these plants were considered unsatisfactory, they were dumped into a canal near [[Tampa Bay]], where they flourished.<ref name=SMS/> By 1955, the plants found their way from Tampa to [[Miami]] as they were transported for cultivation and pet trade sale.<ref name=SMS/> It is believed that several undocumented cases of accidental or careless releases followed, as there was extensive spread of the ''Hydrilla'' throughout Florida and the southeastern U.S.<ref name=SMS/>
The plant was introduced when a Florida West Coast aquarium dealer shipped live ''Hydrilla'' from [[Sri Lanka]] under the common name "Indian star-vine."<ref name=SMS>{{cite tech report|last=Masterson|first=J.|url= http://www.sms.si.edu/irlspec/Hydrilla_verticillata.htm|title=''Hydrilla verticillata''|publisher=Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce|date=October 4, 2007|access-date=December 20, 2014}}</ref> These plants were considered unsatisfactory and were dumped into a canal near [[Tampa Bay]], where they flourished.<ref name=SMS/> By 1955, the plants found their way from Tampa to [[Miami]] as they were transported for cultivation and pet trade sale.<ref name=SMS/> It is believed that several undocumented cases of accidental or careless releases followed, as there was extensive spread of the ''Hydrilla'' throughout Florida and the [[southeastern United States]].<ref name=SMS/>


===Problems===
===Problems===
[[File:Hydrilla in the Mallows Bay–Potomac River National Marine Sanctuary.PNG|thumb|A thick bed of ''Hydrilla'' in the [[Mallows Bay–Potomac River National Marine Sanctuary]] in [[Charles County, Maryland|Charles County]]. [[Maryland]].]]
Due to the combination of herbicide resistance, high growth rates, high ecological adaptability, dispersion ability, and low resources required, ''Hydrilla'' is able to invade almost every region of the world and spread at an alarming rate, affecting the ecosystem in a negative manner.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Langeland |first=Kenneth A. |date=1996 |title=Hydrilla verticillata (L.F.) Royle (Hydrocharitaceae), "The Perfect Aquatic Weed" |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4033682 |journal=Castanea |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=293–304|jstor=4033682 }}</ref> The high photosynthesis rate of ''Hydrilla'' leads to the depletion in dissolved carbon dioxide during daytime, which raises the pH, and to higher concentrations of oxygen. At night, the oxygen is used for [[oxidative phosphorylation]], resulting in anoxia, and carbon dioxide is replenished, which in turn lowers the pH.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Colon-Gaud |first1=Jose-Checo |last2=Kelso |first2=W. E. |last3=Rutherford |first3=D. A. |date=2004 |title=Spatial Distribution of Macroinvertebrates Inhabiting Hydrilla and Coontail Beds in the Atchafalaya Basin, Louisiana |journal=Journal of Aquatic Plant Management |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=85–91}}</ref>

As an [[invasive species]] in Florida, ''Hydrilla'' has become the most serious aquatic weed problem for Florida and most of the U.S. Because it was such a threat as an invasive species, one of the first cost-effective broadscale herbicide controls developed was [[fluridone]]. Unfortunately, this single-use herbicide resulted in fluridone-resistant ''Hydrilla''. "As ''Hydrilla'' spread rapidly to lakes across the southern United States in the past, the expansion of resistant biotypes is likely to pose significant environmental challenges in the future."<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://tnga.granicus.com/MediaPlayer.php?view_id=401&clip_id=15895&meta_id=373566 | title=Aquatic Spraying Study Committee - SB2286 - Nov 15th, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1614/P2002-081 |title=Predicting the potential invasive distributions of five alien plant species in North America |journal=Weed Science |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=863 |year=2003 |last1=Peterson |first1=A. T. |last2=Papes |first2=M. |last3=Kluza |first3=D. A. |s2cid=86208277 |url=ftp://norbif.uio.no/pub/outgoing/runeho/KR/Pete&al03WeedSci51-863.pdf }}{{dead link|date=April 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
As an [[invasive species]] in Florida, ''Hydrilla'' has become the most serious aquatic weed problem for Florida and most of the U.S. Because it was such a threat as an invasive species, one of the first cost-effective broadscale herbicide controls developed was [[fluridone]]. Unfortunately, this single-use herbicide resulted in fluridone-resistant ''Hydrilla''. "As ''Hydrilla'' spread rapidly to lakes across the southern United States in the past, the expansion of resistant biotypes is likely to pose significant environmental challenges in the future."<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://tnga.granicus.com/MediaPlayer.php?view_id=401&clip_id=15895&meta_id=373566 | title=Aquatic Spraying Study Committee - SB2286 - Nov 15th, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1614/P2002-081 |title=Predicting the potential invasive distributions of five alien plant species in North America |journal=Weed Science |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=863 |year=2003 |last1=Peterson |first1=A. T. |last2=Papes |first2=M. |last3=Kluza |first3=D. A. |s2cid=86208277 |url=ftp://norbif.uio.no/pub/outgoing/runeho/KR/Pete&al03WeedSci51-863.pdf }}{{dead link|date=April 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>


''Hydrilla'' populations have caused economic, environmental, and ecological damage.<ref name=NEANS/> ''Hydrilla'' is known to be an aggressive and competitive plant, even out-competing and displacing native species, such as [[potamogeton|pondweeds]] and [[Vallisneria americana|eelgrass]].<ref name=SMS/><ref name=UFIFAS/><ref name=CCE/> Due to its competitive nature, ''Hydrilla'' has created [[monoculture]]s, an area dominated by a singular species, rather than having a balance among many species, like in a normal ecosystem.<ref name=CCE/>
''Hydrilla'' populations have caused economic, environmental, and ecological damage.<ref name=NEANS/> ''Hydrilla'' is known to be an aggressive and competitive plant, out-competing and displacing native species, such as [[potamogeton|pondweeds]] and [[Vallisneria americana|eelgrass]].<ref name=SMS/><ref name=UFIFAS/><ref name=CCE/> ''Hydrilla'' has thus created [[monoculture]]s, areas dominated by a single species, rather than having a balance among many species, as in a normal ecosystem.<ref name=CCE/>


In Australia, ''Hydrilla'' can become invasive if the nutrient levels are raised in disturbed ecosystems, though is not generally known to be problematic.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|author1=William Thomas Parsons |author2=Eric George Cuthbertson |title=Noxious Weeds of Australia|publisher=Csiro Publishing|location=Collingwood, Victoria|date=2001|pages=67–70|isbn=9780643065147|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sRCrNAQQrpwC&q=The+biology+of+Australian+weeds.+7.+Hydrilla+verticillata+%28L.f.%29+Royle&pg=PA70}}</ref>
In Australia, ''Hydrilla'' can become invasive if the nutrient levels are raised in disturbed ecosystems, though is not generally known to be problematic.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|author1=William Thomas Parsons |author2=Eric George Cuthbertson |title=Noxious Weeds of Australia|publisher=Csiro Publishing|location=Collingwood, Victoria|date=2001|pages=67–70|isbn=9780643065147|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sRCrNAQQrpwC&q=The+biology+of+Australian+weeds.+7.+Hydrilla+verticillata+%28L.f.%29+Royle&pg=PA70}}</ref>


''Hydrilla'' can host a [[biofilm]] of the [[cyanobacterium|cyanobacteria]] ''[[Aetokthonos hydrillicola]]'', which can produce the brominated [[neurotoxin]] [[aetokthonotoxin]] which is the causative agent of [[avian vacuolar myelinopathy]], a fatal brain wasting disease of waterfowl and raptors.<ref name=Breinlinger>{{Cite journal|last1=Breinlinger|first1=Steffen|last2=Phillips|first2=Tabitha J.|last3=Haram|first3=Brigette N.|last4=Mareš|first4=Jan|last5=Yerena|first5=José A. Martínez|last6=Hrouzek|first6=Pavel|last7=Sobotka|first7=Roman|last8=Henderson|first8=W. Matthew|last9=Schmieder|first9=Peter|last10=Williams|first10=Susan M.|last11=Lauderdale|first11=James D.|date=2021-03-26|title=Hunting the eagle killer: A cyanobacterial neurotoxin causes vacuolar myelinopathy|journal=Science|language=en|volume=371|issue=6536|pages=eaax9050|doi=10.1126/science.aax9050|pmc=8318203|issn=0036-8075|pmid=33766860|doi-access=free}}</ref>
''Hydrilla'' can host a [[biofilm]] of the [[cyanobacterium|cyanobacteria]] ''[[Aetokthonos hydrillicola]]'', which can produce the brominated [[neurotoxin]] [[aetokthonotoxin]] — the causative agent of [[avian vacuolar myelinopathy]], a fatal brain wasting disease of waterfowl and raptors.<ref name=Breinlinger>{{Cite journal|last1=Breinlinger|first1=Steffen|last2=Phillips|first2=Tabitha J.|last3=Haram|first3=Brigette N.|last4=Mareš|first4=Jan|last5=Yerena|first5=José A. Martínez|last6=Hrouzek|first6=Pavel|last7=Sobotka|first7=Roman|last8=Henderson|first8=W. Matthew|last9=Schmieder|first9=Peter|last10=Williams|first10=Susan M.|last11=Lauderdale|first11=James D.|date=2021-03-26|title=Hunting the eagle killer: A cyanobacterial neurotoxin causes vacuolar myelinopathy|journal=Science|language=en|volume=371|issue=6536|pages=eaax9050|doi=10.1126/science.aax9050|pmc=8318203|issn=0036-8075|pmid=33766860|doi-access=free}}</ref>


===Management===
===Management===
[[Image:Hydrilla verticillata collection LakeSeminoleFL.jpg|right|thumb|''Hydrilla verticillata'' collection at [[Lake Seminole]], FL|150px]]
[[Image:Hydrilla verticillata collection LakeSeminoleFL.jpg|right|thumb|''Hydrilla verticillata'' collection at [[Lake Seminole]], Florida|150px]]
''Hydrilla'' can be controlled by [[herbicide]]s, as well as [[grass carp]],<ref name=UFIFAS>{{cite journal|last=Langeland |first=Kenneth A. |url=http://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/node/184 |title=The Perfect Aquatic Weed |journal=[[Castanea]] |volume=61 |publisher=[[University of Florida]], [[Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences]] |date=1996 |access-date=December 20, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102084523/http://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/node/184 |archive-date=November 2, 2014 }}</ref> itself an invasive species in North America. Insects used as [[biological pest control]] for this plant include weevils of the genus ''[[Bagous]]'' and the [[Hydrellia pakistanae|Asian hydrilla leaf-mining fly]] (''Hydrellia pakistanae'').<ref name=UFIFAS/> [[Tuber]]s pose a problem as they can lie dormant for a number of years, making it even more difficult to remove from waterways and estuaries. ''Hydrilla'' holds the advantage in that it can spread efficiently through both tubers and [[Turion (botany)|turion]]s.<ref name=CCE>{{cite web|url=http://ccetompkins.org/environment/invasive-species/ecological-impacts-hydrilla|title=Ecological Impacts of Hydrilla|publisher=Cornell University Cooperative Extension|date=July 24, 2014|access-date=December 20, 2014}}</ref>
''Hydrilla'' can be controlled by [[herbicide]]s, as well as [[grass carp]],<ref name=UFIFAS>{{cite journal|last=Langeland |first=Kenneth A. |url=http://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/node/184 |title=The Perfect Aquatic Weed |journal=[[Castanea]] |volume=61 |publisher=[[University of Florida]], [[Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences]] |date=1996 |access-date=December 20, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102084523/http://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/node/184 |archive-date=November 2, 2014 }}</ref> itself an invasive species in North America. Insects used as [[biological pest control]] for this plant include weevils of the genus ''[[Bagous]]'' and the [[Hydrellia pakistanae|Asian hydrilla leaf-mining fly]] (''Hydrellia pakistanae'').<ref name=UFIFAS/> [[Tuber]]s pose a problem as they can lie dormant for a number of years, making it even more difficult to remove from waterways and estuaries. ''Hydrilla'' can spread efficiently through both tubers and [[Turion (botany)|turion]]s.<ref name=CCE>{{cite web|url=http://ccetompkins.org/environment/invasive-species/ecological-impacts-hydrilla|title=Ecological Impacts of Hydrilla|publisher=Cornell University Cooperative Extension|date=July 24, 2014|access-date=December 20, 2014}}</ref>


In 2011 the inlet of [[Cayuga Lake]], one of the [[Finger Lakes]] in New York State, used the chemical herbicide [[endothall]] to try to head off a possible future disaster. The first year nearly $100,000 and numerous man-hours were spent trying to eradicate the ''Hydrilla'' infestation. Follow-up treatments were planned for at least five years. The City of [[Ithaca, New York|Ithaca]] as well as other local officials are willing to pay the price because without quick action the plant could get into the lake and possibly spread to other Finger Lakes in the region.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150118022422/http://ccetompkins.org/environment/invasive-species/fighting-hydrilla2011 2011 Hydrilla Eradication Efforts – Cornell Cooperative Extension of Tompkins County]. Ccetompkins.org (2013-09-16). Retrieved on 2017-08-10.</ref>
In 2011 an inlet of [[Cayuga Lake]], one of the [[Finger Lakes]] in New York State, faced a ''Hydrilla'' introduction. The city of [[Ithaca, New York|Ithaca]] and other local officials used the chemical herbicide [[endothall]] to try to head off establishment in the Finger Lakes, which would have been disastrous for their ecosystems. The first year nearly $100,000 and many man-hours were spent trying to eradicate the ''Hydrilla'' infestation. Follow-up treatments were planned for at least five years.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150118022422/http://ccetompkins.org/environment/invasive-species/fighting-hydrilla2011 2011 Hydrilla Eradication Efforts – Cornell Cooperative Extension of Tompkins County]. Ccetompkins.org (2013-09-16). Retrieved on 2017-08-10.</ref>


In August 2021 ''Hydrilla'' was discovered growing in a small boat marina that is connected to the Niagara River in the city of [[North Tonawanda]] New York. The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation is involved and working to contain the infestation according to local TV reports.<ref>https://www.wivb.com/news/local-news/niagara-county/north-tonawanda/invasive-hydrilla-plant-found-in-north-tonawanda-marina/ Invasive "hydrilla" plant found in North Tonawanda Marina (2021-08-20) Retrieved on 2021-08-23.</ref>
In August 2021 ''Hydrilla'' was discovered growing in a small boat marina connected to the Niagara River in the city of [[North Tonawanda]], New York. The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation is working to contain the infestation.<ref>https://www.wivb.com/news/local-news/niagara-county/north-tonawanda/invasive-hydrilla-plant-found-in-north-tonawanda-marina/ Invasive "hydrilla" plant found in North Tonawanda Marina (2021-08-20) Retrieved on 2021-08-23.</ref>


In September 2021, according to local TV reports, the Connecticut River Conservancy stated that ''Hydrilla'' has been overwhelming tributary rivers, coves, inlets and riverbanks along the river for years. Kelsey Wentling, a river steward at the Connecticut River Conservancy stated, "''Hydrilla'' can spread through a process known as fragmentation, in which the plants, due to some sort of disruption, break apart and regrow elsewhere. Fragmentation often happens when boats go through a patch of ''Hydrilla''. For this reason, it is critical that those using paddle boats, power boats, jet skis, and fishing equipment in the Connecticut River be aware of invasive ''Hydrilla'' and then take steps to reduce its spread." It has also been reported by local marinas and municipalities that they can no longer access certain boat slips and docks due to the density and severity of the ''Hydrilla''. The Connecticut River Conservancy in September 2021 requested area boaters to complete a survey to help with the ongoing management of the invasive plant.<ref name="WTNH-Conn-2021">{{cite web | last=Gentile | first=Isabella | title=Connecticut River Conservancy seeks boater feedback on invasive plant preventing access on the river | website=[[WTNH]] | date=2021-09-21 | url=http://www.wtnh.com/news/connecticut/connecticut-river-conservancy-seeks-boater-feedback-on-invasive-plant-preventing-access-on-the-river/ | access-date=2021-09-24}}</ref>
In September 2021, the Connecticut River Conservancy stated that ''Hydrilla'' has been overwhelming tributary rivers, coves, inlets and riverbanks along the river for years. Kelsey Wentling, a river steward at the Connecticut River Conservancy, stated, "''Hydrilla'' can spread through a process known as fragmentation, in which the plants, due to some sort of disruption, break apart and regrow elsewhere. Fragmentation often happens when boats go through a patch of ''Hydrilla''. For this reason, it is critical that those using paddle boats, power boats, jet skis, and fishing equipment in the Connecticut River be aware of invasive ''Hydrilla'' and then take steps to reduce its spread." It has also been reported by local marinas and municipalities that they can no longer access certain boat slips and docks due to the density of ''Hydrilla''. The Connecticut River Conservancy in September 2021 requested area boaters to complete a survey to help with the ongoing management of the invasive plant.<ref name="WTNH-Conn-2021">{{cite web | last=Gentile | first=Isabella | title=Connecticut River Conservancy seeks boater feedback on invasive plant preventing access on the river | website=[[WTNH]] | date=2021-09-21 | url=http://www.wtnh.com/news/connecticut/connecticut-river-conservancy-seeks-boater-feedback-on-invasive-plant-preventing-access-on-the-river/ | access-date=2021-09-24}}</ref>


==Phytoremediation==
==Phytoremediation==
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Latest revision as of 04:16, 20 October 2024

Hydrilla
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Order: Alismatales
Family: Hydrocharitaceae
Genus: Hydrilla
Rich.
Species:
H. verticillata
Binomial name
Hydrilla verticillata

Hydrilla (waterthyme) is a genus of aquatic plant, usually treated as containing just one species, Hydrilla verticillata, though some botanists divide it into several species. It is native to the cool and warm waters of the Old World in Asia, Africa and Australia, with a sparse, scattered distribution; in Australia from Northern Territory, Queensland, and New South Wales.[2][3][4]

The stems grow up to 1–2 m long. The leaves are arranged in whorls of two to eight around the stem, each leaf 5–20 mm long and 0.7–2 mm broad, with serrations or small spines along the leaf margins; the leaf midrib is often reddish when fresh. It is monoecious (sometimes dioecious), with male and female flowers produced separately on a single plant; the flowers are small, with three sepals and three petals, the petals 3–5 mm long, transparent with red streaks. It reproduces primarily vegetatively by fragmentation and by rhizomes and turions (overwintering), and flowers are rarely seen.[3][5][6][7] They have air spaces to keep them upright.

Hydrilla has a high resistance to salinity compared to many other freshwater aquatic plants.

Taxonomy and naming

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Hydrilla closely resembles some other related aquatic plants, including Egeria densa and Elodea canadensis.[8] Synonyms include H. asiatica, H. japonica, H. lithuanica, and H. ovalifolica.[citation needed]

Ecology

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Hydrilla verticillata is allelopathic to the common hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum) and prickly hornwort (C. muricatum), that is, it produces compounds that inhibit growth of the latter two species.[9]

As aquatic macrophytes, Hydrilla play critical roles in the ecosystem. They influence nutrient cycles and the ecology of the body of water, as well as the sediments.[10] Hydrilla interacts with other organisms, supplying food and nutrients as well as habitats and shelters.[11]

Hydrilla can have negative impacts in aquatic communities. When abundant, they affect dissolved oxygen levels, which can lead to decline in populations of fish, invertebrates, and other plant species.[12]

Status as an invasive plant

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Introduction

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Foliage detail

Hydrilla is naturalized and invasive in the United States following release in the 1950s and 1960s from aquariums into waterways in Florida, due to the aquarium trade.[8] It is now established in parts of southern Canada and in the United States from Connecticut to Texas, and also in California.[13] By the 1990s control and management were costing millions of dollars each year.[14]

The plant was introduced when a Florida West Coast aquarium dealer shipped live Hydrilla from Sri Lanka under the common name "Indian star-vine."[15] These plants were considered unsatisfactory and were dumped into a canal near Tampa Bay, where they flourished.[15] By 1955, the plants found their way from Tampa to Miami as they were transported for cultivation and pet trade sale.[15] It is believed that several undocumented cases of accidental or careless releases followed, as there was extensive spread of the Hydrilla throughout Florida and the southeastern United States.[15]

Problems

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A thick bed of Hydrilla in the Mallows Bay–Potomac River National Marine Sanctuary in Charles County. Maryland.

Due to the combination of herbicide resistance, high growth rates, high ecological adaptability, dispersion ability, and low resources required, Hydrilla is able to invade almost every region of the world and spread at an alarming rate, affecting the ecosystem in a negative manner.[16] The high photosynthesis rate of Hydrilla leads to the depletion in dissolved carbon dioxide during daytime, which raises the pH, and to higher concentrations of oxygen. At night, the oxygen is used for oxidative phosphorylation, resulting in anoxia, and carbon dioxide is replenished, which in turn lowers the pH.[17]

As an invasive species in Florida, Hydrilla has become the most serious aquatic weed problem for Florida and most of the U.S. Because it was such a threat as an invasive species, one of the first cost-effective broadscale herbicide controls developed was fluridone. Unfortunately, this single-use herbicide resulted in fluridone-resistant Hydrilla. "As Hydrilla spread rapidly to lakes across the southern United States in the past, the expansion of resistant biotypes is likely to pose significant environmental challenges in the future."[18][19]

Hydrilla populations have caused economic, environmental, and ecological damage.[14] Hydrilla is known to be an aggressive and competitive plant, out-competing and displacing native species, such as pondweeds and eelgrass.[15][20][21] Hydrilla has thus created monocultures, areas dominated by a single species, rather than having a balance among many species, as in a normal ecosystem.[21]

In Australia, Hydrilla can become invasive if the nutrient levels are raised in disturbed ecosystems, though is not generally known to be problematic.[22]

Hydrilla can host a biofilm of the cyanobacteria Aetokthonos hydrillicola, which can produce the brominated neurotoxin aetokthonotoxin — the causative agent of avian vacuolar myelinopathy, a fatal brain wasting disease of waterfowl and raptors.[23]

Management

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Hydrilla verticillata collection at Lake Seminole, Florida

Hydrilla can be controlled by herbicides, as well as grass carp,[20] itself an invasive species in North America. Insects used as biological pest control for this plant include weevils of the genus Bagous and the Asian hydrilla leaf-mining fly (Hydrellia pakistanae).[20] Tubers pose a problem as they can lie dormant for a number of years, making it even more difficult to remove from waterways and estuaries. Hydrilla can spread efficiently through both tubers and turions.[21]

In 2011 an inlet of Cayuga Lake, one of the Finger Lakes in New York State, faced a Hydrilla introduction. The city of Ithaca and other local officials used the chemical herbicide endothall to try to head off establishment in the Finger Lakes, which would have been disastrous for their ecosystems. The first year nearly $100,000 and many man-hours were spent trying to eradicate the Hydrilla infestation. Follow-up treatments were planned for at least five years.[24]

In August 2021 Hydrilla was discovered growing in a small boat marina connected to the Niagara River in the city of North Tonawanda, New York. The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation is working to contain the infestation.[25]

In September 2021, the Connecticut River Conservancy stated that Hydrilla has been overwhelming tributary rivers, coves, inlets and riverbanks along the river for years. Kelsey Wentling, a river steward at the Connecticut River Conservancy, stated, "Hydrilla can spread through a process known as fragmentation, in which the plants, due to some sort of disruption, break apart and regrow elsewhere. Fragmentation often happens when boats go through a patch of Hydrilla. For this reason, it is critical that those using paddle boats, power boats, jet skis, and fishing equipment in the Connecticut River be aware of invasive Hydrilla and then take steps to reduce its spread." It has also been reported by local marinas and municipalities that they can no longer access certain boat slips and docks due to the density of Hydrilla. The Connecticut River Conservancy in September 2021 requested area boaters to complete a survey to help with the ongoing management of the invasive plant.[26]

Phytoremediation

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This abundant source of biomass is a known bioremediation hyperaccumulator of mercury, cadmium, chromium and lead, and as such can be used in phytoremediation.[27]

References

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  1. ^ Zhuang, X. & Beentje, H.J. (2017). "Hydrilla verticillata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T167871A65905991. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-1.RLTS.T167871A65905991.en. Retrieved 12 August 2023.
  2. ^ Flora Europaea: Hydrilla
  3. ^ a b Flora of Taiwan: Hydrilla Archived 2007-11-26 at the Wayback Machine
  4. ^ "Hydrilla". Australian Plant Name Index (APNI). Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research, Australian Government. Retrieved 15 March 2023.
  5. ^ Flora of NW Europe: Hydrilla verticillata Archived 2007-12-08 at the Wayback Machine
  6. ^ Blamey, M. & Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). Flora of Britain and Northern Europe. ISBN 0-340-40170-2
  7. ^ Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan ISBN 0-333-47494-5.
  8. ^ a b "General Information About Hydrilla". State of Washington, Department of Ecology. Archived from the original on 2014-12-20. Retrieved December 20, 2014.
  9. ^ Manjula Kulshreshtha; B. Gopal (1983). "Allelopathic influence of Hydrilla verticillata (L.F.) Royle on the distribution of Ceratophyllum species". Aquatic Botany. 16 (2): 207–09. Bibcode:1983AqBot..16..207K. doi:10.1016/0304-3770(83)90095-5.
  10. ^ Barko, John W.; Smart, R. Michael; McFarland, Dwilette G.; Chen, Rex L. (1988). "Interrelationships between the growth of Hydrilla Verticillata (L.f.) Royle and sediment nutrient availability". Aquatic Botany. 32 (3): 205–216. Bibcode:1988AqBot..32..205B. doi:10.1016/0304-3770(88)90116-7.
  11. ^ Pelicice, Fernando Mayer; Agostinho, Angelo Antonio; Thomaz, Sidiniei Magela (2005). "Fish assemblages associated with Egeria in a tropical reservoir: investigating the effects of plant biomass and diel period". Acta Oecologica. 27 (1): 9–16. Bibcode:2005AcO....27....9P. doi:10.1016/j.actao.2004.08.004.
  12. ^ Simberloff, Daniel (2021). "Maintenance management and eradication of established quatic invaders". Hydrobiologia. 848 (9): 2399–2420. doi:10.1007/s10750-020-04352-5. PMC 7407435. PMID 32836349.
  13. ^ Flora of North America: Hydrilla verticillata
  14. ^ a b "Ecological and Economic Costs Associated with Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata)". Northeast Aquatic Nuisance Species Panel. Archived from the original on December 20, 2014. Retrieved December 20, 2014.
  15. ^ a b c d e Masterson, J. (October 4, 2007). Hydrilla verticillata (Technical report). Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce. Retrieved December 20, 2014.
  16. ^ Langeland, Kenneth A. (1996). "Hydrilla verticillata (L.F.) Royle (Hydrocharitaceae), "The Perfect Aquatic Weed"". Castanea. 61 (3): 293–304. JSTOR 4033682.
  17. ^ Colon-Gaud, Jose-Checo; Kelso, W. E.; Rutherford, D. A. (2004). "Spatial Distribution of Macroinvertebrates Inhabiting Hydrilla and Coontail Beds in the Atchafalaya Basin, Louisiana". Journal of Aquatic Plant Management. 42 (1): 85–91.
  18. ^ "Aquatic Spraying Study Committee - SB2286 - Nov 15th, 2018".
  19. ^ Peterson, A. T.; Papes, M.; Kluza, D. A. (2003). "Predicting the potential invasive distributions of five alien plant species in North America" (PDF). Weed Science. 51 (6): 863. doi:10.1614/P2002-081. S2CID 86208277.[permanent dead link‍]
  20. ^ a b c Langeland, Kenneth A. (1996). "The Perfect Aquatic Weed". Castanea. 61. University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Archived from the original on November 2, 2014. Retrieved December 20, 2014.
  21. ^ a b c "Ecological Impacts of Hydrilla". Cornell University Cooperative Extension. July 24, 2014. Retrieved December 20, 2014.
  22. ^ William Thomas Parsons; Eric George Cuthbertson (2001). Noxious Weeds of Australia. Collingwood, Victoria: Csiro Publishing. pp. 67–70. ISBN 9780643065147.
  23. ^ Breinlinger, Steffen; Phillips, Tabitha J.; Haram, Brigette N.; Mareš, Jan; Yerena, José A. Martínez; Hrouzek, Pavel; Sobotka, Roman; Henderson, W. Matthew; Schmieder, Peter; Williams, Susan M.; Lauderdale, James D. (2021-03-26). "Hunting the eagle killer: A cyanobacterial neurotoxin causes vacuolar myelinopathy". Science. 371 (6536): eaax9050. doi:10.1126/science.aax9050. ISSN 0036-8075. PMC 8318203. PMID 33766860.
  24. ^ 2011 Hydrilla Eradication Efforts – Cornell Cooperative Extension of Tompkins County. Ccetompkins.org (2013-09-16). Retrieved on 2017-08-10.
  25. ^ https://www.wivb.com/news/local-news/niagara-county/north-tonawanda/invasive-hydrilla-plant-found-in-north-tonawanda-marina/ Invasive "hydrilla" plant found in North Tonawanda Marina (2021-08-20) Retrieved on 2021-08-23.
  26. ^ Gentile, Isabella (2021-09-21). "Connecticut River Conservancy seeks boater feedback on invasive plant preventing access on the river". WTNH. Retrieved 2021-09-24.
  27. ^ McCutcheon, Steven C.; Schnoor, Jerald L. (2004). Phytoremediation: Transformation and Control of Contaminants. John Wiley & Sons. p. 898. ISBN 978-0-471-45932-3.
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