Old Prussian language: Difference between revisions

Old Prussian
Old Prussian
Prūsiskai; Prūsiska bilā (revived)
	Catechism in Old Prussian from 1545
Region	Prussia
Ethnicity	Baltic Prussians
Extinct	Early 18th century
Revival	2 L1 speakers (2021); 50 L2 speakers (no date)
Language family	Indo-European Balto-Slavic Baltic West Baltic Old Prussian; ; ; ;
Writing system	Latin
Language codes
ISO 639-3	prg
Linguist List	prg.html
Glottolog	prus1238
Linguasphere	54-AAC-a
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Old Prussian is an extinct West Baltic language belonging to the Baltic branch of the Indo-European languages, which was once spoken by the Old Prussians, the Baltic peoples of the Prussian region. The language is called Old Prussian to avoid confusion with the German dialects of Low Prussian and High Prussian and with the adjective Prussian as it relates to the later German state. Old Prussian began to be written down in the Latin alphabet in about the 13th century, and a small amount of literature in the language survives. In modern times, there has been a revival movement of Old Prussian, and there are families which use Old Prussian as their first language.^[5]^: 4–7

Classification

Old Prussian is an Indo-European language belonging to the Baltic branch. It is considered to be a Western Baltic language.

Old Prussian was closely related to the other extinct West Baltic languages, namely Sudovian, West Galindian^[7] and possibly Skalvian and Old Curonian.^[8]^: 33^[9] Other linguists consider Western Galindian and Skalvian to be Prussian dialects.^[10]^: 15

It is related to the East Baltic languages such as Lithuanian and Latvian, and more distantly related to Slavic. Compare the words for 'land': Old Prussian semmē [zemē], Latvian: zeme, Lithuanian: žemė, Russian: земля́, (zemljá) and Polish: ziemia.^{[citation needed]}

Old Prussian had loanwords from Slavic languages (e.g., Old Prussian curtis [kurtis] 'hound', like Lithuanian kùrtas and Latvian kur̃ts, cognate with Slavic (compare Ukrainian: хорт, khort; Polish: chart; Czech: chrt)), as well as a few borrowings from Germanic, including from Gothic (e.g., Old Prussian ylo 'awl' as with Lithuanian ýla, Latvian īlens) and from Scandinavian languages.^[11]

Influence on other languages

Germanic

The Low German language spoken in Prussia (or West Prussia and East Prussia), called Low Prussian (cf. High Prussian, High German),^[12] preserved a number of Baltic Prussian words, such as Kurp, from the Old Prussian kurpe, for shoe in contrast to common Low German: Schoh (Standard German Schuh),^[13] as did the High Prussian Oberland subdialect.^[14]

Until the 1938 changing of place names in East Prussia, Old Prussian river- and place-names, such as Tawe and Tawellningken, could still be found.^[15]^[16]^[17]^: 137

Polish

One of the hypotheses regarding the origin of mazurzenie – a phonological merger of dentialveolar and postalveolar sibilants in many Polish dialects – states that it originated as a feature of Polonized Old Prussians in Masuria (see Masurian dialects) and spread from there.^[18]

History

Original territory

In addition to Prussia proper, the original territory of the Old Prussians may have included eastern parts of Pomerelia (some parts of the region east of the Vistula River). The language may also have been spoken much further east and south in what became Polesia and part of Podlasie, before conquests by Rus and Poles starting in the 10th century and the German colonisation of the area starting in the 12th century.^[8]^: 23^[19]^: 324

Decline

With the conquest of the Old Prussian territory by the Teutonic Knights in the 13th century, and the subsequent influx of Polish, Lithuanian and especially German speakers, Old Prussian experienced a 400-year-long decline as an "oppressed language of an oppressed population".^[20]^: VII Groups of people from Germany, Poland,^[21]^: 115 Lithuania, Scotland,^[22] England,^[23] and Austria (see Salzburg Protestants) found refuge in Prussia during the Protestant Reformation and thereafter.^[5]^: 1 Old Prussian ceased to be spoken probably around the beginning of the 18th century,^[4] because many of its remaining speakers died in the famines and the bubonic plague outbreak which harrowed the East Prussian countryside and towns from 1709 until 1711.^[24]

Revitalization

In the 1980s, linguists Vladimir Toporov and Vytautas Mažiulis started reconstructing the Prussian language as a scientific project and a humanitarian gesture. Some enthusiasts thereafter began to revive the language based on their reconstruction.^[5]^: 3–4

Most current speakers live in Germany, Poland, Lithuania and Kaliningrad (Russia). Additionally, a few children are native in Revived Prussian.^[5]^: 4–7^[25]

Today, there are websites, online dictionaries, learning apps and games for Revived Prussian, and one children's book – Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's The Little Prince – was translated into Revived Prussian by Piotr Szatkowski (Pīteris Šātkis) and published by the Prusaspirā Society in 2015.^[5]^: 4–7^[25] Moreover, some bands use Revived Prussian, most notably in the Kaliningrad Oblast by the bands Romowe Rikoito,^[26] Kellan^[27] and Āustras Laīwan, as well as in Lithuania by Kūlgrinda on their 2005 album Prūsų Giesmės ('Prussian Hymns'),^[28] and Latvia by Rasa Ensemble in 1988^[29] and Valdis Muktupāvels in his 2005 oratorio "Pārcēlātājs Pontifex" featuring several parts sung in Prussian.^[30]

Dialects

The Elbing Vocabulary and the Catechisms display systematical differences in phonology, vocabulary and grammar. Some scholars postulate that this is due to them being recordings of different dialects:^[20]^{: XXI–XXII} Pomesanian^[10]^: 25–89 and Sambian.^[10]^: 90–220

Phonetical distinctions are: Pom. ē is Samb. ī (sweta- : swīta- 'world'); Pom. ō, Samb. ū after a labial (mōthe [mōte] : mūti 'mother') or Pom. ō, Samb. ā (tōwis : tāws 'father'; brōte : brāti 'brother'), which influences the nominative suffixes of feminine ā-stems (crauyō [kraujō] : krawia 'blood'). The nominative suffixes of the masculine o-stems are weakened to -is in Pomesanian; in Sambian they are syncopated (deywis : deiws 'god').

Vocabulary differences encompass Pom. smoy [zmoy] (cf. Lith. žmuo) , Samb. wijrs 'man'; Pom. wayklis, Samb. soūns 'son' and Pom. samien, Samb. laucks [lauks] 'field'. The neuter gender is more often found in Pomesianan than in Sambian.

Others argue that the Catechisms are written in a Yatvingized Prussian. The differences noted above could therefore be explained as being features of a different West Baltic language Yatvingian/Sudovian.^[31]

Phonology

Consonants

The Prussian language is described to have the following consonants:^[32]^: 16–28^[10]^: 62

		Labial		Dental/ Alveolar		Post- alveolar		Velar		Glottal
		plain	pal.	plain	pal.	plain	pal.	plain	pal.	Glottal
Plosive	voiceless	p	pʲ	t	tʲ			k	kʲ
Plosive	voiced	b	bʲ	d	dʲ			ɡ	ɡʲ
Fricative	voiceless	f^[a]		s	sʲ	ʃ^[b]	ʃʲ^[b]			h^[a]
Fricative	voiced	v	vʲ	z	zʲ	ʒ^[b]	ʒʲ^[b]
Nasal		m	mʲ	n	nʲ
Trill				r	rʲ
Approximant				l	lʲ	j

^ ^a ^b The sounds /f/ and /h/ also existed in Old Prussian, but are disputed as to whether they are native to the language as they are non-native to Lithuanian and Latvian.^[32]^: 28
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Palato-alveolar fricatives [ʃ, ʒ] are recorded as well, usually with the German orthography-style ⟨sch⟩.^[32]^: 27 They were allophones of /s/ or /z/ in Pomesanian, but distinct phonemes in Sambian.^[10]^: 101

There is said to have existed palatalization (i.e. [tʲ], [dʲ]) among nearly all of the consonant sounds except for /j/, and possibly for /ʃ/ and /ʒ/.^[32]^: 26^[19]^: 348 Whether or not the palatalization was phonemic remains unclear.^[10]^: 62

Apart from the palatalizations Proto-Baltic consonants were almost completely preserved. The only changes postulated are turning Proto-Baltic /ʃ, ʒ/ into Prussian /s, z/ and subsequently changing Proto-Baltic /sj/ into /ʃ/.^[10]^: 61–62^[19]^{: 348–349}

Vowels

The following description is based on the phonological analysis by Schmalstieg:^[33]

	Front		Central		Back
	short	long	short	long	short	long
High	i	iː			u	uː
Mid	e	eː				oː
Low			a	aː

/a, a:/ could also have been realized as [ɔ, ɔ:]
/oː/ is not universally accepted, p.e. by Levin (1975)^[34]

Diphthongs

Schmalstieg proposes three native diphthongs:^[32]^: 19–20

	Front	Back
Mid	ei
Open	ai	au

/au/ may have also been realized as a mid-back diphthong [eu] after palatalized consonants.
/ui/ occurs in the word cuylis, which is thought to be a loanword.

Grammar

With other remains being merely word lists, the grammar of Old Prussian is reconstructed chiefly on the basis of the three Catechisms.^[35]^: ix

Nouns

Gender

Old Prussian preserved the Proto-Baltic neuter. Therefore, it had three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter).^[36]^{: 41–42, 47}^[37]^: 40^[19]^{: 355–356}

Number

Most scholars agree that there are two numbers, singular and plural, in Old Prussian,^[36]^{: 41–42, 47}^[37]^: 40^[19]^: 353 while some consider remnants of a dual identifiable in the existent corpus.^[38]^[39]^[35]^: 198

Cases

There is no consensus on the number of cases that Old Prussian had, and at least four can be determined with certainty: nominative, genitive, accusative and dative, with different suffixes.^[35]^{: 171–197}^[19]^: 356^[37]^: 40 Most scholars agree, that there are traces of a vocative case, such as in the phrase O Deiwe Rikijs 'O God the Lord', reflecting the inherited PIE vocative ending *-e,^[35]^: 251^[10]^: 109 differing from nominative forms in o-stem nouns only.^[19]^: 356

Some scholars find instrumental forms,^[35]^: 197 while the traditional view is that no instrumental case existed in Old Prussian.^[19]^: 356 There could be some locative forms, e.g. bītai ('in the evening').^[19]^: 356^[40]

Noun stems

Declensional classes were a-stems (also called o-stems), (i)ja-stems (also called (i)jo-stems), ā-stems (feminine), ē-stems (feminine), i-stems, u-stems, and consonant-stems.^[10]^: 66–80^[37]^: 41–62^[19]^: 357^[32]^: 42–43 Some also list ī/jā-stems as a separate stem,^[10]^: 66–80^[37]^: 41–62 while others include jā-stems into ā-stems and do not mention ī-stems at all.^[32]^: 37

Adjectives

There were three adjective stems (a-stems, i-stems, u-stems), of which only the first agreed with the noun in gender.^[19]^: 360^[37]^: 63–65

There was a comparative and a superlative form.^[37]^: 65–66^[19]^{: 360–361}

Verbal morphology

When it comes to verbal morphology present, future and past tense are attested, as well as optative forms (used with imperative or permissive forms of verbs), infinitive, and four participles (active/passive present/past).^[35]^{: 211–233}

Orthography

The orthography varies depending on the author. As the authors of many sources were themselves not proficient in Old Prussian, they wrote the words as they heard them using the orthographical conventions of their mother tongue. For example, the use of ⟨s⟩ for both /s/ and /z/ is based on German orthography. Additionally, the writers misunderstood some phonemes and, when copying manuscripts, they added further mistakes.^[10]^: 63^[11]^[19]^: 337

Corpus of Old Prussian

Onomastics

There was Prussian toponomy and hydronomy within the territory of (Baltic) Prussia. Georg Gerullis undertook the first basic study of these names in Die altpreußischen Ortsnamen ('The Old Prussian Place-names'), written and published with the help of Walter de Gruyter, in 1922.^[15]

Another source are personal names.^[41]

Evidence from other languages

Further sources for Prussian words are Vernacularisms in the German dialects of East and West Prussia, as well as words of Old Curonian origin in Latvian and West-Baltic vernacularisms in Lithuanian and Belarusian.^[2]^: 4^[42]

Vocabularies

Two Prussian vocabularies are known. The older one by Simon Grunau (Simon Grunovius), a historian of the Teutonic Knights, encompasses 100 words (in strongly varying versions). He also recorded an expression: sta nossen rickie, nossen rickie ('This (is) our lord, our lord'). The vocabulary is part of the Preussische Chronik written c. 1517–1526.^[20]^{: XXV–XXVI}

The second one is the so-called Elbing Vocabulary, which consists of 802 thematically sorted words and their German equivalents. Peter Holcwesscher from Marienburg copied the manuscript around 1400; the original dates from the beginning of the 14th or the end of the 13th century. It was found in 1825 by Fr Neumann among other manuscripts acquired by him from the heritage of the Elbing merchant A. Grübnau; it was thus dubbed the Codex Neumannianus.^[2]^: 7-8^[32]^: 4

Fragmentary texts

There are separate words found in various historical documents.^[2]^: 4

The following fragments are commonly thought of as Prussian, but are probably actually Lithuanian (at least the adage, however, has been argued to be genuinely West Baltic, only an otherwise unattested dialect^[43]):

An adage of 1583, Dewes does dantes, Dewes does geitka: the form does in the second instance corresponds to Lithuanian future tense duos ('will give')
Trencke, trencke! ('Strike! Strike!')

Fragmentary Lord's Prayer

Additionally, there is one manuscript fragment of the first words of the Pater Noster in Prussian, from the beginning of the 15th century:^[2]^: 437

Towe Nüsze kås esse andangonsün
swyntins

Maletius' Sudovian Book

Vytautas Mažiulis lists another few fragmentary texts recorded in several versions by Hieronymus Maletius in the Sudovian Book in the middle of the 16th century. Palmaitis regards them as Sudovian proper.^[2]^{: 7; 437}

Beigeite beygeyte peckolle ('Run, run, devils!')
Kails naussen gnigethe ('Hello our friend!')
Kails poskails ains par antres – a drinking toast, reconstructed as Kaīls pas kaīls, aīns per āntran ('A cheer for a cheer, a tit for tat', literally: 'A healthy one after a healthy one, one after another!')
Kellewesze perioth, Kellewesze perioth ('A carter drives here, a carter drives here!')
Ocho moy myle schwante panicke – also recorded as O hoho Moi mile swente Pannike, O ho hu Mey mile swenthe paniko, O mues miles schwante Panick ('Oh my dear holy fire!')

Complete texts

In addition to the texts listed beneath, there are several colophons written by Prussian scriptors who worked in Prague and in the court of Lithuanian duke Butautas Kęstutaitis.

Basel Epigram

The so-called Basel Epigram is the oldest written Prussian sentence (1369).^[2]^: 33–35^[44] It reads:

Kayle rekyse
thoneaw labonache thewelyse
Eg koyte poyte
nykoyte pênega doyte

Cheers, Sir!
You are no longer a good little comrade
if you want to drink
(but) do not want to give a penny!

This jocular inscription was most probably made by a Prussian student studying in Prague (Charles University); found by Stephen McCluskey (1974) in manuscript MS F.V.2 (book of physics Questiones super Meteororum by Nicholas Oresme), fol. 63r, stored in the Basel University library.

Catechisms

The longest texts preserved in Old Prussian are three Catechisms printed in Königsberg in 1545, 1545, and 1561 respectively. The first two consist of only six pages of text in Old Prussian – the second one being a correction of the first. The third catechism, or Enchiridion, consists of 132 pages of text, and is a translation of Luther's Small Catechism by a German cleric called Abel Will, with his Prussian assistant Paul Megott. Will himself knew little or no Old Prussian, and his Prussian interpreter was probably illiterate, but according to Will spoke Old Prussian quite well. The text itself is mainly a word-for-word translation, and Will phonetically recorded Megott's oral translation. Because of this, the Enchiridion exhibits many irregularities, such as the lack of case agreement in phrases involving an article and a noun, which followed word-for-word German originals as opposed to native Old Prussian syntax.^[20]^: XXVII^[2]^: 8–9

Trace of Crete

The "Trace of Crete" is a short poem added by a Baltic writer in Chania to a manuscript of the Logica Parva by Paul of Venice.^[45]

Atonaige maian meilan am ne wede maianwargan
Thaure ne ſtonais po pieſ pievſſenabdolenai galei ragai
Stonais po leipen zaidiant acha peda bete medde

Stand under the May tree willingly/dear – the May tree does not bring you to misery
Aurochs, do not stand under the pine tree – horns bring death,
Stand under the blooming linden tree – the bee brings honey here.

Sample texts

Lord's Prayer in Old Prussian (from the so-called "1st Catechism")^[2]^{: 118, 122}^[36]^: 4

Thawe nuson kas tu asse andangon.
Swintits wirst twais emmens.
Pergeis twais laeims.
Twais quaits audasseisin na semmey, key audangon.
Nusan deininan geittin deis numons schindeinan.
Bha atwerpeis numans nuson auschantins, kay mas atwerpimay nuson auschautenikamans.
Bha ny wedais mans enperbandan.
Sclait is rankeis mans assa wargan. Amen

Lord's Prayer after Simon Grunau (Curonian)^[19]^: 297^[46]^[36]^: XV

Nossen thewes cur tu es delbes
sweytz gischer tho wes wardes
penag munis tholbe mystlastilbi
tolpes prahes girkade delbeszisne tade symmes semmes worsunii
dodi mommys an nosse igdemas mayse
unde gaytkas pames mumys nusze noszeginu cademes pametam musen prettane kans
newede munis lawnā padomā
swalbadi munis nowusse loyne Jhesus amen.

Lord's Prayer after Prätorius (Curonian)^[47]^: 703^[a]

Thewes nossen, cur tu es Debbes,
Schwisch gesger thowes Wardes;
Pena mynis thowe Wiswalstybe;
Toppes Patres gir iat Delbeszisne, tade tymnes senjnes Worsinny;
Annosse igdenas Mayse dodi mums szon Dien;
Pamutale mums musu Noschegun, kademas pametan nousson Pyktainekans;
No wede numus panam Paadomam;
Swalbadi names ne wust Tayne.

Lord's Prayer in Lithuanian dialect of Insterburg (Prediger Hennig)^[47]^: 707

Tewe musu, kurs essi Danguje,
Buk szwenczamas Wardas tawo,
Ateik tawo Karalijste;
Buk tawo Walle kaip Danguje, taip ir an Zemes;
Duna musu dieniszka duk mums ir sze Diena;
Atleisk mums musu Kaltes, kaip mes atoeidzjam sawo Kaltiems;
Ne wesk mus Pagundima;
Bet gelbek mus nu Pikto.

Lord's Prayer in Lithuanian dialect of Nadruvia, corrupted (Simon Praetorius)^[47]^: 708

Tiewe musu, kursa tu essi Debsissa,
Szwints tiest taws Wards;
Akeik mums twa Walstybe;
Tawas Praats buk kaip Debbesissa taibant wirszu Sjemes;
Musu dieniszka May e duk mums ir szen Dienan;
Atmesk mums musu Griekus, kaip mes pammetam musi Pardokonteimus;
Ne te wedde mus Baidykle;
Bet te passarge mus mi wissa Louna (Pikta)

Notes

^ Adelung simply says "der Prätorius". This is most likely Matthäus Prätorius; because two pages earlier Adelung refers with approval to the writings of both Hartknoch and Prätorius,^[47]^: 701 and Christoph Hartknoch worked with Matthäus Prätorius.

References

^ The adverb Prūsiskai ('in Prussian') appears on the title page of the Königsberg catechism of 1561.
See Mažiulis, Vytautas (1996). Prūsų kalbos etimologijos žodynas [Etymological Dictionary of Old Prussian]. Vol. 3. Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. pp. 360–361. ISBN 978-54-2000-109-7.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Palmaitis, Mykolas Letas (2007). Old Prussian Written Monuments: Text and Comments (PDF). Kaunas: Lithuanian's World Center for Advancement of Culture, Science and Education. ISBN 978-9986-418-42-9.
^ Rantawa.org; suplits (31 May 2016). "Prūsiska bilā". Prūsas Tāutas Prēigara. Retrieved 27 July 2024.
^ ^a ^b Young, Steven (2008). "Baltic". In Kapović, Mate (ed.). The Indo-European Languages. London: Routledge. pp. 486–518. ISBN 978-03-6786-902-1.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Szatkowski, Piotr (2021). "Language practices in a family of Prussian language revivalists: Conclusions based on short-term participant observation". Adeptus (18). Institute of Slavic Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences. doi:10.11649/a.2626.
^ Old Prussian language at Ethnologue (22nd ed., 2019)
^ Tarasov, Iliya (January 2017). "The Balts in the migration period". Istoričeskij Format Исторический Формат (in Russian). 3–4: 95–124.
^ ^a ^b Gimbutas, Marija (1963). The Balts. Ancient peoples and places. Vol. 33. London: Thames and Hudson.
^ Zinkevičius, Zigmas (1996). The History of the Lithuanian Language. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. p. 51. ISBN 9785420013632.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Rinkevičius, Vytautas (2015). Prūsistikos pagrindai [Fundamentals of Prussian linguistics] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Vilniaus universitetas. ISBN 978-609-417-101-7.
^ ^a ^b Mažiulis, Vytautas. "Baltic languages". Encyclopædia Britannica. September 2022. Retrieved 9 November 2022.
^ Mitzka, Walther (1921). "Niederpreuſsisch" [Lower Prussian]. Zeitschrift für deutsche Mundarten (in German). 16. Franz Steiner Verlag: 151–154. JSTOR 40498264.
^ Bauer, Gerhard (2005). "Baltismen im ostpreußischen Deutsch: Hermann Frischbiers "Preussisches Wörterbuch" als volkskundliche Quelle" [Baltisms in Eastern Prussian German: Hermann Frischbier's "Prussian Dictionary" as ethnological source]. Annaberger Annalen (PDF) (in German). pp. 5–82.
^ Ziesemer, Walther (1923). "Beobachtungen zur Wortgeographie Ostpreuſsens" [Obeservations on word geography in East Prussia]. Zeitschrift für deutsche Mundarten (in German). 18 (3/4, "Festschrift Ferdinand Wrede (1923)"). Franz Steiner Verlag: 149–160. JSTOR 40498279.
^ ^a ^b Gerullis, Georg (1922). Die altpreußischen Ortsnamen [The Old Prussian place names] (PDF) (in German). Berlin, Leipzig: Vereinigung wissenschaftlicher Verleger.
^ Haack, Hermann (1930). Stielers Hand-Atlas (10 ed.). Justus Perthes. p. Plate 9.
^ Kossert, Andreas (2003). "'Grenzlandpolitik' und Ostforschung an der Peripherie des Reiches. Das ostpreußische Masuren 1919–1945" ['Borderland politics' and Ostforschung in the periphery of the German Empire. The East-Prussian Masuria 1919–1945]. Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (in German). 51 (2): 117–146. JSTOR 30196694.
^
- Dobrzycki, Stanisław (1901). "O tzw. mazurzeniu w języku polskim" [About the so-called mazurzenie in Polish]. Rozprawy Wydziału Filologicznego PAU (in Polish) (XXXII): 228–231.
- Селищев, Афанасий Матвеевич (1931). "Соканье и шоканье в славянских языках". Slavia (in Russian). X (4). Prague: Slovanský ústav v Praze: 718–741.
- Селищев, Афанасий Матвеевич (1969) [1941]. Западно-славянские языки [Western Slavic languages]. Славянское Языкознание (in Russian). Vol. I. The Hague: Mouton & Company. pp. 330–331.
- Milewski, Tadeusz (1937). "Stosunki językowe polsko-pruskie" [The linguistic relation of Polish and Old Prussian]. Slavia Occidentalis (in Polish) (XVIII): 21–84.
- Milewski, Tadeusz (1956). Chronologia i przyczyny mazurzenia [Chronology and causes of the mazurzenie] (in Polish). pp. 34–38.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ Dini, Pietro U. (2014). Foundations of Baltic languages. Translated by Richardson, Milda B.; Richardson, Robert E. Vilnius: Vilniaus universitetas. ISBN 978-609-437-263-6.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Trautmann, Reinhold (1910). Die altpreußischen Sprachdenkmäler [The Old Prussian language monuments]. Göttingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht.
^ Steed, Henry Wickham; Phillips, Walter Alison; Hannay, David (1914). "The Reformation Period". A Short History of Austria-Hungary and Poland. London: Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. Archived from the original on 4 August 2003.
^ "Scots in Eastern and Western Prussia, Part III – Documents (3)". Retrieved 18 February 2007.
^ Kownatzki, Hermann (1977) [unknown]. "Elbing als ehemaliger englischer Handelsplatz" [Elbing as a former English trading post] (PDF). Translated by Baumfelder, W. Magistrat der Stadt Elbing. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 July 2007. Retrieved 18 February 2007.
^ Klussis, Mikkels (2005). Dictionary of Revived Prussian (PDF). p. 4. Archived from the original on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 2 March 2018.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^ ^a ^b "Little Prince Published in Prussian". Culture.pl. Adam Mickiewicz Institute. 17 February 2015. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
^ "ROMOWE RIKOITO – Undēina". Dangus. Archived from the original on 24 March 2015. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
^ Ржевский, А. (12 December 2018). "Илья Левашов: То, что мы поем — это о нашей земле". Выходной (in Russian). Retrieved 11 October 2020.
^ "Senoji prūsų kalba atgimsta naujausioje grupės KŪLGRINDA plokštelėje" (in Lithuanian). Dangus. Archived from the original on 10 September 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
^ Smidchens, Guntis (2014). The Power of Song: Nonviolent National Culture in the Baltic Singing Revolution. University of Washington Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-295-99310-2.
^ Palmaitis, Mykolas Letas. "Oratorio "Pārcēlātājs Pontifex"". Prussian Reconstructions – Ethonology. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
^ Palmaitis, Mykolas Letas (2001). Grammatical Incompatibility of 2 Main Prussian "Dialects" as Implication of Different Phonological Systems (PDF). Colloquium Pruthenicum Tertium. Zakopane. pp. 63–77.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Schmalstieg, William Riegel (1991) [1974]. An Old Prussian grammar. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 9780271011707.
^ Schmalstieg, William Riegel (2005). "Vytautas Mažiulis. Prūsų kalbos istorinė gramatika: recenzija" [Vytautas Mažiulis. Historical grammar of the Prussian language: A review]. Baltu filoloģija. 14 (1). Latvijas Universitāte: 159–163. ISSN 1691-0036.
^ Levin, Jules (1975). "Dynamic Linguistics and Baltic Historical Phonology". General Linguistics. 15 (3). London, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press: 144–158.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Berneker, Erich (2019) [1896]. Die preußische Sprache [The Prussian language] (in German). Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. ISBN 9783111474861.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Nesselmann, Georg H. F. (2018) [1845]. Die Sprache der alten Preußen an ihren Überresten erklärt [The language of the old Prussians explained using its remains] (in German). Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. ISBN 9783111497969.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Mažiulis, Vytautas (2004). Historical grammar of Old Prussian. Translated by Palmaitis, Mykolas Letas. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. ISBN 978-609-8122-90-9.
^ Enzelīns, Jānis (1943). Senprūšu valoda: Ievads, gramatika un leksika. Riga: Universitātes apgāds. pp. 76, 80, 83.
^ Levin, Jules (1973). "-ja stems and -e stems in the Elbing Vocabulary". In Ziedonis, Arvids Jr.; Puhvel, Jaan; Šilbajoris, Rimvydas; Valgemäe, Mardi (eds.). Baltic Literature and Linguistics. Conference on Baltic studies. Columbus: Association for the Advancement of Baltic Studies. pp. 189–196. OCLC 867673.
^ Mažiulis, Vytautas (1988). Prūsų kalbos etimologijos žodynas [Etymological Dictionary of Old Prussian] (in Lithuanian). Vol. 1 (1 ed.). Vilnius: Mokslas. p. 144.
^ Trautmann, Reinhold (1974) [1925]. Die altpreußischen Personennamen [The Old Prussian personal names] (in German). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-27302-9.
^ Mitzka, Walther (1924). "Altpreußisches" [Old Prussian]. Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiet der Indogermanischen Sprachen (in German). 52 (1/2). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht: 129–147. JSTOR 40799583.
^ Hill, Eugen (2004). "Die sigmatischen Modus-Bildungen der indogermanischen Sprachen. Erste Abhandlung: Das baltische Futur und seine Verwandten" [The sigmatic modus formation in Indo-European languages. 1st Treatise: The Baltic future and its relatives]. International Journal of Diachronic Linguistics and Linguistic Reconstruction (in German). 1 (1): 69–171. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
^ Schaeken, Jos (2003). "The Old Prussian Basel Epigram".
^
- Kessler, Stephan; Mossman, Stephen (2013). "Ein Fund aus dem Jahre 1440: Ein bisher unbekannter Text in einer baltischen Sprache" [Find from the year 1440: A hitherto unknown text in a Baltic language]. Archivum Lithuanicum (in German). 15: 511–534.
- Lemeshkin, Ilja (January 2019). "Lituanica aliter". Billēmai Bhe Ersinnimai. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
^ Schmid, Wolfgang P. (1962). "Zu Simon Grunaus Vaterunser" [On Simon Grunau's Lord's Prayer]. Indogermanische Forschung (in German) (67). Berlin: 261–273.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Adelung, Johann Christoph (1809). "VII. Germanisch-Slavischer oder Lettischer Volksstamm" [VII. The Germanic-Slavic or Latvian tribe]. In Vater, Johann Severin (ed.). Mithridates oder Allgemeine Sprachenkunde, mit dem Vater Unser als Sprachprobe in bey nahe fünfhundert Sprachen und Mundarten [Mithridates or General linguistics using the Lord's Prayer in almost fivehundert languages and dialects] (in German). Vol. 2. Berlin: Vossische Buchhandlung [de]. Retrieved 21 November 2022.

Literature

Johann Christoph Adelung, Johann Severin Vater: Mithridates oder allgemeine Sprachenkunde mit dem Vater Unser als Sprachprobe in beynahe fünfhundert Sprachen und Mundarten, vol. 2, Berlin 1809, p. 700ff. ([1])
Johann Severin Vater: Die Sprache der alten Preußen: Einleitung, Ueberreste, Sprachlehre, Wörterbuch, Braunschweig 1821
G. H. F. Nesselmann, Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der preußischen Sprache, 2. Beitrag: Königsberg, 1871.
G. H. F. Nesselmann, Thesaurus linguae Prussicae, Berlin, 1873.
E. Berneker, Die preussische Sprache, Strassburg, 1896 ([2]).
R. Trautmann, Die altpreussischen Sprachdenkmäler, Göttingen, 1910.
Wijk, Nicolaas van, Altpreussiche Studien : Beiträge zur baltischen und zur vergleichenden indogermanischen Grammatik, Haag, 1918.
G. Gerullis, Die altpreussischen Ortsnamen, Berlin-Leipzig, 1922.
R. Trautmann, Die altpreussischen Personnennamen, Göttingen, 1925.
G. Gerullis, Zur Sprache der Sudauer-Jadwinger, in Festschrift A. Bezzenberger, Göttingen 1927
W. R. Schmalstieg, An Old Prussian Grammar, University Park and London, 1974.
W. R. Schmalstieg, Studies in Old Prussian, University Park and London, 1976.
V. Toporov, Prusskij jazyk: Slovar', A – L, Moskva, 1975–1990 (not finished).
L. Kilian: Zu Herkunft und Sprache der Prußen Wörterbuch Deutsch–Prußisch, Bonn 1980
(In Lithuanian) V. Mažiulis, Prūsų kalbos paminklai, Vilnius, t. I 1966, t. II 1981.
J. Endzelīns, Senprūšu valoda. – Gr. Darbu izlase, IV sēj., 2. daļa, Rīga, 1982. 9.-351. lpp.
V. Mažiulis, Prūsų kalbos etimologijos žodynas, Vilnius, t. I-IV, 1988–1997.
M. Biolik, Zuflüsse zur Ostsee zwischen unterer Weichsel und Pregel, Stuttgart, 1989.
R. Przybytek, Ortsnamen baltischer Herkunft im südlichen Teil Ostpreussens, Stuttgart, 1993.
R. Przybytek, Hydronymia Europaea, Ortsnamen baltischer Herkunft im südlichen Teil Ostpreußens, Stuttgart 1993
M. Biolik, Die Namen der stehenden Gewässer im Zuflussgebiet des Pregel, Stuttgart, 1993.
M. Biolik, Die Namen der fließenden Gewässer im Flussgebiet des Pregel, Stuttgart, 1996.
G. Blažienė, Die baltischen Ortsnamen in Samland, Stuttgart, 2000.
A. Kaukienė, Prūsų kalba, Klaipėda, 2002.
V. Mažiulis, Prūsų kalbos istorinė gramatika, Vilnius, 2004.
LEXICON BORVSSICVM VETVS. Concordantia et lexicon inversum. / Bibliotheca Klossiana I, Universitas Vytauti Magni, Kaunas, 2007.
OLD PRUSSIAN WRITTEN MONUMENTS. Facsimile, Transliteration, Reconstruction, Comments. / Bibliotheca Klossiana II, Universitas Vytauti Magni / Lithuanians' World Center, Kaunas, 2007.
(In Lithuanian) V. Rinkevičius, Prūsistikos pagrindai (Fundamentals of Prussistics). 2015.

External links

Database of the Old Prussian Linguistic Heritage (Etymological Dictionary of Old Prussian (in Lithuanian) and full textual corpus)
Frederik Kortlandt: Electronic text editions (contains transcriptions of Old Prussian manuscript texts)
Vocabulary by friar Simon Grunau
Elbing Vocabulary

[fh-33] The sounds /f/ and /h/ also existed in Old Prussian, but are disputed as to whether they are native to the language as they are non-native to Lithuanian and Latvian.^[32]^: 28

[sch-34] Palato-alveolar fricatives [ʃ, ʒ] are recorded as well, usually with the German orthography-style ⟨sch⟩.^[32]^: 27 They were allophones of /s/ or /z/ in Pomesanian, but distinct phonemes in Sambian.^[10]^: 101

[50] Adelung simply says "der Prätorius". This is most likely Matthäus Prätorius; because two pages earlier Adelung refers with approval to the writings of both Hartknoch and Prätorius,^[47]^: 701 and Christoph Hartknoch worked with Matthäus Prätorius.

[ref1-1] The adverb Prūsiskai ('in Prussian') appears on the title page of the Königsberg catechism of 1561.
See Mažiulis, Vytautas (1996). Prūsų kalbos etimologijos žodynas [Etymological Dictionary of Old Prussian]. Vol. 3. Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. pp. 360–361. ISBN 978-54-2000-109-7.

[Klussis-2] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Palmaitis, Mykolas Letas (2007). Old Prussian Written Monuments: Text and Comments (PDF). Kaunas: Lithuanian's World Center for Advancement of Culture, Science and Education. ISBN 978-9986-418-42-9.

[3] Rantawa.org; suplits (31 May 2016). "Prūsiska bilā". Prūsas Tāutas Prēigara. Retrieved 27 July 2024.

[Young2008-4] Young, Steven (2008). "Baltic". In Kapović, Mate (ed.). The Indo-European Languages. London: Routledge. pp. 486–518. ISBN 978-03-6786-902-1.

[Szatkowski-5] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Szatkowski, Piotr (2021). "Language practices in a family of Prussian language revivalists: Conclusions based on short-term participant observation". Adeptus (18). Institute of Slavic Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences. doi:10.11649/a.2626.

[6] Old Prussian language at Ethnologue (22nd ed., 2019)

[7] Tarasov, Iliya (January 2017). "The Balts in the migration period". Istoričeskij Format Исторический Формат (in Russian). 3–4: 95–124.

[Gimbutas-8] Gimbutas, Marija (1963). The Balts. Ancient peoples and places. Vol. 33. London: Thames and Hudson.

[9] Zinkevičius, Zigmas (1996). The History of the Lithuanian Language. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. p. 51. ISBN 9785420013632.

[Rinkevicius-10] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Rinkevičius, Vytautas (2015). Prūsistikos pagrindai [Fundamentals of Prussian linguistics] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Vilniaus universitetas. ISBN 978-609-417-101-7.

[britannica.com-11] Mažiulis, Vytautas. "Baltic languages". Encyclopædia Britannica. September 2022. Retrieved 9 November 2022.

[12] Mitzka, Walther (1921). "Niederpreuſsisch" [Lower Prussian]. Zeitschrift für deutsche Mundarten (in German). 16. Franz Steiner Verlag: 151–154. JSTOR 40498264.

[13] Bauer, Gerhard (2005). "Baltismen im ostpreußischen Deutsch: Hermann Frischbiers "Preussisches Wörterbuch" als volkskundliche Quelle" [Baltisms in Eastern Prussian German: Hermann Frischbier's "Prussian Dictionary" as ethnological source]. Annaberger Annalen (PDF) (in German). pp. 5–82.

[14] Ziesemer, Walther (1923). "Beobachtungen zur Wortgeographie Ostpreuſsens" [Obeservations on word geography in East Prussia]. Zeitschrift für deutsche Mundarten (in German). 18 (3/4, "Festschrift Ferdinand Wrede (1923)"). Franz Steiner Verlag: 149–160. JSTOR 40498279.

[GerullisPlace-15] Gerullis, Georg (1922). Die altpreußischen Ortsnamen [The Old Prussian place names] (PDF) (in German). Berlin, Leipzig: Vereinigung wissenschaftlicher Verleger.

[16] Haack, Hermann (1930). Stielers Hand-Atlas (10 ed.). Justus Perthes. p. Plate 9.

[17] Kossert, Andreas (2003). "'Grenzlandpolitik' und Ostforschung an der Peripherie des Reiches. Das ostpreußische Masuren 1919–1945" ['Borderland politics' and Ostforschung in the periphery of the German Empire. The East-Prussian Masuria 1919–1945]. Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (in German). 51 (2): 117–146. JSTOR 30196694.

[18] 
Dobrzycki, Stanisław (1901). "O tzw. mazurzeniu w języku polskim" [About the so-called mazurzenie in Polish]. Rozprawy Wydziału Filologicznego PAU (in Polish) (XXXII): 228–231.
Селищев, Афанасий Матвеевич (1931). "Соканье и шоканье в славянских языках". Slavia (in Russian). X (4). Prague: Slovanský ústav v Praze: 718–741.
Селищев, Афанасий Матвеевич (1969) [1941]. Западно-славянские языки [Western Slavic languages]. Славянское Языкознание (in Russian). Vol. I. The Hague: Mouton & Company. pp. 330–331.
Milewski, Tadeusz (1937). "Stosunki językowe polsko-pruskie" [The linguistic relation of Polish and Old Prussian]. Slavia Occidentalis (in Polish) (XVIII): 21–84.
Milewski, Tadeusz (1956). Chronologia i przyczyny mazurzenia [Chronology and causes of the mazurzenie] (in Polish). pp. 34–38.

[22] Dobrzycki, Stanisław (1901). "O tzw. mazurzeniu w języku polskim" [About the so-called mazurzenie in Polish]. Rozprawy Wydziału Filologicznego PAU (in Polish) (XXXII): 228–231.

[23] Селищев, Афанасий Матвеевич (1931). "Соканье и шоканье в славянских языках". Slavia (in Russian). X (4). Prague: Slovanský ústav v Praze: 718–741.

[24] Селищев, Афанасий Матвеевич (1969) [1941]. Западно-славянские языки [Western Slavic languages]. Славянское Языкознание (in Russian). Vol. I. The Hague: Mouton & Company. pp. 330–331.

[25] Milewski, Tadeusz (1937). "Stosunki językowe polsko-pruskie" [The linguistic relation of Polish and Old Prussian]. Slavia Occidentalis (in Polish) (XVIII): 21–84.

[26] Milewski, Tadeusz (1956). Chronologia i przyczyny mazurzenia [Chronology and causes of the mazurzenie] (in Polish). pp. 34–38.

[Dini-19] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ Dini, Pietro U. (2014). Foundations of Baltic languages. Translated by Richardson, Milda B.; Richardson, Robert E. Vilnius: Vilniaus universitetas. ISBN 978-609-437-263-6.

[Trautmann1910-20] Trautmann, Reinhold (1910). Die altpreußischen Sprachdenkmäler [The Old Prussian language monuments]. Göttingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht.

[Pl_Refuge_1-21] Steed, Henry Wickham; Phillips, Walter Alison; Hannay, David (1914). "The Reformation Period". A Short History of Austria-Hungary and Poland. London: Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. Archived from the original on 4 August 2003.

[scots-22] "Scots in Eastern and Western Prussia, Part III – Documents (3)". Retrieved 18 February 2007.

[Eastland-23] Kownatzki, Hermann (1977) [unknown]. "Elbing als ehemaliger englischer Handelsplatz" [Elbing as a former English trading post] (PDF). Translated by Baumfelder, W. Magistrat der Stadt Elbing. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 July 2007. Retrieved 18 February 2007.

[24] Klussis, Mikkels (2005). Dictionary of Revived Prussian (PDF). p. 4. Archived from the original on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 2 March 2018.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)

[culture.pl-25] "Little Prince Published in Prussian". Culture.pl. Adam Mickiewicz Institute. 17 February 2015. Retrieved 15 November 2022.

[26] "ROMOWE RIKOITO – Undēina". Dangus. Archived from the original on 24 March 2015. Retrieved 29 August 2014.

[27] Ржевский, А. (12 December 2018). "Илья Левашов: То, что мы поем — это о нашей земле". Выходной (in Russian). Retrieved 11 October 2020.

[28] "Senoji prūsų kalba atgimsta naujausioje grupės KŪLGRINDA plokštelėje" (in Lithuanian). Dangus. Archived from the original on 10 September 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2014.

[29] Smidchens, Guntis (2014). The Power of Song: Nonviolent National Culture in the Baltic Singing Revolution. University of Washington Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-295-99310-2.

[30] Palmaitis, Mykolas Letas. "Oratorio "Pārcēlātājs Pontifex"". Prussian Reconstructions – Ethonology. Retrieved 15 November 2022.

[31] Palmaitis, Mykolas Letas (2001). Grammatical Incompatibility of 2 Main Prussian "Dialects" as Implication of Different Phonological Systems (PDF). Colloquium Pruthenicum Tertium. Zakopane. pp. 63–77.

[Schmalstieg-32] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Schmalstieg, William Riegel (1991) [1974]. An Old Prussian grammar. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 9780271011707.

[Schmalstieg2005-35] Schmalstieg, William Riegel (2005). "Vytautas Mažiulis. Prūsų kalbos istorinė gramatika: recenzija" [Vytautas Mažiulis. Historical grammar of the Prussian language: A review]. Baltu filoloģija. 14 (1). Latvijas Universitāte: 159–163. ISSN 1691-0036.

[36] Levin, Jules (1975). "Dynamic Linguistics and Baltic Historical Phonology". General Linguistics. 15 (3). London, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press: 144–158.

[Berneker-37] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Berneker, Erich (2019) [1896]. Die preußische Sprache [The Prussian language] (in German). Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. ISBN 9783111474861.

[Nesselmann-38] Nesselmann, Georg H. F. (2018) [1845]. Die Sprache der alten Preußen an ihren Überresten erklärt [The language of the old Prussians explained using its remains] (in German). Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. ISBN 9783111497969.

[HGOP-39] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Mažiulis, Vytautas (2004). Historical grammar of Old Prussian. Translated by Palmaitis, Mykolas Letas. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. ISBN 978-609-8122-90-9.

[40] Enzelīns, Jānis (1943). Senprūšu valoda: Ievads, gramatika un leksika. Riga: Universitātes apgāds. pp. 76, 80, 83.

[41] Levin, Jules (1973). "-ja stems and -e stems in the Elbing Vocabulary". In Ziedonis, Arvids Jr.; Puhvel, Jaan; Šilbajoris, Rimvydas; Valgemäe, Mardi (eds.). Baltic Literature and Linguistics. Conference on Baltic studies. Columbus: Association for the Advancement of Baltic Studies. pp. 189–196. OCLC 867673.

[42] Mažiulis, Vytautas (1988). Prūsų kalbos etimologijos žodynas [Etymological Dictionary of Old Prussian] (in Lithuanian). Vol. 1 (1 ed.). Vilnius: Mokslas. p. 144.

[Trautmann-43] Trautmann, Reinhold (1974) [1925]. Die altpreußischen Personennamen [The Old Prussian personal names] (in German). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-27302-9.

[44] Mitzka, Walther (1924). "Altpreußisches" [Old Prussian]. Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiet der Indogermanischen Sprachen (in German). 52 (1/2). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht: 129–147. JSTOR 40799583.

[45] Hill, Eugen (2004). "Die sigmatischen Modus-Bildungen der indogermanischen Sprachen. Erste Abhandlung: Das baltische Futur und seine Verwandten" [The sigmatic modus formation in Indo-European languages. 1st Treatise: The Baltic future and its relatives]. International Journal of Diachronic Linguistics and Linguistic Reconstruction (in German). 1 (1): 69–171. Retrieved 29 August 2014.

[46] Schaeken, Jos (2003). "The Old Prussian Basel Epigram".

[47] 
Kessler, Stephan; Mossman, Stephen (2013). "Ein Fund aus dem Jahre 1440: Ein bisher unbekannter Text in einer baltischen Sprache" [Find from the year 1440: A hitherto unknown text in a Baltic language]. Archivum Lithuanicum (in German). 15: 511–534.
Lemeshkin, Ilja (January 2019). "Lituanica aliter". Billēmai Bhe Ersinnimai. Retrieved 12 November 2020.

[54] Kessler, Stephan; Mossman, Stephen (2013). "Ein Fund aus dem Jahre 1440: Ein bisher unbekannter Text in einer baltischen Sprache" [Find from the year 1440: A hitherto unknown text in a Baltic language]. Archivum Lithuanicum (in German). 15: 511–534.

[55] Lemeshkin, Ilja (January 2019). "Lituanica aliter". Billēmai Bhe Ersinnimai. Retrieved 12 November 2020.

[48] Schmid, Wolfgang P. (1962). "Zu Simon Grunaus Vaterunser" [On Simon Grunau's Lord's Prayer]. Indogermanische Forschung (in German) (67). Berlin: 261–273.

[Mithridates-49] Adelung, Johann Christoph (1809). "VII. Germanisch-Slavischer oder Lettischer Volksstamm" [VII. The Germanic-Slavic or Latvian tribe]. In Vater, Johann Severin (ed.). Mithridates oder Allgemeine Sprachenkunde, mit dem Vater Unser als Sprachprobe in bey nahe fünfhundert Sprachen und Mundarten [Mithridates or General linguistics using the Lord's Prayer in almost fivehundert languages and dialects] (in German). Vol. 2. Berlin: Vossische Buchhandlung [de]. Retrieved 21 November 2022.

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@@ Line 6: / Line 6: @@
 | name = Old Prussian
 | altname =
-| nativename = {{lang|prg|Prūsiskai}}<ref name=ref1>The adverb {{lang|prg|Prūsiskai}} ('in Prussian') appears on the title page of the Königsberg catechism of 1561.<br>See {{cite book|first=Vytautas|last=Mažiulis|author-link=Vytautas Mažiulis|title=Prūsų kalbos etimologijos žodynas|trans-title=Etymological Dictionary of Old Prussian|publisher=Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla|volume=3|pages=360–361|url=http://www.prusistika.flf.vu.lt/zodynas/paieska/|year=1996|isbn=978-54-2000-109-7}}</ref><ref name="Klussis">{{cite book|title=Old Prussian Written Monuments: Text and Comments|author-last=Palmaitis|author-first=Mykolas Letas|publisher=Lithuanian's World Center for Advancement of Culture, Science and Education|location=Kaunas|year=2007|url=http://donelaitis.vdu.lt/prussian/Kat.pdf|isbn=978-9986-418-42-9}}</ref>{{rp|page=387}}
+| nativename = {{lang|prg|Prūsiskai}}<ref name=ref1>The adverb {{lang|prg|Prūsiskai}} ('in Prussian') appears on the title page of the Königsberg catechism of 1561.<br>See {{cite book|first=Vytautas|last=Mažiulis|author-link=Vytautas Mažiulis|title=Prūsų kalbos etimologijos žodynas|trans-title=Etymological Dictionary of Old Prussian|publisher=Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla|volume=3|pages=360–361|url=http://www.prusistika.flf.vu.lt/zodynas/paieska/|year=1996|isbn=978-54-2000-109-7}}</ref><ref name="Klussis">{{cite book|title=Old Prussian Written Monuments: Text and Comments|author-last=Palmaitis|author-first=Mykolas Letas|publisher=Lithuanian's World Center for Advancement of Culture, Science and Education|location=Kaunas|year=2007|url=http://donelaitis.vdu.lt/prussian/Kat.pdf|isbn=978-9986-418-42-9}}</ref>{{rp|page=387}}<br>{{lang|prg|Prūsiska bilā}} (revived)<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Rantawa.org |last2=suplits |date=2016-05-31 |title=Prūsiska bilā |url=https://awizi.twanksta.org/nawwiniskai/prusiska-bila/ |access-date=2024-07-27 |website=Prūsas Tāutas Prēigara}}</ref>
 | region = [[Prussia (region)|Prussia]]
 | ethnicity = [[Old Prussians|Baltic Prussians]]
 | image = Catechismus in preüßnischer sprach, gecorrigiret und dagegen das deüdsche.jpg
 | imagecaption = Catechism in Old Prussian from 1545
-| extinct = Early [[18th century]]
+| extinct = Early 18th century
 | ref = <ref name=Young2008>{{cite book |last=Young |first=Steven |year=2008 |chapter=Baltic |editor-last=Kapović |editor-first=Mate |title=The Indo-European Languages |location=London |publisher=Routledge |pages=486–518|isbn=978-03-6786-902-1}}</ref>
-| revived = Attempted revival, with at least 50 [[L2 speakers]] (no date)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/prg/|title=Prussian}}</ref>
+| revived = 2 [[First language|L1 speakers]] (2021){{r|Szatkowski|pages=4–7}}<br />50 [[Second language|L2 speakers]] (no date)<ref>{{e22|prg}}</ref>
 | familycolor = Indo-European
 | fam2 = [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
 | fam3 = [[Baltic languages|Baltic]]
-| fam4 = [[Western Baltic languages|Western Baltic]]
+| fam4 = [[West Baltic languages|West Baltic]]
 | script = [[Latin alphabet]]
 | iso3 = prg
+| linglist = prg.html
 | glotto = prus1238
 | glottorefname = Old Prussian
@@ Line 25: / Line 26: @@
 | notice = IPA
 }}
+'''Old Prussian''' is an extinct [[West Baltic languages|West Baltic language]] belonging to the [[Baltic languages|Baltic branch]] of the [[Indo-European languages]], which was once spoken by the [[Old Prussians]], the [[Baltic peoples]] of the [[Prussia (region)|Prussian region]]. The language is called Old Prussian to avoid confusion with the German dialects of [[Low Prussian dialect|Low Prussian]] and [[High Prussian dialect|High Prussian]] and with the adjective ''Prussian'' as it relates to the later German state. Old Prussian began to be written down in the [[Latin script|Latin alphabet]] in about the 13th century, and a small amount of literature in the language survives. In modern times, there has been a revival movement of Old Prussian, and there are families which use Old Prussian as their first language.{{r|Szatkowski|pages=4–7}}
+==Classification==
-'''Old Prussian''' was a [[Western Baltic languages|Western Baltic language]] belonging to the [[Baltic languages|Baltic branch]] of the [[Indo-European languages]], which was once spoken by the [[Old Prussians]], the [[Baltic peoples]] of the [[Prussia (region)|Prussian region]]. The language is called Old Prussian to avoid confusion with the German dialects of [[Low Prussian dialect|Low Prussian]] and [[High Prussian dialect|High Prussian]] and with the adjective ''Prussian'' as it relates to the later German state. Old Prussian began to be written down in the [[Latin script|Latin alphabet]] in about the 13th century, and a small amount of literature in the language survives.
-==Classification and relation to other languages==
 Old Prussian is an Indo-European language belonging to the Baltic branch. It is considered to be a Western Baltic language.
-Old Prussian was closely related to the other extinct [[Western Baltic languages]], namely [[Sudovian language|Sudovian]], [[Galindian language|West Galindian]]<ref>{{cite journal| url = https://www.academia.edu/37147068| title = The Balts in the migration period|first=Iliya|last=Tarasov|pages=95–124| journal=Istoričeskij Format | script-journal = ru:Исторический Формат|volume=3-4| date = January 2017|language=ru}}</ref> and possibly [[Skalvians#Language|Skalvian]] and [[Curonian language|Old Curonian]].<ref name="Gimbutas">{{cite book|first=Marija|last=Gimbutas|author-link=Marija Gimbutas|date=1963|title=The Balts|series=Ancient peoples and places|place=London|publisher=Thames and Hudson|volume=33}}</ref>{{rp|page=33}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zinkevičius |first=Zigmas |author-link= Zigmas Zinkevičius |title=The History of the Lithuanian Language |date=1996 |publisher=Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla |place=Vilnius |isbn=9785420013632 |pages=51 |language=en}}</ref> Other linguists consider Western Galindian and Skalvian to be Prussian dialects.<ref name="Rinkevicius">{{cite book|first=Vytautas|last=Rinkevičius|title=Prūsistikos pagrindai|trans-title=Fundamentals of Prussian linguistics|publisher= Vilniaus universitetas|location=Vilnius|date=2015|language=lt|isbn=978-609-417-101-7}}</ref>{{rp|15}}
+Old Prussian was closely related to the other extinct [[West Baltic languages]], namely [[Sudovian language|Sudovian]], [[Galindian language|West Galindian]]<ref>{{cite journal| url = https://www.academia.edu/37147068| title = The Balts in the migration period|first=Iliya|last=Tarasov|pages=95–124| journal=Istoričeskij Format | script-journal = ru:Исторический Формат|volume=3–4| date = January 2017|language=ru}}</ref> and possibly [[Skalvians#Language|Skalvian]] and [[Curonian language|Old Curonian]].<ref name="Gimbutas">{{cite book|first=Marija|last=Gimbutas|author-link=Marija Gimbutas|date=1963|title=The Balts|series=Ancient peoples and places|place=London|publisher=Thames and Hudson|volume=33}}</ref>{{rp|page=33}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zinkevičius |first=Zigmas |author-link= Zigmas Zinkevičius |title=The History of the Lithuanian Language |date=1996 |publisher=Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla |place=Vilnius |isbn=9785420013632 |pages=51 |language=en}}</ref> Other linguists consider Western Galindian and Skalvian to be Prussian dialects.<ref name="Rinkevicius">{{cite book|first=Vytautas|last=Rinkevičius|title=Prūsistikos pagrindai|trans-title=Fundamentals of Prussian linguistics|publisher= Vilniaus universitetas|location=Vilnius|date=2015|language=lt|isbn=978-609-417-101-7}}</ref>{{rp|15}}
-It is related to the [[Eastern Baltic languages]] such as [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] and [[Latvian language|Latvian]], and more distantly related to [[Slavic languages|Slavic]]. Compare the words for 'land': Old Prussian ''{{lang|prg|semmē}}'' [zemē], {{lang-lv|zeme}}, {{lang-lt|žemė}}, {{lang-ru|земля́}}, ({{lang|ru-Latn|zemljá}}) and {{lang-pl|ziemia}}.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}
+It is related to the [[East Baltic languages]] such as [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] and [[Latvian language|Latvian]], and more distantly related to [[Slavic languages|Slavic]]. Compare the words for 'land': Old Prussian ''{{lang|prg|semmē}}'' [zemē], {{langx|lv|zeme}}, {{langx|lt|žemė}}, {{langx|ru|link=no|земля́}}, ({{lang|ru-Latn|zemljá}}) and {{langx|pl|ziemia}}.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}
-Old Prussian had [[loanword]]s from Slavic languages (e.g., Old Prussian ''{{lang|prg|curtis}}'' [kurtis] 'hound', like Lithuanian ''{{lang|lt|kùrtas}}'' and Latvian ''{{lang|lv|kur̃ts}}'', cognate with Slavic (compare {{lang-uk|хорт}}, {{lang|uk-Latn|khort}}; {{lang-pl|chart}}; {{lang-cs|chrt}})), as well as a few borrowings from [[Germanic languages|Germanic]], including from [[Gothic language|Gothic]] (e.g., Old Prussian ''{{lang|prg|ylo}}'' 'awl' as with Lithuanian ''{{lang|lt|ýla}}'', Latvian ''{{lang|lv|īlens}}'') and from [[Scandinavian languages]].<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite encyclopedia| url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/50949/Baltic-languages/74885/Loanwords-in-Baltic|first=Vytautas|last=Mažiulis|author-link=Vytautas Mažiulis| encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica |title=Baltic languages|version=September 2022|access-date=9 November 2022}}</ref>
+Old Prussian had [[loanword]]s from Slavic languages (e.g., Old Prussian ''{{lang|prg|curtis}}'' [kurtis] 'hound', like Lithuanian ''{{lang|lt|kùrtas}}'' and Latvian ''{{lang|lv|kur̃ts}}'', cognate with Slavic (compare {{langx|uk|хорт}}, {{lang|uk-Latn|khort}}; {{langx|pl|chart}}; {{langx|cs|chrt}})), as well as a few borrowings from [[Germanic languages|Germanic]], including from [[Gothic language|Gothic]] (e.g., Old Prussian ''{{lang|prg|ylo}}'' 'awl' as with Lithuanian ''{{lang|lt|ýla}}'', Latvian ''{{lang|lv|īlens}}'') and from [[Scandinavian languages]].<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite encyclopedia| url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/50949/Baltic-languages/74885/Loanwords-in-Baltic|first=Vytautas|last=Mažiulis|author-link=Vytautas Mažiulis| encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica |title=Baltic languages|version=September 2022|access-date=9 November 2022}}</ref>
 ==Influence on other languages==
-===German===
+===Germanic===
-The German regional dialect of [[Low German]] spoken in Prussia (or [[West Prussia]] and [[East Prussia]]), called [[Low Prussian]] (cf. [[High Prussian]], also a German dialect),<ref>{{cite journal|language=de|title=Niederpreuſsisch|trans-title=Lower Prussian|first=Walther|last=Mitzka|journal=Zeitschrift für deutsche Mundarten |date=1921|volume=16|pages=151–154|publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag|jstor=40498264}}</ref> preserved a number of Baltic Prussian words, such as ''{{lang|nds|Kurp}}'', from the Old Prussian ''{{lang|prg|kurpe}}'', for ''[[shoe]]'' in contrast to common {{lang-nds|Schoh}} (Standard German ''{{lang|de|Schuh}}''),<ref>{{cite book|language=de|first=Gerhard|last=Bauer|date=2005|url=http://www.annaberger-annalen.de//jahrbuch/2005/AnnabergNr.13_Kap1.pdf|chapter=Baltismen im ostpreußischen Deutsch: Hermann Frischbiers „Preussisches Wörterbuch“ als volkskundliche Quelle|trans-chapter=Baltisms in Eastern Prussian German: Hermann Frischbier's "Prussian Dictionary" as ethnological source|issue=13|pages=5{{Hyphen}}82|title=Annaberger Annalen}}</ref> as did the [[High Prussian#Oberländisch|High Prussian Oberland subdialect]].<ref>{{cite journal|first=Walther|last=Ziesemer|title=Beobachtungen zur Wortgeographie Ostpreuſsens|trans-title=Obeservations on word geography in East Prussia|journal=Zeitschrift für deutsche Mundarten|jstor=40498279|date=1923|publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag|language=de|pages=149–160|issue=3/4, "Festschrift Ferdinand Wrede (1923)"|volume=18}}</ref>
+The [[Low German]] language spoken in Prussia (or [[West Prussia]] and [[East Prussia]]), called [[Low Prussian]] (cf. [[High Prussian]], [[High German]]),<ref>{{cite journal|language=de|title=Niederpreuſsisch|trans-title=Lower Prussian|first=Walther|last=Mitzka|journal=Zeitschrift für deutsche Mundarten |date=1921|volume=16|pages=151–154|publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag|jstor=40498264}}</ref> preserved a number of Baltic Prussian words, such as ''{{lang|nds|Kurp}}'', from the Old Prussian ''{{lang|prg|kurpe}}'', for ''shoe'' in contrast to common {{langx|nds|Schoh}} (Standard German ''{{lang|de|Schuh}}''),<ref>{{cite book|language=de|first=Gerhard|last=Bauer|date=2005|url=http://www.annaberger-annalen.de//jahrbuch/2005/AnnabergNr.13_Kap1.pdf|chapter=Baltismen im ostpreußischen Deutsch: Hermann Frischbiers "Preussisches Wörterbuch" als volkskundliche Quelle|trans-chapter=Baltisms in Eastern Prussian German: Hermann Frischbier's "Prussian Dictionary" as ethnological source|issue=13|pages=5{{Hyphen}}82|title=Annaberger Annalen}}</ref> as did the [[High Prussian#Oberländisch|High Prussian Oberland subdialect]].<ref>{{cite journal|first=Walther|last=Ziesemer|title=Beobachtungen zur Wortgeographie Ostpreuſsens|trans-title=Obeservations on word geography in East Prussia|journal=Zeitschrift für deutsche Mundarten|jstor=40498279|date=1923|publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag|language=de|pages=149–160|issue=3/4, "Festschrift Ferdinand Wrede (1923)"|volume=18}}</ref>
-Until the [[1938 renaming of East Prussian placenames]], Old Prussian river- and place-names, such as ''{{lang|prg|Tawe}}'' and ''{{lang|prg|Tawellningken}}'', could still be found.<ref name="GerullisPlace">{{cite book|first=Georg|last=Gerullis|title=Die altpreußischen Ortsnamen|trans-title=The Old Prussian place names|language=de|date=1922|publisher=Vereinigung wissenschaftlicher Verleger|place=Berlin, Leipzig|url=https://klc.vdu.lt/prussian/Gerullis-APON.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Haack|first1=Hermann|title=Stielers Hand-Atlas|date=1930| publisher=Justus Perthes|edition=10|page=Plate 9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte|volume=51|issue=2|year=2003|title='Grenzlandpolitik' und Ostforschung an der Peripherie des Reiches. Das ostpreußische Masuren 1919-1945|trans-title='Borderland politics' and Ostforschung in the periphery of the German Empire. The East-Prussian Masuria 1919-1945|first=Andreas|last=Kossert|pages=117–146|language=de|jstor=30196694 }}</ref>{{rp|page=137}}
+Until the [[1938 changing of place names in East Prussia]], Old Prussian river- and place-names, such as ''{{lang|prg|Tawe}}'' and ''{{lang|prg|Tawellningken}}'', could still be found.<ref name="GerullisPlace">{{cite book|first=Georg|last=Gerullis|title=Die altpreußischen Ortsnamen|trans-title=The Old Prussian place names|language=de|date=1922|publisher=Vereinigung wissenschaftlicher Verleger|place=Berlin, Leipzig|url=https://klc.vdu.lt/prussian/Gerullis-APON.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Haack|first1=Hermann|title=Stielers Hand-Atlas|date=1930| publisher=Justus Perthes|edition=10|page=Plate 9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte|volume=51|issue=2|year=2003|title='Grenzlandpolitik' und Ostforschung an der Peripherie des Reiches. Das ostpreußische Masuren 1919–1945|trans-title='Borderland politics' and Ostforschung in the periphery of the German Empire. The East-Prussian Masuria 1919–1945|first=Andreas|last=Kossert|pages=117–146|language=de|jstor=30196694 }}</ref>{{rp|page=137}}
 ===Polish===
@@ Line 53: / Line 53: @@
 ===Decline===
-With the conquest of the Old Prussian territory by the [[Teutonic Knights]] in the 13th century, and the subsequent influx of Polish, Lithuanian and especially German speakers, Old Prussian experienced a 400-year-long decline as an "oppressed language of an oppressed population".<ref name="Trautmann1910">{{cite book|first=Reinhold|last=Trautmann|author-link=Reinhold Trautmann|title=Die altpreußischen Sprachdenkmäler|place=Göttingen|publisher=Vandenhoek & Ruprecht|date=1910|trans-title=The Old Prussian language monuments}}</ref>{{rp|page=VII|quote="Sie hat noch genau 400 Jahre nach der endgültigen Unterwerfung (1283) als unterdrückte Sprache einer unterdrückten Bevölkerung weitergelebt."}} Groups of people from [[Germany]], [[Poland]],<ref name="Pl Refuge 1">{{cite book|title=A Short History of Austria-Hungary and Poland|first1=Henry Wickham|last1=Steed|first2=Walter Alison|last2=Phillips|first3=David|last3=Hannay|url=http://historicaltextarchive.com/books.php?op=viewbook&bookid=2&cid=24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030804090230/http://historicaltextarchive.com/books.php?op=viewbook&bookid=2&cid=24|archive-date=4 August 2003|chapter=The Reformation Period|date=1914|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica Company|place=London}}</ref>{{rp|page=115|quote=For a time, therefore, the Protestants had to be cautious in Poland proper, but they found a sure refuge in Prussia, where Lutheranism was already the established religion, and where the newly erected [[University of Königsberg]] became a seminary for Polish ministers and preachers.}} [[Lithuania]], [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]],<ref name="scots">{{cite web|title=Scots in Eastern and Western Prussia, Part III – Documents (3)|url=http://www.electricscotland.com/history/prussia/part3-3.htm|access-date=2007-02-18}}</ref> [[Kingdom of England|England]],<ref name="Eastland">{{cite web|title=Elbing als ehemaliger englischer Handelsplatz|trans-title=Elbing as a former English trading post|publisher=Magistrat der Stadt Elbing|translator-first=W.|first=Hermann|translator-last=Baumfelder|last=Kownatzki|date=1977|orig-date=unknown|url=http://www.elbing.de/Eastland.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070730075606/http://www.elbing.de/Eastland.pdf|archive-date=30 July 2007|access-date=18 February 2007}}</ref> and [[Austria]] (see [[Salzburg Protestants]]) found refuge in Prussia during the [[Protestant Reformation]] and thereafter.<ref name="Szatkowski">{{cite journal|doi= 10.11649/a.2626|journal=Adeptus|first=Piotr|last=Szatkowski|date=2021|issue=18|title=Language practices in a family of Prussian language revivalists: Conclusions based on short-term participant observation|publisher=Institute of Slavic Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|page=1}} Old Prussian ceased to be spoken probably around the beginning of the 18th century,<ref name="Young2008" /> because many of its remaining speakers died in the [[famine]]s and the [[Great Northern War plague outbreak|bubonic plague outbreak]] which harrowed the [[East Prussia]]n countryside and towns from 1709 until 1711.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://donelaitis.vdu.lt/prussian/Engl.pdf|title=Dictionary of Revived Prussian|page=4|first=Mikkels|last=Klussis|year=2005|access-date=2 March 2018|archive-date=26 September 2007|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20070926162334/http://donelaitis.vdu.lt/prussian/Engl.pdf|url-status=unfit }}</ref>
+With the conquest of the Old Prussian territory by the [[Teutonic Knights]] in the 13th century, and the subsequent influx of Polish, Lithuanian and especially German speakers, Old Prussian experienced a 400-year-long decline as an "oppressed language of an oppressed population".<ref name="Trautmann1910">{{cite book|first=Reinhold|last=Trautmann|author-link=Reinhold Trautmann|title=Die altpreußischen Sprachdenkmäler|place=Göttingen|publisher=Vandenhoek & Ruprecht|date=1910|trans-title=The Old Prussian language monuments}}</ref>{{rp|page=VII|quote="Sie hat noch genau 400 Jahre nach der endgültigen Unterwerfung (1283) als unterdrückte Sprache einer unterdrückten Bevölkerung weitergelebt."}} Groups of people from Germany, [[Poland]],<ref name="Pl Refuge 1">{{cite book|title=A Short History of Austria-Hungary and Poland|first1=Henry Wickham|last1=Steed|first2=Walter Alison|last2=Phillips|first3=David|last3=Hannay|url=http://historicaltextarchive.com/books.php?op=viewbook&bookid=2&cid=24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030804090230/http://historicaltextarchive.com/books.php?op=viewbook&bookid=2&cid=24|archive-date=4 August 2003|chapter=The Reformation Period|date=1914|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica Company|place=London}}</ref>{{rp|page=115|quote=For a time, therefore, the Protestants had to be cautious in Poland proper, but they found a sure refuge in Prussia, where Lutheranism was already the established religion, and where the newly erected [[University of Königsberg]] became a seminary for Polish ministers and preachers.}} [[Lithuania]], [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]],<ref name="scots">{{cite web|title=Scots in Eastern and Western Prussia, Part III – Documents (3)|url=http://www.electricscotland.com/history/prussia/part3-3.htm|access-date=2007-02-18}}</ref> [[Kingdom of England|England]],<ref name="Eastland">{{cite web|title=Elbing als ehemaliger englischer Handelsplatz|trans-title=Elbing as a former English trading post|publisher=Magistrat der Stadt Elbing|translator-first=W.|first=Hermann|translator-last=Baumfelder|last=Kownatzki|date=1977|orig-date=unknown|url=http://www.elbing.de/Eastland.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070730075606/http://www.elbing.de/Eastland.pdf|archive-date=30 July 2007|access-date=18 February 2007}}</ref> and [[Austria]] (see [[Salzburg Protestants]]) found refuge in Prussia during the [[Protestant Reformation]] and thereafter.<ref name="Szatkowski">{{cite journal|doi= 10.11649/a.2626|journal=Adeptus|first=Piotr|last=Szatkowski|date=2021|issue=18|title=Language practices in a family of Prussian language revivalists: Conclusions based on short-term participant observation|publisher=Institute of Slavic Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|page=1}} Old Prussian ceased to be spoken probably around the beginning of the 18th century,<ref name="Young2008" /> because many of its remaining speakers died in the [[famine]]s and the [[Great Northern War plague outbreak|bubonic plague outbreak]] which harrowed the [[East Prussia]]n countryside and towns from 1709 until 1711.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://donelaitis.vdu.lt/prussian/Engl.pdf|title=Dictionary of Revived Prussian|page=4|first=Mikkels|last=Klussis|year=2005|access-date=2 March 2018|archive-date=26 September 2007|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20070926162334/http://donelaitis.vdu.lt/prussian/Engl.pdf|url-status=unfit }}</ref>
 ===Revitalization===
 [[File:Mėnuo Juodaragio XXI Kellan.jpg|thumb|The Prussian post-folk band Kellan performing at the Baltic culture festival [[Mėnuo Juodaragis]] in Lithuania]]
-In the 1980s, Soviet linguists [[Vladimir Toporov]] and [[Vytautas Mažiulis]] started reconstructing the Prussian language as a scientific project and a humanitarian gesture. Some enthusiasts thereafter began to [[Language revitalization|revive]] the language based on their reconstruction.{{r|Szatkowski|pages=3-4}}
+In the 1980s, linguists [[Vladimir Toporov]] and [[Vytautas Mažiulis]] started reconstructing the Prussian language as a scientific project and a humanitarian gesture. Some enthusiasts thereafter began to [[Language revitalization|revive]] the language based on their reconstruction.{{r|Szatkowski|pages=3–4}}
-Most current speakers live in Germany, Poland, Lithuania and [[Kaliningrad Oblast|Kaliningrad]] (Russia). Additionally, a few children are native in Revived Prussian.{{r|Szatkowski|pages=4-7}}<ref name="culture.pl">{{cite web|url=http://culture.pl/en/article/little-prince-published-in-prussian|title=Little Prince Published in Prussian|website=Culture.pl|publisher=Adam Mickiewicz Institute|date=17 February 2015|access-date=15 November 2022}}</ref>
+Most current speakers live in Germany, Poland, Lithuania and [[Kaliningrad Oblast|Kaliningrad]] (Russia). Additionally, a few children are native in Revived Prussian.{{r|Szatkowski|pages=4–7}}<ref name="culture.pl">{{cite web|url=http://culture.pl/en/article/little-prince-published-in-prussian|title=Little Prince Published in Prussian|website=Culture.pl|publisher=Adam Mickiewicz Institute|date=17 February 2015|access-date=15 November 2022}}</ref>
-Today, there are websites, online dictionaries, learning apps and games for Revived Prussian, and one children's book – [[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]]'s ''[[The Little Prince]]'' – was translated into Revived Prussian by Piotr Szatkowski (Pīteris Šātkis) and published by the Prusaspirā Society in 2015.{{r|Szatkowski|pages=4-7}}{{r|culture.pl}} Moreover, some bands use Revived Prussian, most notably in the Kaliningrad Oblast by the bands [[Romowe Rikoito]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=ROMOWE RIKOITO - Undēina|url=http://www.dangus.net/releases/albumai/043_RomoweRikoito.htm|access-date=29 August 2014|publisher=Dangus|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150324135735/http://www.dangus.net/releases/albumai/043_RomoweRikoito.htm|archive-date=24 March 2015}}</ref> Kellan<ref>{{Cite web|author-first=А.|author-last=Ржевский|title=Илья Левашов: То, что мы поем — это о нашей земле|url=https://day-off39.ru/novosti-kaliningrada-i-oblasti/6565-ilya-levashov|access-date=11 October 2020|language=ru|website=Выходной}}</ref> and Āustras Laīwan, as well as in Lithuania by [[Kūlgrinda (band)|Kūlgrinda]] on their 2005 album {{Lang|lt|Prūsų Giesmės}} ('Prussian Hymns'),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Senoji prūsų kalba atgimsta naujausioje grupės KŪLGRINDA plokštelėje|url=http://www.dangus.net/news/nauja418.htm|access-date=29 August 2014|publisher=Dangus|language=lt|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910040212/http://www.dangus.net/news/nauja418.htm|archive-date=10 September 2012}}</ref> and Latvia by Rasa Ensemble in 1988<ref>{{cite book|last=Smidchens|first=Guntis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_TfOAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12|title=The Power of Song: Nonviolent National Culture in the Baltic Singing Revolution|publisher=[[University of Washington Press]]|year=2014| isbn=978-0-295-99310-2|page=12}}</ref> and [[Valdis Muktupāvels]] in his 2005 [[oratorio]] "Pārcēlātājs Pontifex" featuring several parts sung in Prussian.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Oratorio "Pārcēlātājs Pontifex"|url=http://donelaitis.vdu.lt/prussian/oratorio.htm|website=Prussian Reconstructions - Ethonology|first=Mykolas Letas|last=Palmaitis|access-date=15 November 2022}}</ref>
+Today, there are websites, online dictionaries, learning apps and games for Revived Prussian, and one children's book – [[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]]'s ''[[The Little Prince]]'' – was translated into Revived Prussian by Piotr Szatkowski (Pīteris Šātkis) and published by the Prusaspirā Society in 2015.{{r|Szatkowski|pages=4–7}}{{r|culture.pl}} Moreover, some bands use Revived Prussian, most notably in the Kaliningrad Oblast by the bands [[Romowe Rikoito]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=ROMOWE RIKOITO – Undēina|url=http://www.dangus.net/releases/albumai/043_RomoweRikoito.htm|access-date=29 August 2014|publisher=Dangus|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150324135735/http://www.dangus.net/releases/albumai/043_RomoweRikoito.htm|archive-date=24 March 2015}}</ref> Kellan<ref>{{Cite web|author-first=А.|author-last=Ржевский|title=Илья Левашов: То, что мы поем — это о нашей земле|url=https://day-off39.ru/novosti-kaliningrada-i-oblasti/6565-ilya-levashov|access-date=11 October 2020|language=ru|website=Выходной|date=12 December 2018 }}</ref> and Āustras Laīwan, as well as in Lithuania by [[Kūlgrinda (band)|Kūlgrinda]] on their 2005 album {{Lang|lt|Prūsų Giesmės}} ('Prussian Hymns'),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Senoji prūsų kalba atgimsta naujausioje grupės KŪLGRINDA plokštelėje|url=http://www.dangus.net/news/nauja418.htm|access-date=29 August 2014|publisher=Dangus|language=lt|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910040212/http://www.dangus.net/news/nauja418.htm|archive-date=10 September 2012}}</ref> and Latvia by Rasa Ensemble in 1988<ref>{{cite book|last=Smidchens|first=Guntis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_TfOAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12|title=The Power of Song: Nonviolent National Culture in the Baltic Singing Revolution|publisher=[[University of Washington Press]]|year=2014| isbn=978-0-295-99310-2|page=12}}</ref> and [[Valdis Muktupāvels]] in his 2005 [[oratorio]] "Pārcēlātājs Pontifex" featuring several parts sung in Prussian.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Oratorio "Pārcēlātājs Pontifex"|url=http://donelaitis.vdu.lt/prussian/oratorio.htm|website=Prussian Reconstructions – Ethonology|first=Mykolas Letas|last=Palmaitis|access-date=15 November 2022}}</ref>
 ==Dialects==
@@ Line 116: / Line 116: @@
 ! rowspan="2" |[[Fricative]]
 ![[Voicelessness|<small>voiceless</small>]]
-| colspan="2"|{{IPA link|f}}{{efn|name=fh|The sounds {{IPA|/f/}} and {{IPA|/h/}} also existed in Old Prussian, but are disputed as to whether they are native to the language as they are non native to Lithuanian and Latvian.{{r|Schmalstieg|page=28}}}}
+| colspan="2"|{{IPA link|f}}{{efn|name=fh|The sounds {{IPA|/f/}} and {{IPA|/h/}} also existed in Old Prussian, but are disputed as to whether they are native to the language as they are non-native to Lithuanian and Latvian.{{r|Schmalstieg|page=28}}}}
 |{{IPA link|s}}
 |{{IPA link|sʲ}}
@@ Line 269: / Line 269: @@
 ==Corpus of Old Prussian==
-[[File:The epigram of Basel - oldest known inscription in Prussian language and Baltic language in general, middle of 14th c.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The epigram of Basel - oldest known inscription in Prussian language and Baltic language in general, middle of 14th century]]
+[[File:The epigram of Basel - oldest known inscription in Prussian language and Baltic language in general, middle of 14th c.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The epigram of Basel – oldest known inscription in Prussian language and Baltic language in general, middle of 14th century]]
 ===Onomastics===
@@ Line 284: / Line 284: @@
 The second one is the so-called Elbing Vocabulary, which consists of 802 thematically sorted words and their German equivalents. Peter Holcwesscher from [[Malbork|Marienburg]] copied the manuscript around 1400; the original dates from the beginning of the 14th or the end of the 13th century. It was found in 1825 by Fr Neumann among other manuscripts acquired by him from the heritage of the Elbing merchant A. Grübnau; it was thus dubbed the ''{{lang|la|Codex Neumannianus}}''.{{r|Klussis|page=7{{Hyphen}}8}}{{r|Schmalstieg|p=4}}
-===Fragmentary Texts===
+===Fragmentary texts===
 There are separate words found in various historical documents.{{r|Klussis|p=4}}
@@ Line 306: / Line 306: @@
 #''{{lang|prg|Ocho moy myle schwante panicke}}'' – also recorded as ''{{lang|prg|O hoho Moi mile swente Pannike}}'', ''{{lang|prg|O ho hu Mey mile swenthe paniko}}'', ''{{lang|prg|O mues miles schwante Panick}}'' ('Oh my dear holy fire!')
-===Complete Texts===
+===Complete texts===
-In addition to the texts listed beneath, there several colophons written by Prussian scriptors who worked in Prague and in the court of Lithuanian duke [[Butautas|Butautas Kęstutaitis]].
+In addition to the texts listed beneath, there are several colophons written by Prussian scriptors who worked in Prague and in the court of Lithuanian duke [[Butautas|Butautas Kęstutaitis]].
 ====Basel Epigram====
@@ Line 333: / Line 333: @@
 |
 Atonaige maian meilan am ne wede maianwargan
-Thaure ne ʃtonais po pieʃ pievʃʃenabdolenai galei ragai
+Thaure ne ſtonais po pieſ pievſſenabdolenai galei ragai
 Stonais po leipen zaidiant acha peda bete medde
 |
@@ Line 409: / Line 409: @@
 ==Literature==
 * Johann Christoph Adelung, Johann Severin Vater: Mithridates oder allgemeine Sprachenkunde mit dem Vater Unser als Sprachprobe in beynahe fünfhundert Sprachen und Mundarten, vol. 2, Berlin 1809, p. 700ff. ([https://books.google.com/books?id=0DdT-xoT080C&pg=PA700])
-* Johann Severin Vater: [https://archive.org/details/diesprachederal00vategoog Die Sprache der alten Preußen: Einleitung, Ueberreste, Sprachlehre, Wörterbuch], Braunschweig 1821
+* Johann Severin Vater: Die Sprache der alten Preußen: Einleitung, Ueberreste, Sprachlehre, Wörterbuch, Braunschweig 1821
-* [[Georg Heinrich Ferdinand Nesselmann|G. H. F. Nesselmann]], Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der preußischen Sprache, [https://archive.org/details/ForschungenAufDemGebieteDerPreussischenSprache 2. Beitrag]: Königsberg, 1871.
+* [[Georg Heinrich Ferdinand Nesselmann|G. H. F. Nesselmann]], Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der preußischen Sprache, 2. Beitrag: Königsberg, 1871.
-* [[Georg Heinrich Ferdinand Nesselmann|G. H. F. Nesselmann]], [https://archive.org/details/thesauruslingua00nessgoog Thesaurus linguae Prussicae], Berlin, 1873.
+* [[Georg Heinrich Ferdinand Nesselmann|G. H. F. Nesselmann]], Thesaurus linguae Prussicae, Berlin, 1873.
 * [[Erich Berneker|E. Berneker]], Die preussische Sprache, Strassburg, 1896 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=RhPlJWl5XB8C]).
-* [[Reinhold Trautmann|R. Trautmann]], [https://archive.org/details/diealtpreussisch00trau Die altpreussischen Sprachdenkmäler], Göttingen, 1910.
+* [[Reinhold Trautmann|R. Trautmann]], Die altpreussischen Sprachdenkmäler, Göttingen, 1910.
 * Wijk, Nicolaas van, [[iarchive:altpreussichestu00wijk|Altpreussiche Studien : Beiträge zur baltischen und zur vergleichenden indogermanischen Grammatik]], Haag, 1918.
-* G. Gerullis, [https://klc.vdu.lt/prussian/Gerullis-APON.pdf Die altpreussischen Ortsnamen], Berlin-Leipzig, 1922.
+* G. Gerullis, Die altpreussischen Ortsnamen, Berlin-Leipzig, 1922.
 * [[Reinhold Trautmann|R. Trautmann]], Die altpreussischen Personnennamen, Göttingen, 1925.
 * G. Gerullis, Zur Sprache der Sudauer-Jadwinger, in Festschrift A. Bezzenberger, Göttingen 1927
@@ Line 432: / Line 432: @@
 * G. Blažienė, Die baltischen Ortsnamen in Samland, Stuttgart, 2000.
 * A. Kaukienė, Prūsų kalba, Klaipėda, 2002.
-* [[Vytautas Mažiulis|V. Mažiulis]], [http://www.prusistika.flf.vu.lt/public/files/Maziulis_PKIG.pdf Prūsų kalbos istorinė gramatika], Vilnius, 2004.
+* [[Vytautas Mažiulis|V. Mažiulis]], Prūsų kalbos istorinė gramatika, Vilnius, 2004.
 * LEXICON BORVSSICVM VETVS. Concordantia et lexicon inversum. / Bibliotheca Klossiana I, Universitas Vytauti Magni, Kaunas, 2007.
 * OLD PRUSSIAN WRITTEN MONUMENTS. Facsimile, Transliteration, Reconstruction, Comments. / Bibliotheca Klossiana II, Universitas Vytauti Magni / Lithuanians' World Center, Kaunas, 2007.
-* (In Lithuanian) V. Rinkevičius, [http://www.esparama.lt/documents/10157/490675/2015_Prusistikos_pagrindai.pdf Prūsistikos pagrindai] (Fundamentals of Prussistics). 2015.
+* (In Lithuanian) V. Rinkevičius, Prūsistikos pagrindai (Fundamentals of Prussistics). 2015.
 ==External links==

v t e Baltic languages
Reconstructed	Proto-Balto-Slavic Proto-Baltic
West Baltic	West Galindian Old Prussian Pomor-Baltic [ru] Sudovian Skalvian (possibly separate West Baltic)
East Baltic	Curonian? Latvian Kursenieki Latgalian* Lithuanian Aukštaitian Samogitian* Selonian Semigallian
Dnieper-Oka [ru]	East Galindian
Italics indicate extinct languages · Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left · Asterisk (*) indicates dialects occasionally classified as languages · Question mark (?) indicates disputed classification.