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{{Short description|Siege in 490 BC during the Greco-Persian Wars}}
{{Infobox military conflict
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Siege of Eretria
|conflict=Siege of Eretria
|partof= The [[Greco-Persian Wars]]
|partof= [[First Persian invasion of Greece]]
|image=[[File:Map Greco-Persian Wars-en.svg|300px]]
|image=Map Greco-Persian Wars-en.svg
|image_size=300px
|caption=A map showing the invasion of 490 BC
|caption=A map showing the invasion of 490 BC
|date=490 BC
|date=490 BC
|place=[[Eretria]], [[Euboea]]
|place=[[Eretria]], [[Euboea]]
|result=Persian victory
|result={{ublist|Persian victory}}
*Destruction of Eretria
⚫
*Eretrians enslaved
|map_type = Greece
|map_type = Greece
|map_relief = yes
|map_relief = yes
|coordinates = {{coord|38.392801|23.794298|type:event|display=inline}}
|latitude = 38.392801
|longitude = 23.794298
|map_size = 300
|map_size = 300
|map_marksize =
|map_marksize =
|map_caption = Location of the Siege of Eretria
|map_caption = Location of the siege of Eretria
|map_label =
|map_label =
|combatant1=[[Eretria]]
|combatant1=[[Eretria]]
|combatant2=[[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]]
|combatant2=[[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]]
|commander1=Unknown
|commander1=Unknown
|commander2=[[Datis]], <br /> [[Artaphernes (son of Artaphernes)|Artaphernes]]
|commander2=[[Datis]]<br>[[Artaphernes (nephew of Darius I)|Artaphernes]]
|strength1= Unknown
|strength1= Unknown
|strength2=Ancient sources: 100,000-300,000 men, 10,000 Persian Immortals, 600 ships<br/>c. 25,000 men (modern consensus)
|strength2=Ancient sources: 100,000–300,000
*10,000 [[Persian Immortals]]
*600 ships
*25,000 Men (modern consensus)
|casualties1=
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
|casualties2=
Line 26: Line 32:
{{Campaignbox First Persian invasion of Greece}}
{{Campaignbox First Persian invasion of Greece}}


The '''Siege of Eretria''' took place in 490 BC, during the [[first Persian invasion of Greece]]. The city of [[Eretria]], on [[Euboea]], was besieged by a strong [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] force under the command of [[Datis]] and [[Artaphernes (son of Artaphernes)|Artaphernes]].
The '''siege of Eretria''' took place in 490 BC, during the [[first Persian invasion of Greece]]. The city of [[Eretria]], on [[Euboea]], was besieged by a strong [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] force under the command of [[Datis]] and [[Artaphernes (nephew of Darius I)|Artaphernes]].


The first Persian invasion was a response to Greek involvement in the [[Ionian Revolt]], when the Eretrians and [[History of Athens|Athenians]] had sent a force to support the cities of [[Ionia]] in their attempt to overthrow Persian rule. The Eretrian and Athenian force had succeeded in capturing and burning [[Sardis]] (the regional capital of Persia), but was then forced to retreat with heavy losses. In response to this raid, the Persian king [[Darius I]] swore to have revenge on Athens and Eretria.
The first Persian invasion was a response to Greek involvement in the [[Ionian Revolt]], when the Eretrians and [[History of Athens|Athenians]] had sent a force to support the cities of [[Ionia]] in their attempt to overthrow Persian rule. The Eretrian and Athenian force had succeeded in capturing and burning [[Sardis]] (the regional capital of Persia), but was then forced to retreat with heavy losses. In response to this raid, the Persian king [[Darius I]] swore to have revenge on Athens and Eretria.


Once the Ionian revolt was finally crushed by the Persian victory at the [[Battle of Lade]], Darius began to plan to subjugate Greece. In 490 BC, he sent a naval task force under Datis and Artaphernes across the Aegean to subjugate the [[Cyclades]], and then to make punitive attacks on Athens and Eretria. Reaching [[Euboea]] in mid-summer after a successful campaign in the Aegean, the Persians proceeded to put Eretria under siege. The siege lasted six days before a [[fifth column]] of Eretrian nobles betrayed the city to the Persians. The city was plundered, and the population enslaved on Darius's orders. The Eretrian prisoners were eventually taken to Persia and settled as colonists in [[Cissia (people)|Cissia]].
Once the Ionian revolt was finally crushed by the Persian victory at the [[Battle of Lade]], Darius began to plan to subjugate Greece. In 490 BC, he sent a naval task force under Datis and Artaphernes across the Aegean to subjugate the [[Cyclades]], and then to make punitive attacks on Athens and Eretria. Reaching [[Euboea]] in mid-summer after a successful campaign in the Aegean, the Persians proceeded to put Eretria under siege. The siege lasted six days before a [[fifth column]] of Eretrian nobles betrayed the city to the Persians. The city was plundered, and the population was [[Deportation|deported]] to the village [[Ardericca in Susiana]] near the Persian capital.


After Eretria, the Persian force sailed for Athens, landing at the bay of [[Marathon]]. An Athenian army marched to meet them, and won a famous victory at the [[Battle of Marathon]], thereby ending the first Persian invasion.
After Eretria, the Persian force sailed for Athens, landing at the bay of [[Marathon, Greece|Marathon]]. An Athenian army marched to meet them, and won a famous victory at the [[Battle of Marathon]], thereby ending the first Persian invasion.


== Sources ==
==Background==
{{Main|Herodotus}}

The main source for the Greco-Persian Wars is the Greek historian [[Herodotus]]. Herodotus, who has been called the 'Father of History',<ref>Cicero, On the Laws I, 5</ref> was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor (then under Persian overlordship). He wrote his 'Enquiries' (Greek—''Historia''; English—''[[Histories (Herodotus)|(The) Histories]]'') around 440–430 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars, which would still have been relatively recent history (the wars finally ending in 450 BC).<ref name = hxvi/> Herodotus's approach was entirely novel, and at least in Western society, he does seem to have invented 'history' as we know it.<ref name = hxvi/> As Holland has it: "For the first time, a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterly fabulous, nor to the whims and wishes of some god, nor to a people's claim to manifest destiny, but rather explanations he could verify personally."<ref name = hxvi>Holland, pp. ''xvi''–''xvii''.</ref>

Some subsequent ancient historians, despite following in his footsteps, criticised Herodotus, starting with [[Thucydides]].<ref>Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, e.g. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0200&layout=&loc=1.22 I, 22]</ref><ref name = Fin15>Finley, p. 15.</ref> Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the [[Siege of Sestos]]), and therefore evidently felt that Herodotus's history was accurate enough not to need re-writing or correcting.<ref name = Fin15/> [[Plutarch]] criticised Herodotus in his essay "On The Malignity of Herodotus", describing Herodotus as "''Philobarbaros''" (barbarian-lover), for not being pro-Greek enough, which suggests that Herodotus might actually have done a reasonable job of being even-handed.<ref>Holland, p. ''xxiv''.</ref> A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained well read.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.loyno.edu/history/journal/1998-9/Pipes.htm|title=Herodotus: Father of History, Father of Lies|accessdate=2008-01-18|author=David Pipes|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080127105636/http://www.loyno.edu/history/journal/1998-9/Pipes.htm |archivedate = January 27, 2008|deadurl=yes}}</ref> However, since the 19th century his reputation has been dramatically rehabilitated by archaeological finds which have repeatedly confirmed his version of events.<ref name = h377>Holland, p. 377.</ref> The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus generally did a remarkable job in his ''Historia'', but that some of his specific details (particularly troop numbers and dates) should be viewed with skepticism.<ref name = h377/> Nevertheless, there are still some historians who believe Herodotus made up much of his story.<ref>Fehling, pp. 1–277.</ref>

The Sicilian historian [[Diodorus Siculus]], writing in the 1st century BC in his ''[[Bibliotheca historica|Bibliotheca Historica]]'', also provides an account of the Greco-Persian wars, partially derived from the earlier Greek historian [[Ephorus]]. This account is fairly consistent with Herodotus's.<ref>Diodorus Siculus, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084&layout=&loc=11.28 Bibliotheca Historica], XI, 28–34</ref> The Greco-Persian wars are also described in less detail by a number of other ancient historians including Plutarch, [[Ctesias of Cnidus]], and are alluded by other authors, such as the playwright [[Aeschylus]]. Archaeological evidence, such as the [[Serpent Column]], also supports some of Herodotus's specific claims.<ref>Note to Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=9.81.1 IX, 81]</ref>

== Background ==
{{Main|Greco-Persian Wars|Ionian Revolt|First Persian invasion of Greece}}
{{Main|Greco-Persian Wars|Ionian Revolt|First Persian invasion of Greece}}


The first Persian invasion of Greece had its immediate roots in the [[Ionian Revolt]], the earliest phase of the [[Greco-Persian Wars]]. However, it was also the result of the longer-term interaction between the Greeks and Persians. In 500 BC the Persian Empire was still relatively young and highly expansionistic, but prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples.<ref name = h47>Holland, p47–55</ref><ref name = h58>Holland, p58–62</ref><ref name="h203"/> Moreover, the Persian king Darius was a usurper, and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule.<ref name = h47/> Even before the Ionian Revolt, Darius had begun to expand the Empire into Europe, subjugating [[Thrace]], and forcing Macedon to become a vassal of Persia.{{sfn|Roisman|Worthington|2011|p=343}} Attempts at further expansion into the politically fractious world of Ancient Greece may have been inevitable.<ref name = h58/> However, the Ionian Revolt had directly threatened the integrity of the Persian empire, and the states of mainland Greece remained a potential menace to its future stability.<ref name = h171>Holland, 171–178</ref> Darius thus resolved to subjugate and pacify Greece and the Aegean, and to punish those involved in the Ionian Revolt.
The first Persian invasion of Greece had its immediate roots in the [[Ionian Revolt]], the earliest phase of the [[Greco-Persian Wars]]. However, it was also the result of the longer-term interaction between the Greeks and Persians. In 500 BC the Persian Empire was still relatively young and highly expansionistic, but prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples.<ref name=h47>Holland, pp. 47–55.</ref><ref name=h58>Holland, pp. 58–62.</ref><ref name="h203"/> Moreover, the Persian king Darius was a usurper, and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule.<ref name=h47/> Even before the Ionian Revolt, Darius had begun to expand the Empire into Europe, subjugating [[Thrace]], and forcing Macedon to become a vassal of Persia.{{sfn|Roisman|Worthington|2011|p=343}} Attempts at further expansion into the politically fractious world of Ancient Greece may have been inevitable.<ref name=h58/> However, the Ionian Revolt had directly threatened the integrity of the Persian empire, and the states of mainland Greece remained a potential menace to its future stability.<ref name=h171>Holland, pp. 171–178.</ref> Darius thus resolved to subjugate and pacify Greece and the Aegean, and to punish those involved in the Ionian Revolt.<ref name=h171/><ref>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=5.105 V, 105].</ref>
<ref name = h171/><ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=5.105 V, 105]</ref>


[[File:Darius-Vase.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Darius I of Persia, as imagined by a Greek painter, 4th century BC]]
[[File:Darius-Vase.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Darius I of Persia, as imagined by a Greek painter, 4th century BC]]


The Ionian revolt had begun with an unsuccessful [[Siege of Naxos (499 BC)|expedition]] against [[Naxos (island)|Naxos]], a joint venture between the Persian satrap [[Artaphernes]] and the [[Milesians (Greek)|Miletus]] tyrant [[Aristagoras]].<ref name = h154>Holland, p154–157</ref> In the aftermath, Artaphernes decided to remove Aristagoras from power, but before he could do so, Aristagoras abdicated, and declared Miletus a democracy.<ref name = h154/> The other [[Ionia]]n cities followed suit, ejecting their Persian-appointed tyrants, and declaring themselves democracies.<ref name = h154/><ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=5.98 V, 97]</ref> Artistagoras then appealed to the states of Mainland Greece for support, but only [[History of Athens|Athens]] and [[Eretria]] offered to send troops.<ref name = h157>Holland, p157–161</ref>
The Ionian revolt had begun with an unsuccessful [[Siege of Naxos (499 BC)|expedition]] against [[Naxos (island)|Naxos]], a joint venture between the Persian satrap [[Artaphernes]] and the [[Milesians (Greek)|Miletus]] tyrant [[Aristagoras]].<ref name=h154>Holland, pp. 154–157.</ref> In the aftermath, Artaphernes decided to remove Aristagoras from power, but before he could do so, Aristagoras abdicated, and declared Miletus a democracy.<ref name=h154/> The other [[Ionia]]n cities followed suit, ejecting their Persian-appointed tyrants, and declaring themselves democracies.<ref name=h154/><ref>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=5.98 V, 97].</ref> Artistagoras then appealed to the states of Mainland Greece for support, but only [[History of Athens|Athens]] and [[Eretria]] offered to send troops.<ref name=h157>Holland, pp. 157–161.</ref>


The reasons that Eretria sent assistance to the Ionians are not completely clear. Possibly commercial reasons were a factor; Eretria was a mercantile city, whose trade was threatened by Persian dominance of the Aegean.<ref name = "h157"/> Herodotus suggests that the Eretrians supported the revolt in order to repay the support the [[Miletus|Milesians]] had given Eretria in a past war against [[Chalcis]].<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;layout=;query=chapter%3D%23875;loc=5.98.1 V, 98]</ref>
The reasons that Eretria sent assistance to the Ionians are not completely clear. Possibly commercial reasons were a factor; Eretria was a mercantile city, whose trade was threatened by Persian dominance of the Aegean.<ref name="h157"/> Herodotus suggests that the Eretrians supported the revolt in order to repay the support the [[Miletus|Milesians]] had given Eretria in a past war against [[Chalcis]].<ref>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;layout=;query=chapter%3D%23875;loc=5.98.1 V, 98].</ref>


The Athenians and Eretrians sent a task force of 25 triremes to Asia Minor to aid the revolt.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%23875;layout=;loc=5.98.1 V, 99]</ref> Whilst there, the Greek army surprised and outmaneuvered Artaphernes, marching to Sardis and there burning the lower city.<ref name = "h160">Holland, p160</ref> However, this was as much as the Greeks achieved, and they were then pursued back to the coast by Persian horsemen, losing many men in the process. Despite the fact their actions were ultimately fruitless, the Eretrians and in particular the Athenians had earned Darius's lasting enmity, and he vowed to punish both cities.<ref name = "h168">Holland, p168</ref> The Persian naval victory at the [[Battle of Lade]] (494 BC) all but ended the Ionian Revolt, and by 493 BC, the last hold-outs were vanquished by the Persian fleet.<ref>Holland, p176</ref> The revolt was used as an opportunity by Darius to extend the empire's border to the islands of the East Aegean<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%23933;layout=;loc=6.32.1 VI, 31]</ref> and the [[Propontis]], which had not been part of the Persian dominions before.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%23935;layout=;loc=6.32.1 VI, 33]</ref> The completion of the pacification of Ionia allowed the Persians to begin planning their next moves; to extinguish the threat to the empire from Greece, and to punish Athens and Eretria.<ref>Holland, p177–178</ref>
The Athenians and Eretrians sent a task force of 25 triremes to Asia Minor to aid the revolt.<ref>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%23875;layout=;loc=5.98.1 V, 99].</ref> Whilst there, the Greek army surprised and outmaneuvered Artaphernes, marching to Sardis and there burning the lower city.<ref name="h160">Holland, p. 160.</ref> However, this was as much as the Greeks achieved, and they were then pursued back to the coast by Persian horsemen, losing many men in the process. Despite the fact their actions were ultimately fruitless, the Eretrians and in particular the Athenians had earned Darius's lasting enmity, and he vowed to punish both cities.<ref name="h168">Holland, p. 168.</ref> The Persian naval victory at the [[Battle of Lade]] (494 BC) all but ended the Ionian Revolt, and by 493 BC, the last hold-outs were vanquished by the Persian fleet.<ref>Holland, p. 176.</ref> The revolt was used as an opportunity by Darius to extend the empire's border to the islands of the East Aegean<ref>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%23933;layout=;loc=6.32.1 VI, 31].</ref> and the [[Propontis]], which had not been part of the Persian dominions before.<ref>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%23935;layout=;loc=6.32.1 VI, 33].</ref> The completion of the pacification of Ionia allowed the Persians to begin planning their next moves; to extinguish the threat to the empire from Greece, and to punish Athens and Eretria.<ref>Holland, pp. 177–178.</ref>


In 492 BC, once the Ionian Revolt had finally been crushed, Darius dispatched an [[First Persian invasion of Greece#492 BC: Mardonius's Campaign|expedition]] to Greece under the command of his son-in-law, [[Mardonius]]. Mardonius re-conquered [[Thrace]] and compelled [[Alexander I of Macedon]] to make [[Macedon]] a client kingdom to Persia, before the wrecking of his fleet brought a premature end to the campaign.<ref name = VI44>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%23946;layout=;loc=6.43.1 VI, 44]</ref>
In 492 BC, once the Ionian Revolt had finally been crushed, Darius dispatched an [[First Persian invasion of Greece#492 BC: Mardonius' campaign|expedition]] to Greece under the command of his son-in-law, [[Mardonius (general)|Mardonius]]. Mardonius re-conquered [[Thrace]] and compelled [[Alexander I of Macedon]] to make [[Macedon]] a client kingdom to Persia, before the wrecking of his fleet brought a premature end to the campaign.<ref name=VI44>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%23946;layout=;loc=6.43.1 VI, 44].</ref>
However, in 490 BC, following up the successes of the previous campaign, Darius decided to send a maritime expedition led by [[Artaphernes]], (son of the satrap to whom Hippias had fled) and [[Datis]], a [[Medes|Median]] admiral. Mardonius had been injured in the prior campaign and had fallen out of favor. The [[First Persian invasion of Greece#490 BC: Datis and Artaphernes' Campaign|expedition]] was intended to bring the [[Cyclades]] into the Persian empire, to punish [[Naxos, Greece|Naxos]] (which had resisted a Persian assault in 499 BC) and then to head to Greece to force Eretria and Athens to submit to Darius or be destroyed.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.94.1 VI, 94 ]</ref> After island hopping across the Aegean, including successfully attacking Naxos, the Persian task force arrived off Euboea in mid summer, ready to fulfil their second major objective - to punish Eretria.
However, in 490 BC, following up the successes of the previous campaign, Darius decided to send a maritime expedition led by [[Artaphernes]], (son of the satrap to whom Hippias had fled) and [[Datis]], a [[Medes|Median]] admiral. Mardonius had been injured in the prior campaign and had fallen out of favor. The [[First Persian invasion of Greece#490 BC: Datis and Artaphernes' campaign|expedition]] was intended to bring the [[Cyclades]] into the Persian empire, to punish [[Naxos, Greece|Naxos]] (which had resisted a Persian assault in 499 BC) and then to head to Greece to force Eretria and Athens to submit to Darius or be destroyed.<ref>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.94.1 VI, 94].</ref> After island hopping across the Aegean, including successfully attacking Naxos, the Persian task force arrived off Euboea in mid summer, ready to fulfil their second major objective - to punish Eretria.


== Prelude ==
==Prelude==
When the Eretrians had discovered that the Persian task force was heading to attack them, they had appealed to the Athenians to send reinforcements.<ref name = VI100>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231006;layout=;loc=6.99.1 VI, 100]</ref> The Athenians agreed to this, and instructed the 4,000 Athenian colonists from the nearby Euboean city of Chalcis to aid the Eretrians.<ref name = VI100/> These colonists had been planted on Chalcidian land after Athens had defeated Chalcis some 20 years previously.<ref name = V77>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=5.77 V, 77]</ref> However, when these Athenians arrived at Eretria, they were told by a leading citizen, Aeschines, of the divisions amongst the Eretrians, and he advised them to leave and save themselves.<ref name = VI100/> The Athenians followed Aeschines' advice and sailed to [[Oropus]], thus avoiding the fate of the Eretrians.<ref name = VI101>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231007;layout=;loc=6.100.1 VI, 101]</ref>
When the Eretrians had discovered that the Persian task force was heading to attack them, they had appealed to the Athenians to send reinforcements.<ref name=VI100>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231006;layout=;loc=6.99.1 VI, 100].</ref> The Athenians agreed to this, and instructed the 4,000 Athenian colonists from the nearby Euboean city of Chalcis to aid the Eretrians.<ref name=VI100/> These colonists had been planted on Chalcidian land after Athens had defeated Chalcis some 20 years previously.<ref name=V77>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=5.77 V, 77].</ref> However, when these Athenians arrived at Eretria, they were told by a leading citizen, Aeschines, of the divisions amongst the Eretrians, and he advised them to leave and save themselves.<ref name=VI100/> The Athenians followed Aeschines' advice and sailed to [[Oropus]], thus avoiding the fate of the Eretrians.<ref name=VI101>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231007;layout=;loc=6.100.1 VI, 101].</ref>


The Eretrians failed to come to a clear plan of action; in Herodotus's words "it seems that all the plans of the Eretrians were unsound; they sent to the Athenians for aid, but their counsels were divided". There were three competing plans - one group wanted to surrender to the Persians, seeking to profit thereby, others wanted to flee to the hills above Eretria, whilst others wanted to fight.<ref name = VI100/> However, when the Persians landed in their territory the Eretrians, some consensus was obviously reached not to leave the city, but to try to withstand a siege, if possible.<ref name = VI101/>
The Eretrians failed to come to a clear plan of action; in Herodotus's words "it seems that all the plans of the Eretrians were unsound; they sent to the Athenians for aid, but their counsels were divided". There were three competing plans - one group wanted to surrender to the Persians, seeking to profit thereby, others wanted to flee to the hills above Eretria, whilst others wanted to fight.<ref name=VI100/> However, when the Persians landed in their territory, a consensus was reached not to leave the city but to try to withstand a siege, if possible.<ref name=VI101/>


== Opposing forces ==
==Opposing forces==

⚫
=== Eretrians ===
===Eretrians===
Herodotus does not estimate numbers for the Eretrians. Presumably, the majority of the citizen body would have been involved in the defence of the city, but the population of Eretria at the time cannot be clearly established.
Herodotus does not estimate numbers for the Eretrians. Presumably, the majority of the citizen body would have been involved in the defence of the city, but the population of Eretria at the time cannot be clearly established.


=== Persians ===
===Persians===
{{for|a full discussion of the size of the Persian invasion force|First Persian invasion of Greece#Size of the Persian force}}
{{for|a full discussion of the size of the Persian invasion force|First Persian invasion of Greece#Size of the Persian force}}


[[File:Trireme.jpg|thumb|right|The trireme, the main type of ship used by the Greeks and Persians|250px]]
[[File:Trireme.jpg|thumb|right|The trireme, the main type of ship used by the Greeks and Persians|250px]]


According to Herodotus, the fleet sent by Darius consisted of 600 [[trireme]]s.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231001;layout=;loc=6.96.1 VI, 95]</ref> Herodotus does not estimate the size of the Persian army, only saying that they were a "large infantry that was well packed".<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.94 VI, 94]</ref> Among ancient sources, the poet [[Simonides of Ceos|Simonides]], another near-contemporary, says the campaign force numbered 200,000; while a later writer, the Roman [[Cornelius Nepos]] estimates 200,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry, of which only 100,000 fought in the battle, while the rest were loaded into the fleet that was rounding Cape Sounion;<ref name = Nepos>Cornelius Nepos, ''Miltiades'' IV</ref> [[Plutarch]]<ref>Plutarch, ''Moralia'', 305 B</ref> and [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]]<ref>Pausanias IV, 22</ref> both independently give 300,000, as does the [[Suda]] dictionary.<ref>Suda, entry ''Hippias''</ref> [[Plato]] and [[Lysias]] assert 500,000;<ref>Plato, ''Menexenus'', 240 A</ref><ref>Lysias, ''Funeral Oration'', 21</ref> and [[Justin (historian)|Justinus]] 600,000.<ref name = Justin>Justin II, 9</ref>
According to Herodotus, the fleet sent by Darius consisted of 600 [[trireme]]s.<ref>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231001;layout=;loc=6.96.1 VI, 95].</ref> Herodotus does not estimate the size of the Persian army, only saying that they were a "large infantry that was well packed".<ref>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.94 VI, 94].</ref> Among ancient sources, the poet [[Simonides of Ceos|Simonides]], another near-contemporary, says the campaign force numbered 200,000; while a later writer, the Roman [[Cornelius Nepos]] estimates 200,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry, of which only 100,000 fought in the battle, while the rest were loaded into the fleet that was rounding Cape Sounion;<ref name = Nepos>Cornelius Nepos, ''Miltiades'' IV.</ref> [[Plutarch]]<ref>Plutarch, ''Moralia'', 305 B.</ref> and [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]]<ref>Pausanias IV, 22</ref> both independently give 300,000, as does the [[Suda]] dictionary.<ref>Suda, entry ''Hippias''.</ref> [[Plato]] and [[Lysias]] assert 500,000;<ref>Plato, ''Menexenus'', 240 A.</ref><ref>Lysias, ''Funeral Oration'', 21.</ref> and [[Justin (historian)|Justinus]] 600,000.<ref name=Justin>Justin II, 9.</ref>


Modern historians have proposed wide ranging numbers for the infantry, from 20,000–100,000 with a consensus of perhaps 25,000;<ref name = L46/><ref>Holland, p390</ref><ref>Lloyd, p164</ref><ref name=Green>Green, p90</ref> estimates for the cavalry are in the range of 1,000 <ref name = L46>Lazenby, p46</ref>
Modern historians have proposed wide-ranging numbers for the infantry, from 20,000–100,000 with a consensus of perhaps 25,000;<ref name=L46/><ref>Holland, p. 390.</ref><ref>Lloyd, p. 164.</ref><ref name=Green>Green, p. 90.</ref> estimates for the cavalry are in the range of 1,000 <ref name=L46>Lazenby, p. 46.</ref>


== Siege ==
==Siege==
The Eretrian strategy was to defend their walls, and undergo a siege.<ref name = VI101/> Possibly this was the only plan that could be agreed on, or became the default option when no plan was agreed. At any rate, since the Persian army had only suffered two defeats in the last century, and since a Greek army had never successfully fought the Persians, this was probably a sensible strategy.<ref>Lazenby, pp23–29</ref> Since the Persians arrived by ship, it is probable they had little siege equipment, and indeed, they had already been foiled in the [[First Persian invasion of Greece#Lindos|siege of Lindos]] earlier in the expedition.<ref>Lind. Chron. D 1–59 in Higbie (2003)</ref>
The Eretrian strategy was to defend their walls, and undergo a siege.<ref name=VI101/> Possibly this was the only plan that could be agreed on, or became the default option when no plan was agreed. At any rate, since the Persian army had only suffered two defeats in the last century, and since a Greek army had never successfully fought the Persians, this was probably a sensible strategy.<ref>Lazenby, pp. 23–29.</ref> Since the Persians arrived by ship, it is probable they had little siege equipment, and indeed, they had already been foiled in the [[First Persian invasion of Greece#Lindos|siege of Lindos]] earlier in the expedition.<ref>Lind. Chron. D 1–59 in Higbie (2003).</ref>


The Persians landed their army at three separate locations, disembarked, and made straight for Eretria.<ref name = VI101/> The Persians then began besieging the city.<ref name = VI101/> Rather than passively besieging the city, the Persians seem to have vigorously attacked the walls.<ref name = VI101/> Herodotus reports that the fighting was fierce and both sides suffered heavy losses.<ref name = VI101/> However, after six days of fighting, two eminent Eretrians, Euphorbus and Philagrus, opened the gates for the Persians.<ref name = VI101/> Once inside the city, the Persians plundered the city, burning the temples and sanctuaries in revenge for the burning of Sardis.<ref name = VI101/> Those citizens who were captured were enslaved, as Darius had ordered.<ref name = VI101/>
The Persians landed their army at three separate locations, disembarked, and advanced towards Eretria.<ref name=VI101/> The Persians then began besieging the city.<ref name=VI101/> Rather than passively besieging the city, the Persians seemed to have vigorously attacked the walls.<ref name=VI101/> Herodotus reports that the fighting was fierce and both sides suffered heavy losses.<ref name=VI101/> However, after six days of clashes, two eminent Eretrians, Euphorbus and Philagrus, opened the gates for the Persians.<ref name=VI101/> Once inside the city, the Persians plundered it, burning temples and sanctuaries in revenge for the burning of Sardis.<ref name=VI101/> Those citizens who were captured were enslaved, as Darius had ordered.<ref name=VI101/>


== Aftermath ==
==Aftermath==
{{Main|Battle of Marathon}}
{{Main|Battle of Marathon}}


After staying at Eretria for a few days, the Persians made their way down the coast towards [[Attica]].<ref name = VI102>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.102 VI,102]</ref> The Persians dropped the captured Eretrians off on the island of [[Aegilia (island)|Aegilia]], before landing at the bay of [[Marathon, Greece|Marathon]] in [[Attica]].<ref name = VI102/><ref name = VI107>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231013;layout=;loc=6.106.1 VI,107]</ref> The Persians' next target was Athens. However, the Athenians had marched out from Athens to meet the Persians, and blocked the exits from the plains of Marathon.<ref name = VI103>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.103 VI,103]</ref> After several days of stalemate, the Athenians finally resolved to attack the Persians, winning a famous victory at the ensuing [[Battle of Marathon]].<ref name = VI115>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.115 VI,115]</ref> After the battle, the remaining Persians fled to their ships, picked up the Eretrians from [[Aegilia (island)|Aegilia]],<ref name = VI115/> and then sailed back to [[Asia Minor]], thereby ending the campaign, and the first Persian invasion of Greece.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.116 VI,116]</ref>
After staying at Eretria for a few days, the Persians made their way down the coast towards [[Attica]].<ref name=VI102>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.102 VI,102].</ref> The Persians dropped the captured Eretrians off on the island of [[Aegilia (island)|Aegilia]], before landing at the bay of [[Marathon, Greece|Marathon]] in [[Attica]].<ref name=VI102/><ref name=VI107>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231013;layout=;loc=6.106.1 VI,107].</ref> The Persians' next target was Athens. However, the Athenians had marched out from Athens to meet the Persians, and blocked the exits from the plains of Marathon.<ref name=VI103>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.103 VI,103].</ref> After several days of stalemate, the Athenians finally resolved to attack the Persians, winning a famous victory at the ensuing [[Battle of Marathon]].<ref name=VI115>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.115 VI,115].</ref> After the battle, the remaining Persians fled to their ships, picked up the Eretrians from [[Aegilia (island)|Aegilia]],<ref name=VI115/> and then sailed back to [[Asia Minor]], thereby ending the campaign, and the first Persian invasion of Greece.<ref>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.116 VI,116].</ref>

⚫
When the Persian fleet arrived in Asia Minor, Datis and Artaphernes took the Eretrians before Darius in [[Susa]].<ref name=VI119>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.119 VI,119].</ref> The Eretrians were not harmed by Darius who decided to settle them in the town of [[Ardericca in Susiana|Ardericca]] in [[Cissia (area)|Cissia]].<ref name=VI119/> They were still there, using their own language and customs, when Herodotus wrote his history,<ref name=VI119/> and were encountered by [[Alexander the Great]] during his conquest of Persia a further century later.<ref>Fox, p. 543.</ref>


⚫
In the meantime, Darius began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition.<ref name=h203>Holland, p. 203.</ref> Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son [[Xerxes I]].<ref>Holland, pp. 206–207.</ref> Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece.<ref name=h208>Holland, pp. 208–211.</ref> The epic [[second Persian invasion of Greece]] finally began in 480 BC, and the Persians met with initial success at the battles of [[Battle of Thermopylae|Thermopylae]] and [[Battle of Artemisium|Artemisium]].<ref>Lazenby, p. 151.</ref> However, defeat at the [[Battle of Salamis]] would be the turning point in the campaign,<ref>Lazenby, p. 197.</ref> and the next year the expedition was ended by the decisive Greek victory at the [[Battle of Plataea]].<ref>Holland, pp. 350–355.</ref><ref>Note to Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=9.81.1 IX, 81].</ref>
⚫
When the Persian fleet arrived in Asia Minor, Datis and Artaphernes took the Eretrians before Darius in [[Susa]].<ref name = VI119>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.119 VI,119]</ref> The Eretrians were not harmed by Darius who decided to settle them in the town of [[Ardericca]] in [[Khūzestān Province|Cissia]].<ref name = VI119/> They were still there, using their own language and customs, when Herodotus wrote his history,<ref name = VI119/> and were encountered by [[Alexander the Great]] during his conquest of Persia a further century later.<ref>Fox, p543</ref>


==See also==
⚫
In the meanwhile, Darius began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition.<ref name = h203>Holland, p203</ref> Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son [[Xerxes I]].<ref>Holland, pp206–207</ref> Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece.<ref name = h208>Holland, pp208–211</ref> The epic [[second Persian invasion of Greece]] finally began in 480 BC, and the Persians met with initial success at the battles of [[Battle of Thermopylae|Thermopylae]] and [[Battle of Artemisium|Artemisium]].<ref>Lazenby, p151</ref> However, defeat at the [[Battle of Salamis]] would be the turning point in the campaign,<ref>Lazenby, p197</ref> and the next year the expedition was ended by the decisive Greek victory at the [[Battle of Plataea]].<ref>Holland, pp350–355</ref>
*[[Battle of Salamis]]
*[[Achaemenid destruction of Athens]]


== See also ==
==References==
⚫
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
{{Wikipedia books|First Persian invasion of Greece}}
{{-}}


== References ==
==Bibliography==
⚫
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}


⚫
===Ancient sources===
== Bibliography ==
⚫
*[[Herodotus]], ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Hdt.+toc Perseus online version]
⚫
=== Ancient sources ===
⚫
*[[Ctesias]], ''Persica'' (excerpt in Photius's epitome)
⚫
* Herodotus, ''The Histories'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Hdt.+toc Perseus online version]
⚫
*[[Diodorus Siculus]], ''[[Bibliotheca historica]]''.
⚫
* Ctesias, ''Persica'' (excerpt in Photius's epitome)
*[[Thucydides]], ''History of the Peloponnesian War''
⚫
* Diodorus Siculus, ''Biblioteca Historica''.
* Thucydides, ''History of the Peloponnesian War''
*[[Cicero]], ''[[De Legibus|On the Laws]]''
* Cicero, ''On the Laws''
*[[Cornelius Nepos]], ''Miltiades''
* Cornelius Nepos, ''Miltiades''
*[[Plutarch]], ''[[Moralia]]''
⚫
*[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''[[Description of Greece]]''
* Plutarch, ''Moralia''
⚫
*[[Suda]] Dictionary (unknown author)
⚫
* Pausanias, ''Description of Greece''
*[[Plato]], [[Menexenus (dialogue)|Menexenus]]
⚫
* [[Suda]] Dictionary (unknown author)
⚫
*[[Justin (historian)|Justin]], epitome of Trogus Pompeius's ''Philipic History''
* Plato, Menexenus
⚫
*[[Lysias]], ''[[Funeral Oration (Lysias)|Funeral Oration]]''
⚫
* Justin, epitome of Trogus Pompeius's ''Philipic History''
⚫
* Lysias, ''Funeral Oration''


=== Modern sources ===
=== Modern sources ===
* Holland, Tom. ''Persian Fire''. London: Abacus, 2005 (ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1)
*Holland, Tom. ''Persian Fire''. London: Abacus, 2005 ({{ISBN|978-0-349-11717-1}})
* Lloyd, Alan. ''Marathon:The Crucial Battle That Created Western Democracy''. Souvenir Press, 2004. (ISBN 0-285-63688-X)
*Lloyd, Alan. ''Marathon:The Crucial Battle That Created Western Democracy''. Souvenir Press, 2004. ({{ISBN|0-285-63688-X}})
* Green, Peter. ''The Greco-Persian Wars.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970; revised ed., 1996 (hardcover, ISBN 0-520-20573-1); 1998 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-20313-5).
*Green, Peter. ''The Greco-Persian Wars.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970; revised ed., 1996 (hardcover, {{ISBN|0-520-20573-1}}); 1998 (paperback, {{ISBN|0-520-20313-5}}).
* Lazenby, JF. ''The Defence of Greece 490–479 BC.'' Aris & Phillips Ltd., 1993 (ISBN 0-85668-591-7)
*Lazenby, JF. ''The Defence of Greece 490–479 BC.'' Aris & Phillips Ltd., 1993 ({{ISBN|0-85668-591-7}})
* Fox, Robin Lane. ''Alexander the Great''. Penguin, 1973 (ISBN 0-14-008878-4)
*Fox, Robin Lane. ''Alexander the Great''. Penguin, 1973 ({{ISBN|0-14-008878-4}})
* Fehling, D. ''Herodotus and His "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art''. Translated by J.G. Howie. Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1989.
*Fehling, D. ''Herodotus and His "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art''. Translated by J.G. Howie. Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1989.
* {{cite book | last=Finley | first=Moses | title= Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War (translated by Rex Warner)| chapter = Introduction | publisher= Penguin | year= 1972 | ISBN = 0-14-044039-9}}
*{{cite book|last=Finley|first=Moses|title=Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War (translated by Rex Warner)|chapter=Introduction|publisher=Penguin|year=1972|isbn=0-14-044039-9|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpelopo000thuc }}
* Higbie, C. ''The Lindian Chronicle and the Greek Creation of their Past''. Oxford University Press, 2003.
*Higbie, C. ''The Lindian Chronicle and the Greek Creation of their Past''. Oxford University Press, 2003.
*{{cite book|last1=Roisman|first1=Joseph|last2=Worthington|first2=Ian|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|year=2011|isbn=978-1-44-435163-7|url=https://books.google.nl/books?id=QsJ183uUDkMC&pg=PA345&lpg=PA345&dq=Achaemenid+Persians+ruled+balkans&source=bl&ots=K7qasgPG1K&sig=lkiajbVuNcHEbI5Lz3MnvIUBG1U&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=sb6RVP2qHoPUaqeGgZgE&ved=0CEkQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Achaemenid%20Persians%20ruled%20balkans&f=false|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last1=Roisman|first1=Joseph|last2=Worthington|first2=Ian|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|year=2011|isbn=978-1-44-435163-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QsJ183uUDkMC&q=Achaemenid+Persians+ruled+balkans&pg=PA345}}
{{Achaemenid Empire}}


{{good article}}
{{good article}}

Latest revision as of 20:35, 20 October 2024

Siege of Eretria
Part of First Persian invasion of Greece

A map showing the invasion of 490 BC
Date490 BC
Location
Eretria, Euboea
38°23′34″N 23°47′39″E / 38.392801°N 23.794298°E / 38.392801; 23.794298
Result
  • Persian victory
  • Destruction of Eretria
  • Eretrians enslaved
Belligerents
Eretria Persian Empire
Commanders and leaders
Unknown Datis
Artaphernes
Strength
Unknown

Ancient sources: 100,000–300,000

Siege of Eretria is located in Greece
Siege of Eretria
class=notpageimage|
Location of the siege of Eretria

The siege of Eretria took place in 490 BC, during the first Persian invasion of Greece. The city of Eretria, on Euboea, was besieged by a strong Persian force under the command of Datis and Artaphernes.

The first Persian invasion was a response to Greek involvement in the Ionian Revolt, when the Eretrians and Athenians had sent a force to support the cities of Ionia in their attempt to overthrow Persian rule. The Eretrian and Athenian force had succeeded in capturing and burning Sardis (the regional capital of Persia), but was then forced to retreat with heavy losses. In response to this raid, the Persian king Darius I swore to have revenge on Athens and Eretria.

Once the Ionian revolt was finally crushed by the Persian victory at the Battle of Lade, Darius began to plan to subjugate Greece. In 490 BC, he sent a naval task force under Datis and Artaphernes across the Aegean to subjugate the Cyclades, and then to make punitive attacks on Athens and Eretria. Reaching Euboea in mid-summer after a successful campaign in the Aegean, the Persians proceeded to put Eretria under siege. The siege lasted six days before a fifth column of Eretrian nobles betrayed the city to the Persians. The city was plundered, and the population was deported to the village Ardericca in Susiana near the Persian capital.

After Eretria, the Persian force sailed for Athens, landing at the bay of Marathon. An Athenian army marched to meet them, and won a famous victory at the Battle of Marathon, thereby ending the first Persian invasion.

Background

[edit]
Main articles: Greco-Persian Wars, Ionian Revolt, and First Persian invasion of Greece

The first Persian invasion of Greece had its immediate roots in the Ionian Revolt, the earliest phase of the Greco-Persian Wars. However, it was also the result of the longer-term interaction between the Greeks and Persians. In 500 BC the Persian Empire was still relatively young and highly expansionistic, but prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples.[1][2][3] Moreover, the Persian king Darius was a usurper, and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule.[1] Even before the Ionian Revolt, Darius had begun to expand the Empire into Europe, subjugating Thrace, and forcing Macedon to become a vassal of Persia.[4] Attempts at further expansion into the politically fractious world of Ancient Greece may have been inevitable.[2] However, the Ionian Revolt had directly threatened the integrity of the Persian empire, and the states of mainland Greece remained a potential menace to its future stability.[5] Darius thus resolved to subjugate and pacify Greece and the Aegean, and to punish those involved in the Ionian Revolt.[5][6]

Darius I of Persia, as imagined by a Greek painter, 4th century BC

The Ionian revolt had begun with an unsuccessful expedition against Naxos, a joint venture between the Persian satrap Artaphernes and the Miletus tyrant Aristagoras.[7] In the aftermath, Artaphernes decided to remove Aristagoras from power, but before he could do so, Aristagoras abdicated, and declared Miletus a democracy.[7] The other Ionian cities followed suit, ejecting their Persian-appointed tyrants, and declaring themselves democracies.[7][8] Artistagoras then appealed to the states of Mainland Greece for support, but only Athens and Eretria offered to send troops.[9]

The reasons that Eretria sent assistance to the Ionians are not completely clear. Possibly commercial reasons were a factor; Eretria was a mercantile city, whose trade was threatened by Persian dominance of the Aegean.[9] Herodotus suggests that the Eretrians supported the revolt in order to repay the support the Milesians had given Eretria in a past war against Chalcis.[10]

The Athenians and Eretrians sent a task force of 25 triremes to Asia Minor to aid the revolt.[11] Whilst there, the Greek army surprised and outmaneuvered Artaphernes, marching to Sardis and there burning the lower city.[12] However, this was as much as the Greeks achieved, and they were then pursued back to the coast by Persian horsemen, losing many men in the process. Despite the fact their actions were ultimately fruitless, the Eretrians and in particular the Athenians had earned Darius's lasting enmity, and he vowed to punish both cities.[13] The Persian naval victory at the Battle of Lade (494 BC) all but ended the Ionian Revolt, and by 493 BC, the last hold-outs were vanquished by the Persian fleet.[14] The revolt was used as an opportunity by Darius to extend the empire's border to the islands of the East Aegean[15] and the Propontis, which had not been part of the Persian dominions before.[16] The completion of the pacification of Ionia allowed the Persians to begin planning their next moves; to extinguish the threat to the empire from Greece, and to punish Athens and Eretria.[17]

In 492 BC, once the Ionian Revolt had finally been crushed, Darius dispatched an expedition to Greece under the command of his son-in-law, Mardonius. Mardonius re-conquered Thrace and compelled Alexander I of Macedon to make Macedon a client kingdom to Persia, before the wrecking of his fleet brought a premature end to the campaign.[18] However, in 490 BC, following up the successes of the previous campaign, Darius decided to send a maritime expedition led by Artaphernes, (son of the satrap to whom Hippias had fled) and Datis, a Median admiral. Mardonius had been injured in the prior campaign and had fallen out of favor. The expedition was intended to bring the Cyclades into the Persian empire, to punish Naxos (which had resisted a Persian assault in 499 BC) and then to head to Greece to force Eretria and Athens to submit to Darius or be destroyed.[19] After island hopping across the Aegean, including successfully attacking Naxos, the Persian task force arrived off Euboea in mid summer, ready to fulfil their second major objective - to punish Eretria.

Prelude

[edit]

When the Eretrians had discovered that the Persian task force was heading to attack them, they had appealed to the Athenians to send reinforcements.[20] The Athenians agreed to this, and instructed the 4,000 Athenian colonists from the nearby Euboean city of Chalcis to aid the Eretrians.[20] These colonists had been planted on Chalcidian land after Athens had defeated Chalcis some 20 years previously.[21] However, when these Athenians arrived at Eretria, they were told by a leading citizen, Aeschines, of the divisions amongst the Eretrians, and he advised them to leave and save themselves.[20] The Athenians followed Aeschines' advice and sailed to Oropus, thus avoiding the fate of the Eretrians.[22]

The Eretrians failed to come to a clear plan of action; in Herodotus's words "it seems that all the plans of the Eretrians were unsound; they sent to the Athenians for aid, but their counsels were divided". There were three competing plans - one group wanted to surrender to the Persians, seeking to profit thereby, others wanted to flee to the hills above Eretria, whilst others wanted to fight.[20] However, when the Persians landed in their territory, a consensus was reached not to leave the city but to try to withstand a siege, if possible.[22]

Opposing forces

[edit]

Eretrians

[edit]

Herodotus does not estimate numbers for the Eretrians. Presumably, the majority of the citizen body would have been involved in the defence of the city, but the population of Eretria at the time cannot be clearly established.

Persians

[edit]
For a full discussion of the size of the Persian invasion force, see First Persian invasion of Greece § Size of the Persian force.
The trireme, the main type of ship used by the Greeks and Persians

According to Herodotus, the fleet sent by Darius consisted of 600 triremes.[23] Herodotus does not estimate the size of the Persian army, only saying that they were a "large infantry that was well packed".[24] Among ancient sources, the poet Simonides, another near-contemporary, says the campaign force numbered 200,000; while a later writer, the Roman Cornelius Nepos estimates 200,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry, of which only 100,000 fought in the battle, while the rest were loaded into the fleet that was rounding Cape Sounion;[25] Plutarch[26] and Pausanias[27] both independently give 300,000, as does the Suda dictionary.[28] Plato and Lysias assert 500,000;[29][30] and Justinus 600,000.[31]

Modern historians have proposed wide-ranging numbers for the infantry, from 20,000–100,000 with a consensus of perhaps 25,000;[32][33][34][35] estimates for the cavalry are in the range of 1,000 [32]

Siege

[edit]

The Eretrian strategy was to defend their walls, and undergo a siege.[22] Possibly this was the only plan that could be agreed on, or became the default option when no plan was agreed. At any rate, since the Persian army had only suffered two defeats in the last century, and since a Greek army had never successfully fought the Persians, this was probably a sensible strategy.[36] Since the Persians arrived by ship, it is probable they had little siege equipment, and indeed, they had already been foiled in the siege of Lindos earlier in the expedition.[37]

The Persians landed their army at three separate locations, disembarked, and advanced towards Eretria.[22] The Persians then began besieging the city.[22] Rather than passively besieging the city, the Persians seemed to have vigorously attacked the walls.[22] Herodotus reports that the fighting was fierce and both sides suffered heavy losses.[22] However, after six days of clashes, two eminent Eretrians, Euphorbus and Philagrus, opened the gates for the Persians.[22] Once inside the city, the Persians plundered it, burning temples and sanctuaries in revenge for the burning of Sardis.[22] Those citizens who were captured were enslaved, as Darius had ordered.[22]

Aftermath

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Main article: Battle of Marathon

After staying at Eretria for a few days, the Persians made their way down the coast towards Attica.[38] The Persians dropped the captured Eretrians off on the island of Aegilia, before landing at the bay of Marathon in Attica.[38][39] The Persians' next target was Athens. However, the Athenians had marched out from Athens to meet the Persians, and blocked the exits from the plains of Marathon.[40] After several days of stalemate, the Athenians finally resolved to attack the Persians, winning a famous victory at the ensuing Battle of Marathon.[41] After the battle, the remaining Persians fled to their ships, picked up the Eretrians from Aegilia,[41] and then sailed back to Asia Minor, thereby ending the campaign, and the first Persian invasion of Greece.[42]

When the Persian fleet arrived in Asia Minor, Datis and Artaphernes took the Eretrians before Darius in Susa.[43] The Eretrians were not harmed by Darius who decided to settle them in the town of Ardericca in Cissia.[43] They were still there, using their own language and customs, when Herodotus wrote his history,[43] and were encountered by Alexander the Great during his conquest of Persia a further century later.[44]

In the meantime, Darius began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition.[3] Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I.[45] Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece.[46] The epic second Persian invasion of Greece finally began in 480 BC, and the Persians met with initial success at the battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium.[47] However, defeat at the Battle of Salamis would be the turning point in the campaign,[48] and the next year the expedition was ended by the decisive Greek victory at the Battle of Plataea.[49][50]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b Holland, pp. 47–55.
  2. ^ a b Holland, pp. 58–62.
  3. ^ a b Holland, p. 203.
  4. ^ Roisman & Worthington 2011, p. 343.
  5. ^ a b Holland, pp. 171–178.
  6. ^ Herodotus V, 105.
  7. ^ a b c Holland, pp. 154–157.
  8. ^ Herodotus V, 97.
  9. ^ a b Holland, pp. 157–161.
  10. ^ Herodotus V, 98.
  11. ^ Herodotus V, 99.
  12. ^ Holland, p. 160.
  13. ^ Holland, p. 168.
  14. ^ Holland, p. 176.
  15. ^ Herodotus VI, 31.
  16. ^ Herodotus VI, 33.
  17. ^ Holland, pp. 177–178.
  18. ^ Herodotus VI, 44.
  19. ^ Herodotus VI, 94.
  20. ^ a b c d Herodotus VI, 100.
  21. ^ Herodotus V, 77.
  22. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Herodotus VI, 101.
  23. ^ Herodotus VI, 95.
  24. ^ Herodotus VI, 94.
  25. ^ Cornelius Nepos, Miltiades IV.
  26. ^ Plutarch, Moralia, 305 B.
  27. ^ Pausanias IV, 22
  28. ^ Suda, entry Hippias.
  29. ^ Plato, Menexenus, 240 A.
  30. ^ Lysias, Funeral Oration, 21.
  31. ^ Justin II, 9.
  32. ^ a b Lazenby, p. 46.
  33. ^ Holland, p. 390.
  34. ^ Lloyd, p. 164.
  35. ^ Green, p. 90.
  36. ^ Lazenby, pp. 23–29.
  37. ^ Lind. Chron. D 1–59 in Higbie (2003).
  38. ^ a b Herodotus VI,102.
  39. ^ Herodotus VI,107.
  40. ^ Herodotus VI,103.
  41. ^ a b Herodotus VI,115.
  42. ^ Herodotus VI,116.
  43. ^ a b c Herodotus VI,119.
  44. ^ Fox, p. 543.
  45. ^ Holland, pp. 206–207.
  46. ^ Holland, pp. 208–211.
  47. ^ Lazenby, p. 151.
  48. ^ Lazenby, p. 197.
  49. ^ Holland, pp. 350–355.
  50. ^ Note to Herodotus IX, 81.

Bibliography

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Ancient sources

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Modern sources

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  • Holland, Tom. Persian Fire. London: Abacus, 2005 (ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1)
  • Lloyd, Alan. Marathon:The Crucial Battle That Created Western Democracy. Souvenir Press, 2004. (ISBN 0-285-63688-X)
  • Green, Peter. The Greco-Persian Wars. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970; revised ed., 1996 (hardcover, ISBN 0-520-20573-1); 1998 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-20313-5).
  • Lazenby, JF. The Defence of Greece 490–479 BC. Aris & Phillips Ltd., 1993 (ISBN 0-85668-591-7)
  • Fox, Robin Lane. Alexander the Great. Penguin, 1973 (ISBN 0-14-008878-4)
  • Fehling, D. Herodotus and His "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art. Translated by J.G. Howie. Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1989.
  • Finley, Moses (1972). "Introduction". Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War (translated by Rex Warner). Penguin. ISBN 0-14-044039-9.
  • Higbie, C. The Lindian Chronicle and the Greek Creation of their Past. Oxford University Press, 2003.
  • Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1-44-435163-7.

38°23′34″N 23°47′39″E / 38.3928°N 23.7942°E / 38.3928; 23.7942

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