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{{short description|Reflecting telescope located at Lick Observatory in California}}{{Copyvio-revdel|url=https://www.ucolick.org/public/telescopes/crossley.html|start=968667182|end=971880710}}{{Infobox telescope
{{short description|Reflecting telescope located at Lick Observatory in California}}
{{Infobox telescope
| discovered = [[Mayall's Object]]
| discovered = [[Mayall's Object]]
}}
}}
[[File:The Adolfo Stahl lectures in astronomy, delivered in San Francisco, California, in 1916-17 and 1917-18, under the auspices of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific (1919) (14781868071).jpg|400px|thumb|The Orion Nebula, photographed with Crossley telescope by Keeler]]
[[File:The Adolfo Stahl lectures in astronomy, delivered in San Francisco, California, in 1916-17 and 1917-18, under the auspices of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific (1919) (14781868071).jpg|400px|thumb|The Orion Nebula, photographed with Crossley telescope by Keeler]]


The '''Crossley telescope''' is a {{convert|36|in|mm|adj=on}} [[reflecting telescope]] located at [[Lick Observatory]] in the [[U.S. state]] of [[California]]. It was used between 1895 to 2010, and was donated to the observatory by [[Edward Crossley]], its namesake.
The '''Crossley telescope''' is a {{convert|36|in|mm|adj=on}} [[reflecting telescope]] located at [[Lick Observatory]] in the [[U.S. state]] of [[California]]. It was used between 1895 and 2010, and was donated to the observatory by [[Edward Crossley]], its namesake.


It was the largest glass reflecting telescope in the United States for several years after its recommissioning in California.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=1900ApJ....11..325K Page 325|journal = The Astrophysical Journal|volume = 11|pages = 325|bibcode = 1900ApJ....11..325K|last1 = Keeler|first1 = James E.|year = 1900|doi = 10.1086/140704}}</ref> Lick Director, [[James Edward Keeler]], remarked of the Crossley in 1900, "... by far the most effective instrument in the Observatory for certain class of astronomical work."<ref name=":0" />
It was the largest glass reflecting telescope in the United States for several years after its recommissioning in California.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=1900ApJ....11..325K Page 325|journal = The Astrophysical Journal|volume = 11|pages = 325|bibcode = 1900ApJ....11..325K|last1 = Keeler|first1 = James E.|year = 1900|doi = 10.1086/140704|doi-access = free}}</ref> Lick Director, [[James Edward Keeler]], remarked of the Crossley in 1900, "... by far the most effective instrument in the Observatory for certain class of astronomical work."<ref name=":0" />


==History==
==History==
Given to the Lick Observatory in 1895 by [[United Kingdom|British]] politician [[Edward Crossley]], it was rebuilt from the ground up as it was on a very flimsy mounting. It was last used in 2010 in the search for [[extra-solar planets]] but has been taken out of service due to budget cuts. The mirror, and some of the initial mounts, came from the [[Andrew Ainslie Common#Work in astronomy|36-inch reflector]] originally mounted in [[Andrew Ainslie Common]]'s backyard [[Ealing]] observatory. He had used it from 1879 to 1886 to prove the concept of long exposure [[astrophotography]] (recording objects too faint to be seen by the naked eye for the first time). Common sold it to Crossley who had it until 1895.
Given to the Lick Observatory in 1895 by [[United Kingdom|British]] politician [[Edward Crossley]], it was rebuilt from the ground up as it was on a very flimsy mounting. It was last used in 2010 in the search for [[extra-solar planets]] but has been taken out of service due to budget cuts. The mirror, and some of the initial mounts, came from the [[Andrew Ainslie Common#Work in astronomy|36-inch reflector]] originally mounted in [[Andrew Ainslie Common]]'s backyard [[Ealing]] observatory. He had used it from 1879 to 1886 to prove the concept of long exposure [[astrophotography]] (recording objects too faint to be seen by the naked eye for the first time). Common sold it to Crossley who had it until 1895.


The 36-inch A.A.Common mirror was made by George Calver for Common, and was ordered after Common wanted one bigger than the 18-inch reflecting telescope, which also had a mirror from Calver.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA452&dq=paris+observatory+reflector#v=onepage&q=paris%20observatory%20reflector&f=false|title=The History of the Telescope|last=King|first=Henry C.|date=2003-01-01|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=9780486432656}}</ref> Common completed this telescope by 1879, and went on to make a 60-inch telescope; he sold the 36-inch to Crossley.<ref name=":0" /> Crossley set the telescope up in [[Halifax, England]] in a new dome.<ref name=":0" />
The 36-inch A.A.Common mirror was made by George Calver for Common, and was ordered after Common wanted one bigger than the 18-inch reflecting telescope, which also had a mirror from Calver.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KAWwzHlDVksC&q=paris+observatory+reflector&pg=PA452|title=The History of the Telescope|last=King|first=Henry C.|date=2003-01-01|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=9780486432656}}</ref> Common completed this telescope by 1879, and went on to make a 60-inch telescope; he sold the 36-inch to Crossley.<ref name=":0" /> Crossley set the telescope up in [[Halifax, England]] in a new dome.<ref name=":0" />


Meanwhile, at the Lick Observatory in California, Holden, the director, learned that Crossley wanted to sell the well-regarded Common 36-inch telescope.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=dmJBAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA2-PA166&dq=Crossley+telescope#v=onepage&q=Crossley%20telescope&f=false|title=Appendix to the Journals of the Senate and Assembly ... of the Legislature of the State of California ...|last=California|date=1897|publisher=Sup't State Printing}}</ref> Holden and Crossley exchanged letters and worked out transferring the telescope.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/butowsky5/astro4c.htm|title=National Park Service: Astronomy and Astrophysics (Lick Crossley 36-inch Reflector)|website=www.nps.gov|access-date=2019-11-11}}</ref> Crossley was very impressed by the enhanced observing conditions at [[Mount Hamilton (California)|Mount Hamilton]], and, in April 1895, he formally telegraphed the Lick that he would donate the telescope.<ref name=":3" />
Meanwhile, at the Lick Observatory in California, [[Edward S. Holden]], the director, learned that Crossley wanted to sell the well-regarded Common 36-inch telescope.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dmJBAQAAMAAJ&q=Crossley+telescope&pg=RA2-PA166|title=Appendix to the Journals of the Senate and Assembly ... of the Legislature of the State of California ...|last=California|date=1897|publisher=Sup't State Printing}}</ref> Holden and Crossley exchanged letters and worked out transferring the telescope.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/butowsky5/astro4c.htm|title=National Park Service: Astronomy and Astrophysics (Lick Crossley 36-inch Reflector)|website=www.nps.gov|access-date=2019-11-11}}</ref> Crossley was very impressed by the enhanced observing conditions at [[Mount Hamilton (California)|Mount Hamilton]], and, in April 1895, he formally telegraphed the Lick that he would donate the telescope.<ref name=":3" />


Funds had to be raised to ship the telescope to California, which included money from various donors including many small donations from members of the public, as well as donated services.<ref name=":3" /> For example, the heavy parts of the telescope were shipped by [[Southern Pacific Transportation Company|The Southern Pacific Company]] at no cost, a service of over $1,000 USD (at that time).<ref name=":3" /> Converting the buying power of 1896 dollars to 2017 dollars, that can be estimated at approximately $12,000 USD.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.in2013dollars.com/1896-dollars-in-2017|title=1896 dollars in 2017 {{!}} Inflation Calculator|website=www.in2013dollars.com|access-date=2019-11-11}}</ref>
Funds had to be raised to ship the telescope to California, which included money from various donors including many small donations from members of the public, as well as donated services.<ref name=":3" /> For example, the heavy parts of the telescope were shipped by [[Southern Pacific Transportation Company|The Southern Pacific Company]] at no cost, a service of over US$1,000 (at that time).<ref name=":3" /> Converting the buying power of 1896 dollars to 2017 dollars, that can be estimated at US$12,000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.in2013dollars.com/1896-dollars-in-2017|title=1896 dollars in 2017 {{!}} Inflation Calculator|website=www.in2013dollars.com|access-date=2019-11-11}}</ref>


The reflecting telescope type was scarcely used in the United States at the time of the donation, with a noted exception being the work of [[Henry Draper|H. Draper]]'s reflector.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title=1899Obs....22..437K Page 437|journal = The Observatory|volume = 22|pages = 437|bibcode = 1899Obs....22..437K|last1 = Keeler|first1 = J. E.|year = 1899}}</ref>
The reflecting telescope type was scarcely used in the United States at the time of the donation, with a noted exception being the work of [[Henry Draper|H. Draper]]'s reflector.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title=1899Obs....22..437K Page 437|journal = The Observatory|volume = 22|pages = 437|bibcode = 1899Obs....22..437K|last1 = Keeler|first1 = J. E.|year = 1899}}</ref>
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Observations by Keeler helped establish large reflecting telescopes with metal-coated glass mirrors as astronomically useful, as opposed to earlier cast [[speculum metal]] mirrors. [[Great refractors]] were still in vogue, but the Crossley reflector foreshadowed the success of large reflectors in the 1900s. Other large reflectors followed, such as the ''Harvard 60-inch Reflector'' (152&nbsp;cm), also with a mirror by A.A. Common, or the ''1 Meter Spiegelteleskop'' (39.4 inch reflector) of the [[Hamburg Observatory]].<ref>[http://www.hs.uni-hamburg.de/EN/Oef/Stw/anderson/Appendix.htm A Short History of Hamburg Observatory, by Stuart R. Anderson and Dieter Engels] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213001855/http://www.hs.uni-hamburg.de/EN/Oef/Stw/anderson/Appendix.htm |date=2012-02-13 }}, July 2004</ref> At this time the 72-inch [[Leviathan of Parsonstown]] was the largest by aperture, but it used a metal mirror. Despite the accomplishments of reflectors under Herschel, in the 19th century much of the astronomical community used relatively small refractors, often just a few inches in aperture, save for a few larger ones.
Observations by Keeler helped establish large reflecting telescopes with metal-coated glass mirrors as astronomically useful, as opposed to earlier cast [[speculum metal]] mirrors. [[Great refractors]] were still in vogue, but the Crossley reflector foreshadowed the success of large reflectors in the 1900s. Other large reflectors followed, such as the ''Harvard 60-inch Reflector'' (152&nbsp;cm), also with a mirror by A.A. Common, or the ''1 Meter Spiegelteleskop'' (39.4 inch reflector) of the [[Hamburg Observatory]].<ref>[http://www.hs.uni-hamburg.de/EN/Oef/Stw/anderson/Appendix.htm A Short History of Hamburg Observatory, by Stuart R. Anderson and Dieter Engels] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213001855/http://www.hs.uni-hamburg.de/EN/Oef/Stw/anderson/Appendix.htm |date=2012-02-13 }}, July 2004</ref> At this time the 72-inch [[Leviathan of Parsonstown]] was the largest by aperture, but it used a metal mirror. Despite the accomplishments of reflectors under Herschel, in the 19th century much of the astronomical community used relatively small refractors, often just a few inches in aperture, save for a few larger ones.


After Keeler died unexpectedly in 1900, [[William W. Campbell]], now Lick Observatory's astronomer-in-charge, assigned Assistant Astronomer [[Charles Dillon Perrine]] "to take charge of all duties in connection with the Crossley" including completing Keeler's observation of the near-Earth asteroid [[433 Eros]], for the determination of the solar parallax.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Perrine |first1=C. D. |title=Determination of the solar parallax from photographs of [[Eros]] made with the Crossley reflector of the Lick Observatory University of California |date=1910 |publisher=Carnegie Institution of Washington |location=Washington, D. C. |pages=1-104}}</ref> Perrine further significantly reconstructed the telescope from 1902 to 1905.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perrine |first1=C. D. |title=A New Mounting for the Three-Foot Mirror of the Crossley Reflecting Telescope |journal=Lick Observatory Bulletin |date=1905 |volume=3 |issue=78 |pages=124-128}}</ref> Perrine would use the rebuilt Crossley to great effect in discovering eight comets<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perrine |first1=C. D. |title="Discovery of Comet g, 1896 (Perrine)", Notices from the Lick Observatory |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific |date=1896 |volume=9 |issue=954 |pages=39, 40}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=W. W. |title=The Lick Observatory and Its Problems |journal=Overland Monthly |date=1902 |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=326-327}}</ref> and the sixth and seventh satellites (moons) of Jupiter.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perrine |first1=C. D. |title=Discovery, Observations and Approximate Orbits of Two New Satellites of Jupiter |journal=Lick Observatory Bulletin |date=1905 |volume=3 |issue=78 |pages=129-131}}</ref> The Crossley was so effective that when Perrine became the director of the Argentine National Observatory in Cordoba in 1909, he established a program to install a 60-inch (76-centimeter) reflecting telescope in Argentina. At that time it would have been equal to the largest reflector on Earth. After a world war and national economic crisis the "Perrine telescope" at the Bosque Alegre astrophysical station was inaugurated in 1942 when it was the largest reflector in South America.
After Keeler died unexpectedly in 1900, [[William Wallace Campbell|William W. Campbell]], now Lick Observatory's astronomer-in-charge, assigned Assistant Astronomer [[Charles Dillon Perrine]] "to take charge of all duties in connection with the Crossley" including completing Keeler's observation of the near-Earth asteroid [[433 Eros]], for the determination of the [[solar parallax]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name="Carnegie Institution of Washington">{{cite book |last1=Perrine |first1=C. D. |title=Determination of the solar parallax from photographs of [[Eros]] made with the Crossley reflector of the Lick Observatory University of California |date=1910 |publisher=Carnegie Institution of Washington |location=Washington, D. C. |pages=1–104}}</ref> Perrine further significantly reconstructed the telescope from 1902 to 1905.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perrine |first1=C. D. |title=A New Mounting for the Three-Foot Mirror of the Crossley Reflecting Telescope |journal=Lick Observatory Bulletin |date=1905 |volume=3 |issue=78 |pages=124–128|doi=10.5479/ADS/bib/1905LicOB.3.124P |bibcode=1905LicOB...3..124P }}</ref> Perrine would use the rebuilt Crossley to great effect in discovering eight comets<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perrine |first1=C. D. |title="Discovery of Comet g, 1896 (Perrine)", Notices from the Lick Observatory |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific |date=1896 |volume=9 |issue=954 |pages=39, 40}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=W. W. |title=The Lick Observatory and Its Problems |journal=Overland Monthly |date=1902 |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=326–327}}</ref> and the sixth and seventh satellites (moons) of Jupiter.<ref name="Discovery, Observations and Approxi">{{cite journal |last1=Perrine |first1=C. D. |title=Discovery, Observations and Approximate Orbits of Two New Satellites of Jupiter |journal=Lick Observatory Bulletin |date=1905 |volume=3 |issue=78 |pages=129–131|doi=10.5479/ADS/bib/1905LicOB.3.129P |bibcode=1905LicOB...3..129P }}</ref> The Crossley was so effective that when Perrine became the director of the [[Argentine National Observatory]] in Cordoba in 1909, he established a program to install a 60-inch (76-centimeter) reflecting telescope in Argentina. At that time it would have been equal to the largest reflector on Earth. After a world war and national economic crisis the "Perrine telescope" at the Bosque Alegre astrophysical station ([[Estación Astrofísica de Bosque Alegre]]) was inaugurated in 1942 when it was the largest reflector in South America.


In the 1930s, the Crossley mirror was tested with vapor-deposited [[Aluminium|aluminum]] for reflection, rather than coated by using a [[Silver|silver metal]] precipitated out of a solution.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wright|first=W. H.|date=February 1934|title=The Optical Performance of the New Aluminized Mirror of the Crossley Telescope|journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific|volume=46|pages=32|doi=10.1086/124395|issn=1538-3873}}</ref> The telescope was aluminized in 1934, 1938, 1946, and 1951.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=1951PASP...63..202S Page 202|journal = Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific|volume = 63|issue = 373|pages = 202|bibcode = 1951PASP...63..202S|last1 = Stebbins|first1 = Joel|last2 = Smith|first2 = J. Lynn|year = 1951|doi = 10.1086/126368|doi-access = free}}</ref>
In the 1930s, the Crossley mirror was tested with vapor-deposited [[Aluminium|aluminum]] for reflection, rather than coated by using a [[Silver|silver metal]] precipitated out of a solution.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wright|first=W. H.|date=February 1934|title=The Optical Performance of the New Aluminized Mirror of the Crossley Telescope|journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific|volume=46|issue=269|pages=32|doi=10.1086/124395|bibcode=1934PASP...46...32W|s2cid=120488505 |issn=1538-3873}}</ref> The telescope was aluminized in 1934, 1938, 1946, and 1951.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=1951PASP...63..202S Page 202|journal = Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific|volume = 63|issue = 373|pages = 202|bibcode = 1951PASP...63..202S|last1 = Stebbins|first1 = Joel|last2 = Smith|first2 = J. Lynn|year = 1951|doi = 10.1086/126368|doi-access = free}}</ref>


[[Nicholas Mayall]] was a long time user of the Crossley and added a [[slitless spectrograph]] to extend its usefulness in the face of larger telescopes.
[[Nicholas Mayall]] was a long time user of the Crossley and added a [[slitless spectrograph]] to extend its usefulness in the face of larger telescopes.
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[[NGC 185]] was first photographed between 1898 and 1900 by [[James Edward Keeler]] with the Crossley reflector.<ref name="SEDS2">{{cite web|url=http://spider.seds.org/spider/LG/n0185.html|title=SEDS — NGC 185}}</ref>
[[NGC 185]] was first photographed between 1898 and 1900 by [[James Edward Keeler]] with the Crossley reflector.<ref name="SEDS2">{{cite web|url=http://spider.seds.org/spider/LG/n0185.html|title=SEDS — NGC 185}}</ref>


Other early photographic imaging targets, dating to 1899, include GC 4628 and GC 4964, GC 4373, and the "[[Ring Nebula|Ring nebula in Lyra]]." <ref name=":1" /> Keeler notes that in a 4 hour exposure, 16 new nebulae were found, seeing objects that were normally much to hard to make out with the reflector visually.<ref name=":1" />
Other early photographic imaging targets, dating to 1899, include GC 4628 and GC 4964, GC 4373, and the "[[Ring Nebula|Ring nebula in Lyra]]."<ref name=":1" /> Keeler notes that in a 4-hour exposure, 16 new nebulae were found, seeing objects that were normally much to hard to make out with the reflector visually.<ref name=":1" />


1899: As an example of its performance, Keeler noted that in a two-hour exposure of the "cluster in Hercules" made on July 13, 1899, he could count 5400 stars on the photograph.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|title=1899Obs....22..437K Page 437|bibcode = 1899Obs....22..437K}}</ref> Keeler noted how with long exposure on this telescope the "swarms of minute stars" that gave it a nebulous look were resolved.<ref name=":4" />
1899: As an example of its performance, Keeler noted that in a two-hour exposure of the "cluster in Hercules" made on July 13, 1899, he could count 5400 stars on the photograph.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|title=1899Obs....22..437K Page 437|bibcode = 1899Obs....22..437K|last1 = Keeler|first1 = J. E.|journal = The Observatory|year = 1899|volume = 22}}</ref> Keeler noted how with long exposure on this telescope the "swarms of minute stars" that gave it a nebulous look were resolved.<ref name=":4" />


In 1900, Assistant Astronomer [[Charles Dillon Perrine]] took hundreds of photographs of the near-Earth asteroid 433 Eros for the determination of the solar parallax.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Perrine |first1=C. D. |title=Determination of the solar parallax from photographs of [[Eros]] made with the Crossley reflector of the Lick Observatory University of California |date=1910 |publisher=Carnegie Institution of Washington |location=Washington, D. C. |pages=1-104}}</ref>
In 1900, Assistant Astronomer [[Charles Dillon Perrine]] took hundreds of photographs of the near-Earth asteroid [[433 Eros]] for the determination of the [[solar parallax]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name="Carnegie Institution of Washington"/>


From 1902-05, after significant reconstruction by Perrine, he discovered eight comets<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perrine |first1=C. D. |title="Discovery of Comet g, 1896 (Perrine)", Notices from the Lick Observatory |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific |date=1896 |volume=9 |issue=954 |pages=39, 40}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perrine |first1=C. D. |title="Discovery of Comet g, 1896 (Perrine)", Notices from the Lick Observatory |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific |date=1896 |volume=9 |issue=954 |pages=39, 40}}</ref> and the sixth and seventh satellites (moons) of Jupiter.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perrine |first1=C. D. |title=Discovery, Observations and Approximate Orbits of Two New Satellites of Jupiter |journal=Lick Observatory Bulletin |date=1905 |volume=3 |issue=78 |pages=129-131}}</ref>
From 1902 to 1905, after significant reconstruction by Perrine, he discovered eight comets<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perrine |first1=C. D. |title="Discovery of Comet g, 1896 (Perrine)", Notices from the Lick Observatory |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific |date=1896 |volume=9 |issue=954 |pages=39, 40}}</ref> and the sixth and seventh satellites (moons) of Jupiter.<ref name="Discovery, Observations and Approxi"/>


1940: [[Mayall's Object]] was discovered by American astronomer [[Nicholas U. Mayall]] of the [[Lick Observatory]] on 13 March 1940, using the Crossley reflector.<ref>Smith, R. T. ; [http://ads.ari.uni-heidelberg.de/full/1941PASP...53..187S The Radial Velocity of a Peculiar Nebula] ; ''Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, Vol. 53, No. 313, p.187'' {{bibcode|1941PASP...53..187S}}</ref>
1940: [[Mayall's Object]] was discovered by American astronomer [[Nicholas U. Mayall]] of the [[Lick Observatory]] on 13 March 1940, using the Crossley reflector.<ref>Smith, R. T. ; [http://ads.ari.uni-heidelberg.de/full/1941PASP...53..187S The Radial Velocity of a Peculiar Nebula] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191110120537/http://ads.ari.uni-heidelberg.de/full/1941PASP...53..187S |date=2019-11-10 }} ; ''Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, Vol. 53, No. 313, p.187'' {{bibcode|1941PASP...53..187S}}</ref>


In 1990, the Crossley was used to test the photometric detection of [[exoplanets]], including around the star [[CM Draconis]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Doyle|first=L. R.|last2=Dunham|first2=E. T.|last3=Deeg|first3=H. J.|last4=Blue|first4=J. E.|last5=Jenkins|first5=J. M.|date=1996-06-25|title=Ground-based detectability of terrestrial and Jovian extrasolar planets: observations of CM Draconis at Lick Observatory|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=101|issue=E6|pages=14823–14829|doi=10.1029/96je00825|issn=0148-0227|pmid=11539351}}</ref>
In 1990, the Crossley was used to test the photometric detection of [[exoplanets]], including around the star [[CM Draconis]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=L. R.|last2=Dunham|first2=E. T.|last3=Deeg|first3=H. J.|last4=Blue|first4=J. E.|last5=Jenkins|first5=J. M.|date=1996-06-25|title=Ground-based detectability of terrestrial and Jovian extrasolar planets: observations of CM Draconis at Lick Observatory|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=101|issue=E6|pages=14823–14829|doi=10.1029/96je00825|issn=0148-0227|pmid=11539351|bibcode=1996JGR...10114823D}}</ref>


[[Comet]]s known to have been photographed using the Crossley include:<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=gNMVAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA518&lpg=PA518&dq=the+crossley+.9+m#v=onepage&q=the%20crossley%20.9%20m&f=false|title=NASA Technical Translation|date=1964|publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration}}</ref>
[[Comet]]s known to have been photographed using the Crossley include:<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gNMVAQAAIAAJ&q=the+crossley+.9+m&pg=PA518|title=NASA Technical Translation|date=1964|publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration}}</ref>


* 1931 I (1931d) was found on plates taken in January 1931.
* 1931 I (1931d) was found on plates taken in January 1931.
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* 1946 IV (1946e) was recorded on plates taken in June and July 1946.
* 1946 IV (1946e) was recorded on plates taken in June and July 1946.


In 1978, the Crossley was used to observe [[planetary nebula|planetary nebulae]] with photoelectric photometry ([[spectrophotometry]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|title=1978ApJ...219..914B Page 914|journal = The Astrophysical Journal|volume = 219|pages = 914|bibcode = 1978ApJ...219..914B|last1 = Barker|first1 = T.|year = 1978|doi = 10.1086/155854}}</ref>
In 1978, the Crossley was used to observe [[planetary nebula|planetary nebulae]] with photoelectric photometry ([[spectrophotometry]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|title=1978ApJ...219..914B Page 914|journal = The Astrophysical Journal|volume = 219|pages = 914|bibcode = 1978ApJ...219..914B|last1 = Barker|first1 = T.|year = 1978|doi = 10.1086/155854|doi-access = free}}</ref>


==Contemporaries on debut==
==Contemporaries on debut==
<noinclude>
<noinclude>
<blockquote class="toccolours" style="text-align:justify; width:40%; float:LEFT; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">
<blockquote class="toccolours" style="text-align:justify; width:40%; float:LEFT; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">
<center>'''Legend'''</center>
{{center|'''Legend'''}}
* {{legend2|#F0FFFF|[[Reflector telescope|Reflector (Metal mirror) or unknown]]|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
* {{legend2|#F0FFFF|[[Reflector telescope|Reflector (Metal mirror) or unknown]]|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
* {{legend2|#CCFFFF|[[Reflector telescope|Glass Reflector (Silver on glass mirror)]]|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
* {{legend2|#CCFFFF|[[Reflector telescope|Glass Reflector (Silver on glass mirror)]]|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
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| National Observatory, Paris || 120&nbsp;cm (48″) || [[Silver on glass|reflector – glass]] || Paris, France || 1875–1943<ref name=page250>{{Cite web|url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/gif/1914Obs....37..245H/0000250.000.html|title=1914Obs....37..245H Page 250|accessdate=September 8, 2019}}</ref>
| National Observatory, Paris || 120&nbsp;cm (48″) || [[Silver on glass|reflector – glass]] || Paris, France || 1875–1943<ref name=page250>{{Cite web|url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/gif/1914Obs....37..245H/0000250.000.html|title=1914Obs....37..245H Page 250|accessdate=September 8, 2019}}</ref>
|-
|-
| Yerkes Observatory<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://astro.uchicago.edu/vtour/40inch/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2019-10-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225000634/http://astro.uchicago.edu/vtour/40inch/ |archive-date=2009-02-25 |url-status=dead }}</ref> || 102&nbsp;cm (40″) || achromat || [[Williams Bay, Wisconsin]], [[United States|USA]] || 1897
| Yerkes Observatory<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://astro.uchicago.edu/vtour/40inch/ |title=The 40-inch |access-date=2019-10-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225000634/http://astro.uchicago.edu/vtour/40inch/ |archive-date=2009-02-25 |url-status=dead }}</ref> || 102&nbsp;cm (40″) || achromat || [[Williams Bay, Wisconsin]], [[United States|USA]] || 1897
|-style="background:#CCFFFF"
|-style="background:#CCFFFF"
| Meudon Observatory 1m<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://books.google.com/?id=tEMiAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA584&lpg=PA584&dq=meudon+100+cm+reflector#v=onepage&q=meudon%20100%20cm%20reflector&f=false |title = Popular Astronomy|year = 1911}}</ref> || 100&nbsp;cm (39.4″) || reflector-glass || Meudon Observatory/ Paris Observatory || 1891 <ref>[https://www.obspm.fr/le-telescope-de-1-metre.html?lang=en]</ref>
| Meudon Observatory 1m<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tEMiAQAAIAAJ&q=meudon+100+cm+reflector&pg=PA584 |title = Popular Astronomy|year = 1911}}</ref> || 100&nbsp;cm (39.4″) || reflector-glass || Meudon Observatory/ Paris Observatory || 1891 <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.obspm.fr/le-telescope-de-1-metre.html?lang=en|title = Le télescope de 1 mètre - Observatoire de Paris - PSL Centre de recherche en astronomie et astrophysique}}</ref>
|-
|-
|[[James Lick telescope]], [[Lick Observatory]] || 91&nbsp;cm (36″) || achromat || [[Mount Hamilton (California)|Mount Hamilton, California]], [[United States|USA]] || 1888
|[[James Lick telescope]], [[Lick Observatory]] || 91&nbsp;cm (36″) || achromat || [[Mount Hamilton (California)|Mount Hamilton, California]], [[United States|USA]] || 1888
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* [http://www.ucolick.org/public/telescopes/crossley.html ucolick.org - Telescopes of the Lick Observatory - The 36 inch Crossley Reflector]
* [http://www.ucolick.org/public/telescopes/crossley.html ucolick.org - Telescopes of the Lick Observatory - The 36 inch Crossley Reflector]
* [http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/butowsky5/astro4c.htm Astronomy and Astrophysics - Lick Crossley 36-inch Reflector]
* [http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/butowsky5/astro4c.htm Astronomy and Astrophysics - Lick Crossley 36-inch Reflector]
* [http://digitalcollections.ucsc.edu/cdm/search/collection/p265101coll10/searchterm/Crossley%20Reflector/order/title Photographs of the Crossley Telescope used in the Lick Observatory from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, UC Santa Cruz Library’s Digital Collections]
* [http://digitalcollections.ucsc.edu/cdm/search/collection/p265101coll10/searchterm/Crossley%20Reflector/order/title Photographs of the Crossley Telescope used in the Lick Observatory from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, UC Santa Cruz Library’s Digital Collections] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613135323/http://digitalcollections.ucsc.edu/cdm/search/collection/p265101coll10/searchterm/Crossley%20Reflector/order/title |date=2015-06-13 }}
*[https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/124395/meta THE OPTICAL PERFORMANCE OF THE NEW ALUMINIZED MIRROR OF THE CROSSLEY TELESCOPE] (year - 1934)
*[https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/124395/meta THE OPTICAL PERFORMANCE OF THE NEW ALUMINIZED MIRROR OF THE CROSSLEY TELESCOPE] (year - 1934)


[[Category:Optical telescopes]]
[[Category:Reflecting telescopes]]
[[Category:Lick Observatory]]
[[Category:Lick Observatory]]

Latest revision as of 19:55, 22 October 2024

Crossley telescope
Mosaic image of the Crossley telescope.
Alternative namesCrossley Reflector Edit this at Wikidata
Named afterEdward Crossley Edit this on Wikidata
Part ofLick Observatory Edit this on Wikidata
Location(s)Santa Clara County, California, Pacific States Region
Coordinates37°20′18″N 121°38′39″W / 37.33824451°N 121.64426154°W / 37.33824451; -121.64426154 Edit this at Wikidata
DiscoveredMayall's Object
Telescope stylereflecting telescope Edit this on Wikidata
Diameter36 in (0.91 m) Edit this at Wikidata
Websitewww.ucolick.org/public/telescopes/crossley.html Edit this at Wikidata
Crossley telescope is located in the United States
Crossley telescope
Location of Crossley telescope
  Related media on Commons
[edit on Wikidata]
The Orion Nebula, photographed with Crossley telescope by Keeler

The Crossley telescope is a 36-inch (910 mm) reflecting telescope located at Lick Observatory in the U.S. state of California. It was used between 1895 and 2010, and was donated to the observatory by Edward Crossley, its namesake.

It was the largest glass reflecting telescope in the United States for several years after its recommissioning in California.[1] Lick Director, James Edward Keeler, remarked of the Crossley in 1900, "... by far the most effective instrument in the Observatory for certain class of astronomical work."[1]

History

[edit]

Given to the Lick Observatory in 1895 by British politician Edward Crossley, it was rebuilt from the ground up as it was on a very flimsy mounting. It was last used in 2010 in the search for extra-solar planets but has been taken out of service due to budget cuts. The mirror, and some of the initial mounts, came from the 36-inch reflector originally mounted in Andrew Ainslie Common's backyard Ealing observatory. He had used it from 1879 to 1886 to prove the concept of long exposure astrophotography (recording objects too faint to be seen by the naked eye for the first time). Common sold it to Crossley who had it until 1895.

The 36-inch A.A.Common mirror was made by George Calver for Common, and was ordered after Common wanted one bigger than the 18-inch reflecting telescope, which also had a mirror from Calver.[2] Common completed this telescope by 1879, and went on to make a 60-inch telescope; he sold the 36-inch to Crossley.[1] Crossley set the telescope up in Halifax, England in a new dome.[1]

Meanwhile, at the Lick Observatory in California, Edward S. Holden, the director, learned that Crossley wanted to sell the well-regarded Common 36-inch telescope.[3] Holden and Crossley exchanged letters and worked out transferring the telescope.[4] Crossley was very impressed by the enhanced observing conditions at Mount Hamilton, and, in April 1895, he formally telegraphed the Lick that he would donate the telescope.[3]

Funds had to be raised to ship the telescope to California, which included money from various donors including many small donations from members of the public, as well as donated services.[3] For example, the heavy parts of the telescope were shipped by The Southern Pacific Company at no cost, a service of over US$1,000 (at that time).[3] Converting the buying power of 1896 dollars to 2017 dollars, that can be estimated at US$12,000.[5]

The reflecting telescope type was scarcely used in the United States at the time of the donation, with a noted exception being the work of H. Draper's reflector.[6]

Observations by Keeler helped establish large reflecting telescopes with metal-coated glass mirrors as astronomically useful, as opposed to earlier cast speculum metal mirrors. Great refractors were still in vogue, but the Crossley reflector foreshadowed the success of large reflectors in the 1900s. Other large reflectors followed, such as the Harvard 60-inch Reflector (152 cm), also with a mirror by A.A. Common, or the 1 Meter Spiegelteleskop (39.4 inch reflector) of the Hamburg Observatory.[7] At this time the 72-inch Leviathan of Parsonstown was the largest by aperture, but it used a metal mirror. Despite the accomplishments of reflectors under Herschel, in the 19th century much of the astronomical community used relatively small refractors, often just a few inches in aperture, save for a few larger ones.

After Keeler died unexpectedly in 1900, William W. Campbell, now Lick Observatory's astronomer-in-charge, assigned Assistant Astronomer Charles Dillon Perrine "to take charge of all duties in connection with the Crossley" including completing Keeler's observation of the near-Earth asteroid 433 Eros, for the determination of the solar parallax.[4][8] Perrine further significantly reconstructed the telescope from 1902 to 1905.[9] Perrine would use the rebuilt Crossley to great effect in discovering eight comets[10][11] and the sixth and seventh satellites (moons) of Jupiter.[12] The Crossley was so effective that when Perrine became the director of the Argentine National Observatory in Cordoba in 1909, he established a program to install a 60-inch (76-centimeter) reflecting telescope in Argentina. At that time it would have been equal to the largest reflector on Earth. After a world war and national economic crisis the "Perrine telescope" at the Bosque Alegre astrophysical station (Estación Astrofísica de Bosque Alegre) was inaugurated in 1942 when it was the largest reflector in South America.

In the 1930s, the Crossley mirror was tested with vapor-deposited aluminum for reflection, rather than coated by using a silver metal precipitated out of a solution.[13] The telescope was aluminized in 1934, 1938, 1946, and 1951.[14]

Nicholas Mayall was a long time user of the Crossley and added a slitless spectrograph to extend its usefulness in the face of larger telescopes.

Discoveries & Observations

[edit]

NGC 185 was first photographed between 1898 and 1900 by James Edward Keeler with the Crossley reflector.[15]

Other early photographic imaging targets, dating to 1899, include GC 4628 and GC 4964, GC 4373, and the "Ring nebula in Lyra."[6] Keeler notes that in a 4-hour exposure, 16 new nebulae were found, seeing objects that were normally much to hard to make out with the reflector visually.[6]

1899: As an example of its performance, Keeler noted that in a two-hour exposure of the "cluster in Hercules" made on July 13, 1899, he could count 5400 stars on the photograph.[16] Keeler noted how with long exposure on this telescope the "swarms of minute stars" that gave it a nebulous look were resolved.[16]

In 1900, Assistant Astronomer Charles Dillon Perrine took hundreds of photographs of the near-Earth asteroid 433 Eros for the determination of the solar parallax.[4][8]

From 1902 to 1905, after significant reconstruction by Perrine, he discovered eight comets[17] and the sixth and seventh satellites (moons) of Jupiter.[12]

1940: Mayall's Object was discovered by American astronomer Nicholas U. Mayall of the Lick Observatory on 13 March 1940, using the Crossley reflector.[18]

In 1990, the Crossley was used to test the photometric detection of exoplanets, including around the star CM Draconis.[19]

Comets known to have been photographed using the Crossley include:[20]

  • 1931 I (1931d) was found on plates taken in January 1931.
  • 1941 IV (1941c) was observed visually and photographed in July 1941, after the comet re-emerged from around the Sun.
  • 1946 III (1946b) was observed visually in July 1946.
  • 1946 IV (1946e) was recorded on plates taken in June and July 1946.

In 1978, the Crossley was used to observe planetary nebulae with photoelectric photometry (spectrophotometry).[21]

Contemporaries on debut

[edit]
Legend

(100 cm equals 1 meter)

Name/Observatory Aperture
cm (in) 		Type Location Extant*
Leviathan of Parsonstown 183 cm (72″) reflector – metal Birr Castle; Ireland
 1845–1908*
National Observatory, Paris 120 cm (48″) reflector – glass Paris, France 1875–1943[22]
Yerkes Observatory[23] 102 cm (40″) achromat Williams Bay, Wisconsin, USA 1897
Meudon Observatory 1m[24] 100 cm (39.4″) reflector-glass Meudon Observatory/ Paris Observatory 1891 [25]
James Lick telescope, Lick Observatory 91 cm (36″) achromat Mount Hamilton, California, USA 1888
Crossley Reflector[26]
Lick Observatory
 91.4 cm(36″) reflector – glass Mount Hamilton, California, USA 1896
A.A. Common Reflector 91.4 cm(36″) reflector – glass Great Britain 1880–1896
Rosse 36-inch Telescope 91.4 cm(36″) reflector – metal Birr Castle; Ireland 1826
Grande Lunette, Paris Observatory 83 cm + 62 cm
(32.67" + 24.40")		 achromat x2 Meudon, France 1891

*Note the Leviathan of Parsonstown was not used after 1890

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d Keeler, James E. (1900). "1900ApJ....11..325K Page 325". The Astrophysical Journal. 11: 325. Bibcode:1900ApJ....11..325K. doi:10.1086/140704.
  2. ^ King, Henry C. (2003-01-01). The History of the Telescope. Courier Corporation. ISBN 9780486432656.
  3. ^ a b c d California (1897). Appendix to the Journals of the Senate and Assembly ... of the Legislature of the State of California ... Sup't State Printing.
  4. ^ a b c "National Park Service: Astronomy and Astrophysics (Lick Crossley 36-inch Reflector)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2019-11-11.
  5. ^ "1896 dollars in 2017 | Inflation Calculator". www.in2013dollars.com. Retrieved 2019-11-11.
  6. ^ a b c Keeler, J. E. (1899). "1899Obs....22..437K Page 437". The Observatory. 22: 437. Bibcode:1899Obs....22..437K.
  7. ^ A Short History of Hamburg Observatory, by Stuart R. Anderson and Dieter Engels Archived 2012-02-13 at the Wayback Machine, July 2004
  8. ^ a b Perrine, C. D. (1910). Determination of the solar parallax from photographs of Eros made with the Crossley reflector of the Lick Observatory University of California. Washington, D. C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington. pp. 1–104.
  9. ^ Perrine, C. D. (1905). "A New Mounting for the Three-Foot Mirror of the Crossley Reflecting Telescope". Lick Observatory Bulletin. 3 (78): 124–128. Bibcode:1905LicOB...3..124P. doi:10.5479/ADS/bib/1905LicOB.3.124P.
  10. ^ Perrine, C. D. (1896). ""Discovery of Comet g, 1896 (Perrine)", Notices from the Lick Observatory". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 9 (954): 39, 40.
  11. ^ Campbell, W. W. (1902). "The Lick Observatory and Its Problems". Overland Monthly. 40 (3): 326–327.
  12. ^ a b Perrine, C. D. (1905). "Discovery, Observations and Approximate Orbits of Two New Satellites of Jupiter". Lick Observatory Bulletin. 3 (78): 129–131. Bibcode:1905LicOB...3..129P. doi:10.5479/ADS/bib/1905LicOB.3.129P.
  13. ^ Wright, W. H. (February 1934). "The Optical Performance of the New Aluminized Mirror of the Crossley Telescope". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 46 (269): 32. Bibcode:1934PASP...46...32W. doi:10.1086/124395. ISSN 1538-3873. S2CID 120488505.
  14. ^ Stebbins, Joel; Smith, J. Lynn (1951). "1951PASP...63..202S Page 202". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 63 (373): 202. Bibcode:1951PASP...63..202S. doi:10.1086/126368.
  15. ^ "SEDS — NGC 185".
  16. ^ a b Keeler, J. E. (1899). "1899Obs....22..437K Page 437". The Observatory. 22. Bibcode:1899Obs....22..437K.
  17. ^ Perrine, C. D. (1896). ""Discovery of Comet g, 1896 (Perrine)", Notices from the Lick Observatory". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 9 (954): 39, 40.
  18. ^ Smith, R. T. ; The Radial Velocity of a Peculiar Nebula Archived 2019-11-10 at the Wayback Machine ; Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, Vol. 53, No. 313, p.187 Bibcode:1941PASP...53..187S
  19. ^ Doyle, L. R.; Dunham, E. T.; Deeg, H. J.; Blue, J. E.; Jenkins, J. M. (1996-06-25). "Ground-based detectability of terrestrial and Jovian extrasolar planets: observations of CM Draconis at Lick Observatory". Journal of Geophysical Research. 101 (E6): 14823–14829. Bibcode:1996JGR...10114823D. doi:10.1029/96je00825. ISSN 0148-0227. PMID 11539351.
  20. ^ NASA Technical Translation. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 1964.
  21. ^ Barker, T. (1978). "1978ApJ...219..914B Page 914". The Astrophysical Journal. 219: 914. Bibcode:1978ApJ...219..914B. doi:10.1086/155854.
  22. ^ "1914Obs....37..245H Page 250". Retrieved September 8, 2019.
  23. ^ "The 40-inch". Archived from the original on 2009-02-25. Retrieved 2019-10-02.
  24. ^ "Popular Astronomy". 1911.
  25. ^ "Le télescope de 1 mètre - Observatoire de Paris - PSL Centre de recherche en astronomie et astrophysique".
  26. ^ "Mt. Hamilton Telescopes: CrossleyTelescope". www.ucolick.org. Retrieved September 8, 2019.
[edit]
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