Magnentius: Difference between revisions

Names
	Magnus Magnentius

Magnentius
Magnentius
	Medallion (worth 3 solidi) of Magnentius
Roman emperor in the West ; (unrecognized in the East)
Reign	18 January 350 –; 10 August 353
Predecessor	Constans
Successor	Constantius II
Rivals	Vetranio (350); Nepotianus (350)
Born	c. 303; Samarobriva, Gaul
Died	10 August 353 (aged c. 50); Lugdunum (Lyon), Gaul
Spouse	Justina
Issue	Unnamed daughter
Names
Names
	Magnus Magnentius
Religion	Disputed; See below

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Magnus Magnentius (c. 303 – 10 August 353) was a Roman general and usurper against Constantius II. Of Germanic descent, Magnentius served with distinction in Gaul under the emperor Constans. On 18 January 350 Magnentius was acclaimed Augustus. Quickly killing the unpopular Constans, Magnentius gained control over most of the Western Empire. The Eastern emperor Constantius II, the brother of Constans, refused to acknowledge Magnentius' legitimacy and led a successful campaign against Magnentius. Ultimately, Magnentius' forces were scattered after the Battle of Mons Seleucus, and he died by suicide on 10 August 353.^[8]

Much of Magnentius' short reign was concerned with asserting his legitimacy. Unlike Constans, Magnentius was unrelated to Constantine the Great, and so had no dynastic claim to the emperorship. Magnentius instead sought popular support by modeling himself as a liberator who had freed the Western Empire from the tyranny of Constans. He attempted various public and religious reform, but almost all his acts were quickly repealed by Constantius after his death.^[8] In light of the political instability of his reign, modern and ancient historians tend to consider him a usurper rather than an emperor.

Perhaps the most important consequence of Magnentius' revolt was the severe depletion of the Empire's military forces in civil war: The Battle of Mursa left so many Roman soldiers dead that, according to Zosimus, Constantius feared that Rome would no longer be able to effectively hold off barbarian invasions.^[9]^[10] Following his death, Constantius II became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire.

Early life and accession

Born in Samarobriva (Amiens), Gaul, Magnentius was purportedly the son of a British father and a Frankish mother,^[11]^[12]^[13] though some scholars suspect that his supposed origins were exaggerated or invented as a result of Constantinian propaganda.^[14]^[15]^{[note 3]} He served in the protectores, a prestigious bodyguard corps attached to the imperial retinue, and was promoted to comes of the Herculians and Jovians, the Imperial guard units.^[17]^[3] Magnentius seems to have been effective in his post and to have been well-liked by other important court officials, notably Marcellinus, the comes rerum privatarum, who supported his usurpation.^[17]

Court officials eventually hatched a plot to overthrow Constans and place Magnentius in power. By 350, Constans was likely deeply unpopular; ancient sources deride him as licentious, incompetent, and homosexual.^[18]^[11]^[17] There is confusion as to the details, but in Augustulum (Autun) on 18 January 350 Magnentius announced his bid for power by attending a dinner party, stepping out for a moment, and re-entering the room in a purple toga (the traditional dress of an emperor). The party-goers, either all^[19] or in part^[20] in on the plot, hailed him Augustus.^[21]^[22]

In the days following his acclamation, Magnentius bribed the city guard to secure their loyalty and barred residents of Augustulum from leaving the city to prevent the spread of the news. Anxious to eliminate Constans—who was then hunting near the Pyrenees away from his forces—Magnentius sent a contingent to run him down, and Constans was killed at Helena (near Perpignan).^[16]^[11]^[21] Zosimus claims this force was headed by Gaiso, and that his consulship in 351 was a reward for this act.^[21]^[23]

Usurper

Magnentius quickly attracted the loyalty of the provinces of Britannia, Gaul, and Hispania, and immediately moved to control Italy. He did so within a month of his ascension, appointing Fabius Titianus to the position of praefectus urbis to govern Rome.^[11] He seems to have secured Africa quickly as well, thus inheriting all of Constans' former territory except Illyria (which would shortly come under the control of Vetranio).

Magnentius' early reign is marked by a series of bids for political legitimacy. Lacking a connection to the Constantinian dynasty, Magnentius married Justina, possibly a great-granddaughter of Constantine (and future wife of Valentinian).^[24] Magnentius attempted to create an image of himself as a liberator, and minted coins with such inscriptions as 'liberator of the Roman world.'^[24]^[25] Further, Magnentius seems to have initially pursued a policy of diplomacy with Constantius, hoping to induce the emperor to recognize him officially: for the first six months of his reign, Magnentius spoke of Constantius as his senior and minted coins bearing his image.^[11] Magnentius also appealed to the controversial bishop Athanasius—who in the end chose to side with Constantius—and repealed some of Constans' restrictions on pagan sacrifice in Italy. This latter decision, aimed at winning the support of wealthy Italian pagans, proved to be a rather crude political maneuver, and earned Magnentius a reputation as a pagan himself.^[24]^[26]

Despite his efforts Magnentius remained politically vulnerable. Constantius reasoned that legitimizing the man who murdered his brother would set an unacceptable precedent, and so prepared to march West. In Italy, Magnentius' hold over Rome proved tenuous, and Julius Nepotianus, Constantine's nephew, took and held the city for 27 days. Magnentius dispatched Marcellinus (now promoted to magister officiorum) to retake the city.^[27] In Illyria, Vetranio was acclaimed emperor with the support of Constantius' sister Constantina on 1 March 350.^[28]^[11] Though he publicly allied with Magnentius, many modern scholars contend that Vetranio was working for Constantius from the beginning, preventing Magnentius from threatening Constantinople until Constantius could march West.^[11]

There is little evidence to suggest that Magnentius' rule was tyrannical or unjust. In a funeral oration for the emperor Julian, the orator Libanius concedes that Magnentius "governed [the empire] in accordance with the laws." This, along with the speed with which he attracted the provinces of Britain and Hispania, may indicate that his administration was relatively competent.^[29]

Civil war

By the summer of 350 it had become clear that war was inevitable between Constantius and Magnentius.^[11] Magnentius had already moved east over the spring, and appointed his brother Decentius as caesar to control Gaul during his absence.^[30] In the East, Constantius was tied down for most of 350 in his war against the Persians. However, in the autumn of 350 Constantius successfully lifted the Persian siege of Nisibis and forged a nominal peace with the Sasanids.^[31]^[32] Appointing Constantius Gallus caesar and entrusting command of the Eastern legions to Lucillianus, Constantius moved West. On 25 December 350 he accepted Vetranio’s resignation in Illyria.^[33]^[34]

Constantius and Magnentius wintered far apart, and, in the early months of 351, both parties flirted with the idea of peace.^[32] Constantius offered Magnentius control of Gaul, which Magnentius rejected.^[30]^[35] Magnentius' force may have been slowly deserting him,^[35] for he seems to have pushed for a battle:^[36] either the night before the battle or long before (accounts conflict) the important commander Silvanus defected to Constantius.^[30] After failing to take the city of Mursa, Magnentius' force was approached by Constantius', and the Battle of Mursa Major ensued. Constantius won a Pyrrhic victory in one of the largest battles ever fought among Romans: low estimates suggest there were over 50,000 deaths. The sight of the field is reported to have reduced Constantius to tears, and to have made him fear that Rome would be unable to resist barbarian invasion.^[35] Contemporary commentators like Eutropius lament the waste of Roman soldiers, noting that enough men for an entire foreign invasion were lost.^[37]

Demise

Magnentius retreated across the Alps, perhaps after being prevented from entering Italy by the erection of garrisons loyal to Constantius.^[34] Magnentius blocked the passages West, and Constantius engaged in skirmishes with the barbarians to the Northeast for the rest of the year.^[39]

The year 352 is marked by Magnentius' failed attempts to broker a peace with Constantius: Magnentius sent an embassy to Constantius who, worried about espionage, prevented them reaching him. Magnentius then sent an assembly of bishops with the message that he was willing to step down and take a soldier's posting under Constantius. Constantius rejected this offer as well.^[10] Magnentius' legions along the Rhine began defecting en masse, access to northern Gaul and Spain was blocked, and, in the end, he was unable to effectively prevent defection even in his camp.^[26]

At some time in the year 353, Magnentius may have attempted to assassinate Constantius Gallus, Constantius' caesar, in a bid to open the Eastern empire to attack. The incident is mentioned only in the account of Zonaras, though some scholars see a passage in Ammianus Marcellinus as corroborating it. However, some modern scholars have claimed that Zonaras' account contains chronological problems, and thus the historicity of this event is uncertain.^[40] In any case, if the plot did exist, it was foiled, as Gallus outlived the civil war.

Constantius crossed the Alps in 353,^[8] and Magnentius made a final stand in July of the same year at the Battle of Mons Seleucus, after which he fled to Lugdunum (Lyon). There, some sources report that his home was surrounded by the forces of Constantius and that he lashed out against his brother Desiderius.^{[note 4]} However, most sources agree that on 10 August 353 he died by suicide, falling on his sword.^[8]^[43]^[44] His brother Decentius hanged himself when he received the news.^[8]^[43]

Following the suppression of Magnentius' rebellion, Constantius began to root out his followers. The most notorious agent he employed in this search was the primicerius notariorum Paulus Catena ("Paul the Chain").

Religion

Magnentius' religious beliefs remain a point of contention among scholars. Many argue that Magnentius was, at least nominally, a Christian.^[24]^[45] However, some sources hint at a pagan restoration during his short reign. Epigraphic evidence suggests that he allowed pagans to perform sacrifices at night, a practice that had been banned by Constans.^[24] Philostorgius describes Magnentius as a demon worshiper, and Zonaras recounts a story of him using black magic.^[44] Numismatically, Magnentius' coinage is neither distinctively pagan nor Christian, with the exception of a series of coins bearing a Christogram.^[46] This symbol has come to be associated solely with Christianity, but this may not reflect attitudes at the time: MacMullen argues that Magnentius was a Pagan, and that the Chi-Rho had been so de-Christianized by the mid fourth century that he could use it freely.^[47]

Notes

^ Mentioned only in Peter the Patrician's account.^[1]
^ Though modern scholars often give Magnentius' full name as Flavius Magnus Magnentius,^[2] the name Flavius does not appear in any inscription or historian's account; it is only attributed to Magnentius on the basis of a single, now rare, coin minted in Aquileia.^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6] Magnentius may have adopted the nomen in an attempt to imitate the Constantinian dynasty.^[7] Alternatively, its appearance on the coin may simply be a mistake.
^ For instance, Julian portrayed him as a barbarian invader rather than a usurper in his panegyric for Constantius II.^[16]
^ Desiderius' existence is disputed; he is mentioned only by Zonaras, perhaps trying to harmonize sources now lost to us.^[41]^[42]

References

^ Jones, Martindale & Morris, p. 1038.
^ Britannica 2021.
^ ^a ^b Jones, Martindale & Morris, p. 532.
^ RE 1928, p. 445, col. 1.
^ Cohen 1892, p. 12, n. 28.
^ Labrousse 1958, p. 64.
^ Finney 2017, p. 337.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Barnes 1993, p. 106.
^ Zosimus 2017, 2.51.1.
^ ^a ^b Zonaras 2009, p. 165.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Barnes 1993, p. 101.
^ Hunt 1998, p. 14.
^ Rubin 1998, p. 125.
^ Drinkwater 2000, p. 142.
^ Crawford 2016, pp. 71–72.
^ ^a ^b Crawford 2016, p. 72.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hunt 1998, p. 10.
^ Michael DiMaio Jr. and Robert Frakes, Constans I (337–350 A.D.)
^ Zosimus 2017, 2.42.4.
^ Zonaras 2009, p. 161.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hunt 1998, p. 11.
^ Drinkwater 2000, p. 132.
^ Drinkwater 2000, p. 136.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Barnes 1993, p. 102.
^ Hunt 1998, p. 16.
^ ^a ^b Rubin 1998.
^ Hunt 1998, p. 15.
^ Hunt 1998, pp. 15–16.
^ Libanius 1888.
^ ^a ^b ^c Zonaras 2009, p. 164.
^ Zonaras 2009, p. 163.
^ ^a ^b Barnes 1993.
^ Hunt 1998, pp. 16–17.
^ ^a ^b Barnes 1993, p. 105.
^ ^a ^b ^c Zosimus 2017.
^ Eutropius 1886.
^ Hunt 1998, p. 20.
^ Cuirassed bust of diademed emperor (‘Magnentius’). Vienna (Viennensis). Mid-fourth century. LSA-577. Last Statues of Antiquity.
^ Barnes 1993, pp. 105–106.
^ Frakes 1997.
^ DiMaio 1988, pp. 246–247.
^ Zonaras 2009, p. 166.
^ ^a ^b Hunt 1998, p. 22.
^ ^a ^b Rubin 1998, p. 128.
^ Crawford 2016, p. 75.
^ Rubin 1998, p. 131.
^ MacMullen 1977, p. 48.

Sources

Barnes, Timothy David (1993). Athanasius and Constantius: theology and politics in the Constantinian empire. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp. 101–108. ISBN 0-674-05067-3.
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia, ed. (7 August 2021). "Magnentius". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 3 May 2022.
(in French) Pierre Bastien (numismat) [fr], Le Monnayage de Magnence (350–353), Wetteren (Belgium), Édition numismatique romaine, 1983
Cohen, Henry (1892). Description Historique des Monnaies Frappées Sous L'Empire Romain Communément Appelées Médailles Impériales (PDF). Vol. VIII. Paris: Rollin & Feuardent, Editeurs, Reu de Louvois, 4.
Crawford, Peter (2016). Constantius II: Usurpers, Eunuchs, and the Antichrist. Pen & Sword. ISBN 978-1-78340-055-3.
DiMaio, Michael (1988). "Smoke in the Wind: Zonoras' use of Philostorgius, Zosimus, John of Antioch, and John of Rhodes in his Narrative on the Neo-Flavian Emperors". Byzantion. 58 (1). Peeters Publishers: 230–255. JSTOR 44171050.
Drinkwater, John F. (2000). "The revolt and ethnic origin of the usurper Magnentius (350–353), and the rebellion of Vetranio (350)". Chiron. 30: 131–159.
Drinkwater, John F. (2022). "The battle of Mursa, 351: causes, course, and consequences". Journal of Late Antiquity. 15: 131–159. doi:10.1353/jla.2022.0001. S2CID 247442626.
Enßlin, Wilhelm (1928). "Magnentius (1)" (PNG). Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (in German). Vol. XIV.1.
Eutropius (1886). Abridgement of Roman History. Translated by Watson, John Selby. London: George Bell and Sons. X.9–12. Archived from the original on 30 May 2012.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
Finney, Paul Corby, ed. (2017). The Eerdmans Encyclopedia of Early Christian Art and Archaeology. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William V. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 9780802890160.
Frakes, Robert M. (1997). "Ammianus Marcellinus and Zonaras on a Late Roman Assassination Plot". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 46 (1): 121–28. JSTOR 4436456.
Hunt, David (1998). "The successors of Constantine". In Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30200-5.
Jones, A.H.M.; J.R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6.
Julian (1913). The works of the Emperor Julian. Translated by Wright, Wilmer Cave. London: W. Heinenmann. Orations 1.37–41. ISBN 0-674-99014-5.
Libanius (1888). Julian the Emperor: Containing Gregory Nazianzen's Two Invectives and Libanius' Monody with Julian's Extant Theosophical Works. Translated by C. W. King. London: George Bell and Sons. p. 132 f.
Labrousse, Michel (1958). "Deux milliaires de la route romaine de Toulouse à Narbonne". Pallas (in French). 6 (3): 55–78. doi:10.3406/palla.1958.947. JSTOR 43605390.
MacMullen, Ramsay (1977). Christianizing the Roman Empire: (A.D. 100–400). Yale University Press. ISBN 0300036426.
Rubin, Zeev (1998). "Pagan Propaganda during the Userpation of Magnentius". Scripta Classica Israelica. 17: 124–142.
Seeck, Otto (1919). "Regesten". Regesten der Kaiser und Päpste für die Jahre 311 bis 476 n. Chr. Vorarbeit zu einer Prosopographie der christlichen Kaiserzeit (in German). J. B. Metzersche Verlagscuchhandlung. pp. 198–199. OCLC 427874626.
Sozomen (1855). The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen: Comprising a History of the Church from A.D. 324 to A.D. 440. Genry G. Bohn. p. 153. ISBN 9780790565682.
Aurelius Victor (1994). Liber De Caesaribus of Sextus Aurelius Victor. Liverpool University Press. pp. 50–53. ISBN 0-85323-218-0.
Zosimus (2017). New History. Translated by Ridley, Ronald T. Brill: Leiden. 2.43–55. ISBN 978-90-04-34458-7. OCLC 1003488833.
Zonaras, Joannes (2009). The History of Zonaras : from Alexander Severus to the death of Theodosius the Great. Translated by Banchich, Thomas M.; Lane, Eugene N. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon [England]: Routledge. pp. 159–166, 210–217. ISBN 978-0-415-29909-1. OCLC 166383930.

External links

Media related to Magnentius at Wikimedia Commons

Regnal titles
Preceded by Constans	Roman emperor 350–353 With: Constantius II Vetranio	Succeeded by Constantius II
Political offices
Preceded by Sergius Nigrinianus	Roman consul 351 with Gaiso	Succeeded by Decentius Caesar Paulus

[2] Mentioned only in Peter the Patrician's account.^[1]

[name-9] Though modern scholars often give Magnentius' full name as Flavius Magnus Magnentius,^[2] the name Flavius does not appear in any inscription or historian's account; it is only attributed to Magnentius on the basis of a single, now rare, coin minted in Aquileia.^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6] Magnentius may have adopted the nomen in an attempt to imitate the Constantinian dynasty.^[7] Alternatively, its appearance on the coin may simply be a mistake.

[19] For instance, Julian portrayed him as a barbarian invader rather than a usurper in his panegyric for Constantius II.^[16]

[46] Desiderius' existence is disputed; he is mentioned only by Zonaras, perhaps trying to harmonize sources now lost to us.^[41]^[42]

[FOOTNOTEJonesMartindaleMorris1038-1] Jones, Martindale & Morris, p. 1038.

[FOOTNOTEBritannica2021-3] Britannica 2021.

[FOOTNOTEJonesMartindaleMorris532-4] Jones, Martindale & Morris, p. 532.

[FOOTNOTERE1928p._445,_col._1-5] RE 1928, p. 445, col. 1.

[FOOTNOTECohen1892p._12,_n._28-6] Cohen 1892, p. 12, n. 28.

[FOOTNOTELabrousse195864-7] Labrousse 1958, p. 64.

[FOOTNOTEFinney2017337-8] Finney 2017, p. 337.

[FOOTNOTEBarnes1993106-10] Barnes 1993, p. 106.

[FOOTNOTEZosimus20172.51.1-11] Zosimus 2017, 2.51.1.

[FOOTNOTEZonaras2009165-12] Zonaras 2009, p. 165.

[FOOTNOTEBarnes1993101-13] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Barnes 1993, p. 101.

[FOOTNOTEHunt199814-14] Hunt 1998, p. 14.

[FOOTNOTERubin1998125-15] Rubin 1998, p. 125.

[FOOTNOTEDrinkwater2000142-16] Drinkwater 2000, p. 142.

[FOOTNOTECrawford201671–72-17] Crawford 2016, pp. 71–72.

[FOOTNOTECrawford201672-18] Crawford 2016, p. 72.

[FOOTNOTEHunt199810-20] Hunt 1998, p. 10.

[21] Michael DiMaio Jr. and Robert Frakes, Constans I (337–350 A.D.)

[FOOTNOTEZosimus20172.42.4-22] Zosimus 2017, 2.42.4.

[FOOTNOTEZonaras2009161-23] Zonaras 2009, p. 161.

[FOOTNOTEHunt199811-24] Hunt 1998, p. 11.

[FOOTNOTEDrinkwater2000132-25] Drinkwater 2000, p. 132.

[FOOTNOTEDrinkwater2000136-26] Drinkwater 2000, p. 136.

[FOOTNOTEBarnes1993102-27] Barnes 1993, p. 102.

[FOOTNOTEHunt199816-28] Hunt 1998, p. 16.

[FOOTNOTERubin1998-29] Rubin 1998.

[FOOTNOTEHunt199815-30] Hunt 1998, p. 15.

[FOOTNOTEHunt199815–16-31] Hunt 1998, pp. 15–16.

[FOOTNOTELibanius1888-32] Libanius 1888.

[FOOTNOTEZonaras2009164-33] Zonaras 2009, p. 164.

[FOOTNOTEZonaras2009163-34] Zonaras 2009, p. 163.

[FOOTNOTEBarnes1993-35] Barnes 1993.

[FOOTNOTEHunt199816–17-36] Hunt 1998, pp. 16–17.

[FOOTNOTEBarnes1993105-37] Barnes 1993, p. 105.

[FOOTNOTEZosimus2017-38] Zosimus 2017.

[FOOTNOTEEutropius1886-39] Eutropius 1886.

[FOOTNOTEHunt199820-40] Hunt 1998, p. 20.

[41] Cuirassed bust of diademed emperor (‘Magnentius’). Vienna (Viennensis). Mid-fourth century. LSA-577. Last Statues of Antiquity.

[FOOTNOTEBarnes1993105–106-42] Barnes 1993, pp. 105–106.

[FOOTNOTEFrakes1997-43] Frakes 1997.

[FOOTNOTEDiMaio1988246–247-44] DiMaio 1988, pp. 246–247.

[FOOTNOTEZonaras2009166-45] Zonaras 2009, p. 166.

[FOOTNOTEHunt199822-47] Hunt 1998, p. 22.

[FOOTNOTERubin1998128-48] Rubin 1998, p. 128.

[FOOTNOTECrawford201675-49] Crawford 2016, p. 75.

[FOOTNOTERubin1998131-50] Rubin 1998, p. 131.

[FOOTNOTEMacMullen197748-51] MacMullen 1977, p. 48.

[note 1]

[note 2]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[note 3]

[17]

[3]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[16]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[note 4]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[1]

[2]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[41]

[42]

@@ Line 7: / Line 7: @@
 | alt          = Golden coin depicting Magnentius facing right
 | caption      = Medallion (worth 3 [[Solidus (coin)|solidi]]) of Magnentius
-| succession   = [[Roman emperor]]
+| succession   = [[Roman emperor]] in the [[Western Roman Empire|West]]
-| moretext     = <br />(unrecognized in the East)
+| moretext     = <br />(unrecognized in the [[Eastern Roman Empire|East]])
-| reign        = 18 January 350 –<br />11 August 353
+| reign        = 18 January 350 –<br />10 August 353
 | predecessor  = [[Constans]]
-| regent       = [[Vetranio]] (350)
+| regent       = [[Vetranio]] (350)<br> [[Nepotianus]] (350)
-| reg-type     = Co-emperor
+| reg-type     = Rivals
 | successor    = [[Constantius II]]
 | birth_date   = c. 303
 | birth_place  = [[Samarobriva]], [[Gaul]]
-| death_date   = 11 August 353 (aged {{circa}} 50)
+| death_date   = 10 August 353 (aged {{circa}} 50)
 | death_place  = [[Lugdunum]] ([[Lyon]]), [[Gaul]]
 | burial_place =
 | spouse       = [[Justina (empress)|Justina]]
-| issue        = Unnamed daughter{{refn|group=note|Mentioned only in [[Peter the Patrician]]'s account.{{Sfn|Zonaras|2009|p=215}}}}
+| issue        = Unnamed daughter{{refn|group=note|Mentioned only in [[Peter the Patrician]]'s account.{{sfn|Jones|Martindale|Morris|p=1038}}}}
-| full name    = Magnus Magnentius{{refn|group=note|name=name|Though modern scholars often give Magnentius' full name as ''Flavius Magnus Magnentius'',{{sfn|Britannica|2021}} the name ''Flavius'' does not appear in any inscription or historian's account; it is only attributed to Magnentius on the basis of a single, now rare, coin minted in [[Aquileia]].{{sfn|PLRE|1971|p=532}}{{sfn|RE|1928|loc=p. 445, col. 1}}{{sfn|Cohen|1892|loc=p. 12, n. 28}}{{sfn|Labrousse|1958|p=64}} Magnentius may have adopted the [[Roman naming conventions#Nomen|''nomen'']] in an attempt to imitate the [[Constantinian dynasty]].{{sfn|Finney|2017|p=337}} Alternatively, its appearance on the coin may simply be a mistake.}}
+| full name    = Magnus Magnentius{{refn|group=note|name=name|Though modern scholars often give Magnentius' full name as ''Flavius Magnus Magnentius'',{{sfn|Britannica|2021}} the name ''Flavius'' does not appear in any inscription or historian's account; it is only attributed to Magnentius on the basis of a single, now rare, coin minted in [[Aquileia]].{{sfn|Jones|Martindale|Morris|p=532}}{{sfn|RE|1928|loc=p. 445, col. 1}}{{sfn|Cohen|1892|loc=p. 12, n. 28}}{{sfn|Labrousse|1958|p=64}} Magnentius may have adopted the [[Roman naming conventions#Nomen|''nomen'']] in an attempt to imitate the [[Constantinian dynasty]].{{sfn|Finney|2017|p=337}} Alternatively, its appearance on the coin may simply be a mistake.}}
 | religion     = Disputed; See [[#Religion|below]]
 }}
-'''Magnus Magnentius''' ({{circa}} 303 – 11 August 353) was a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] general and [[Roman usurper|usurper]] against [[Constantius II]] from 350 to 353. Of Germanic descent, Magnentius served with distinction in [[Gaul]] under the [[Western Roman Empire|Western emperor]] [[Constans]].{{sfn|Eutropius|1886}}{{sfn|Zonaras|2009|p=160}} On 18 January 350 Magnentius was acclaimed ''[[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]''. Quickly killing the unpopular Constans, Magnentius gained control over most of the [[Western Roman Empire|Western Empire]]. The Eastern emperor Constantius II, the brother of Constans, refused to acknowledge Magnentius' legitimacy and led a successful campaign against Magnentius in the [[Roman civil war of 350–353]]. Ultimately, Magnentius' forces were scattered after the [[Battle of Mons Seleucus]], and he committed suicide on 11 August 353.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|page=106}}{{sfn|Seeck|1919}}{{refn|group=note|The fifth century writer [[Hydatius]] gives 11 August,<ref name=":0"/> while the seventh century ''[[Chronicon Paschale]]'' gives 10 August.<ref name=":1"/>}}
+'''Magnus Magnentius''' ({{circa}} 303 – 10 August 353) was a Roman general and [[Roman usurper|usurper]] against [[Constantius II]]. Of Germanic descent, Magnentius served with distinction in [[Gaul]] under the emperor [[Constans]]. On 18 January 350 Magnentius was acclaimed ''[[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]''. Quickly killing the unpopular Constans, Magnentius gained control over most of the [[Western Roman Empire|Western Empire]]. The Eastern emperor Constantius II, the brother of Constans, refused to acknowledge Magnentius' legitimacy and led a [[Roman civil war of 350–353|successful campaign]] against Magnentius. Ultimately, Magnentius' forces were scattered after the [[Battle of Mons Seleucus]], and he died by suicide on 10 August 353.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|page=106}}
 Much of Magnentius' short reign was concerned with asserting his legitimacy. Unlike Constans, Magnentius was unrelated to [[Constantine the Great]], and so had no [[Constantinian dynasty|dynastic]] claim to the emperorship. Magnentius instead sought popular support by modeling himself as a liberator who had freed the Western Empire from the tyranny of Constans. He attempted various public and religious reform, but almost all his acts were quickly repealed by Constantius after his death.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=106}} In light of the political instability of his reign, modern and ancient historians tend to consider him a usurper rather than an emperor.
@@ Line 31: / Line 31: @@
 Perhaps the most important consequence of Magnentius' revolt was the severe depletion of the Empire's military forces in civil war: The [[Battle of Mursa Major|Battle of Mursa]] left so many Roman soldiers dead that, according to [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]], Constantius feared that Rome would no longer be able to effectively hold off barbarian invasions.{{sfn|Zosimus|2017|loc=2.51.1}}{{sfn|Zonaras|2009|p=165}} Following his death, Constantius II became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire.
-==Early life and ascension==
+==Early life and accession==
-Born in Samarobriva ([[Amiens]]), [[Gaul]], Magnentius was the son of a British father and a Frankish mother.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=101}}{{sfn|Crawford|2016|p=71}}{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=14}}{{refn|group=note|Crawford considered it possible that Magnentius’ supposed origins were exaggerated or invented as a result of Constantinian propaganda. For instance, [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] portrayed him as a barbarian invader rather than a usurper in his panegyric for Constantius II.{{sfn|Crawford|2016|p=71}}}} He served in the ''protectores'', a prestigious bodyguard corps attached to the imperial retinue, and was promoted to ''[[comes]]'' of the [[Jovians and Herculians|Herculians and Jovians]], the Imperial guard units.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=10}} Magnentius seems to have been effective in his post and to have been well-liked by other important court officials, notably [[Marcellinus (magister officiorum)|Marcellinus]], the ''comes rerum privatarum'', who supported his usurpation.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=10}}
+Born in Samarobriva ([[Amiens]]), [[Gaul]], Magnentius was purportedly the son of a British father and a Frankish mother,{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=101}}{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=14}}{{sfn|Rubin|1998|p=125}} though some scholars suspect that his supposed origins were exaggerated or invented as a result of Constantinian propaganda.{{sfn|Drinkwater|2000|p=142}}{{sfn|Crawford|2016|pp=71–72}}{{refn|group=note|For instance, [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] portrayed him as a barbarian invader rather than a usurper in his panegyric for Constantius II.{{sfn|Crawford|2016|p=72}}}} He served in the ''protectores'', a prestigious bodyguard corps attached to the imperial retinue, and was promoted to ''[[comes]]'' of the [[Jovians and Herculians|Herculians and Jovians]], the Imperial guard units.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=10}}{{sfn|Jones|Martindale|Morris|p=532}} Magnentius seems to have been effective in his post and to have been well-liked by other important court officials, notably [[Marcellinus (magister officiorum)|Marcellinus]], the ''comes rerum privatarum'', who supported his usurpation.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=10}}
-Court officials eventually hatched a plot to overthrow Constans and place Magnentius in power. By 350, Constans was likely deeply unpopular; ancient sources deride him as licentious, incompetent, and homosexual.{{sfn|Harries|2012|p=190}}{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=101}}{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=10}} There is confusion as to the details, but in Augustulum ([[Autun]]) on 18 January 350 Magnentius announced his bid for power by attending a dinner party, stepping out for a moment, and re-entering the room in a purple toga (the traditional dress of an emperor). The party-goers, either all{{sfn|Zosimus|2017|loc=2.42.4}} or in part{{sfn|Zonaras|2009|p=161}} in on the plot, hailed him Augustus.<ref name=":0">[[Hydatius]] (5th century), [[iarchive:chronicaminorasa09momm/page/237/mode/1up|''Cons. Constant.'' s.a. 350–3]]</ref><ref name=":1">''[[Chronicon Paschale]]'' (7th century), [[iarchive:chronicon-p/page/26/mode/2up|s.a. 350–3]]</ref>
+Court officials eventually hatched a plot to overthrow Constans and place Magnentius in power. By 350, Constans was likely deeply unpopular; ancient sources deride him as licentious, incompetent, and homosexual.<ref>Michael DiMaio Jr. and Robert Frakes, [http://www.roman-emperors.sites.luc.edu/consi.htm Constans I (337–350 A.D.)]</ref>{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=101}}{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=10}} There is confusion as to the details, but in Augustulum ([[Autun]]) on 18 January 350 Magnentius announced his bid for power by attending a dinner party, stepping out for a moment, and re-entering the room in a purple toga (the traditional dress of an emperor). The party-goers, either all{{sfn|Zosimus|2017|loc=2.42.4}} or in part{{sfn|Zonaras|2009|p=161}} in on the plot, hailed him Augustus.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=11}}{{sfn|Drinkwater|2000|p=132}}
-In the days following his acclimation, Magnentius bribed the city guard to secure their loyalty and barred residents of Augustulum from leaving the city to prevent the spread of the news. Anxious to eliminate Constans—who was then hunting near the [[Pyrenees]] away from his forces—Magnentius sent a contingent to run him down, and Constans was killed at Helena (near [[Perpignan]]).{{sfn|Crawford|2016|p=71}}{{sfn|Eutropius|1886|loc=X.9}} [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]] claims this force was headed by [[Gaiso]], and that his [[Roman consul|consulship]] in 351 was a reward for this act.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=11}} Magnentius may also have executed a [[purge]] of Constans' supporters by forging letters from Constans purportedly summoning them to court; when these supporters arrived, they were killed on the spot.{{sfn|Zonaras|2009|p=162}}
+In the days following his acclamation, Magnentius bribed the city guard to secure their loyalty and barred residents of Augustulum from leaving the city to prevent the spread of the news. Anxious to eliminate Constans—who was then hunting near the [[Pyrenees]] away from his forces—Magnentius sent a contingent to run him down, and Constans was killed at Helena (near [[Perpignan]]).{{sfn|Crawford|2016|p=72}}{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=101}}{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=11}} [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]] claims this force was headed by [[Gaiso]], and that his [[Roman consul|consulship]] in 351 was a reward for this act.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=11}}{{sfn|Drinkwater|2000|p=136}}
 == Usurper ==
-[[File:Double Centenionalis Magnentius-XR-s4017.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Centenionalis of Magnentius, marked:
+[[File:Double Centenionalis Magnentius-XR-s4017.jpg|thumb|right|275x275px|[[Centenionalis]] of Magnentius, marked:
 <br />{{Smallcaps|{{Abbreviation|dn|DOMINUS NOSTER}} magnentivs {{Abbreviation|p|PIUS}} {{Abbreviation|f|FELIX}} {{Abbreviation|avg|AUGUSTUS}} / salvs {{Abbreviation|dd nn|DOMINI NOSTRI}} {{Abbreviation|avg|AVGUSTI}} et {{Abbreviation|caes|CAESAR}}. x p, a ω, {{Abbreviation|amb|AMBIANUM}}   }}]]
 Magnentius quickly attracted the loyalty of the provinces of [[Roman Britain|Britannia]], [[Gaul]], and [[Hispania]], and immediately moved to control [[Roman Italy|Italy]]. He did so within a month of his ascension, appointing [[Fabius Titianus]] to the position of [[Praefectus urbi|''praefectus urbis'']] to govern Rome.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=101}} He seems to have secured Africa quickly as well, thus inheriting all of Constans' former territory except [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyria]] (which would shortly come under the control of [[Vetranio]]).
-Magnentius' early reign is marked by a series of bids for political legitimacy. Lacking a connection to the Constantinian dynasty, Magnentius married [[Justina (empress)|Justina]], great-granddaughter of Constantine (and future wife of [[Valentinian I|Valentinian]]).{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=102}} Magnentius attempted to create an image of himself as a liberator, and minted coins with such inscriptions as 'liberator of the Roman world.'{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=102}} Further, Magnentius seems to have initially pursued a policy of diplomacy with Constantius, hoping to induce the emperor to recognize him officially: for the first six months of his reign, Magnentius spoke of Constantius as his senior and minted coins bearing his image.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=101}} Magnentius also appealed to the controversial bishop [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Athanasius]]—who in the end chose to side with Constantius—and repealed some of Constans' restrictions on pagan sacrifice in Italy. This latter decision, aimed at winning the support of wealthy Italian pagans, proved to be a rather crude political maneuver, and earned Magnentius a reputation as a pagan himself.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=102}}{{sfn|Rubin|1998}}
+Magnentius' early reign is marked by a series of bids for political legitimacy. Lacking a connection to the Constantinian dynasty, Magnentius married [[Justina (empress)|Justina]], possibly a great-granddaughter of Constantine (and future wife of [[Valentinian I|Valentinian]]).{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=102}} Magnentius attempted to create an image of himself as a liberator, and minted coins with such inscriptions as 'liberator of the Roman world.'{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=102}}{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=16}} Further, Magnentius seems to have initially pursued a policy of diplomacy with Constantius, hoping to induce the emperor to recognize him officially: for the first six months of his reign, Magnentius spoke of Constantius as his senior and minted coins bearing his image.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=101}} Magnentius also appealed to the controversial bishop [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Athanasius]]—who in the end chose to side with Constantius—and repealed some of Constans' restrictions on pagan sacrifice in Italy. This latter decision, aimed at winning the support of wealthy Italian pagans, proved to be a rather crude political maneuver, and earned Magnentius a reputation as a pagan himself.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=102}}{{sfn|Rubin|1998}}[[File:Decentius - Münzkabinett, Berlin - 5549687.jpg|280px|thumb|Solidus of [[Decentius]] marked: {{Smallcaps|{{Abbreviation|dn|DOMINUS NOSTER}} decentivs {{Abbreviation|fort|FORTISSIMUS}} {{Abbreviation|caes|CAESAR}} / victoria {{Abbreviation|caes|CAESAR}} {{Abbreviation|lib|LIBEARTOR}} {{Abbreviation|romanor|ROMANORUM}}}}]]Despite his efforts Magnentius remained politically vulnerable. Constantius reasoned that legitimizing the man who murdered his brother would set an unacceptable precedent, and so prepared to march West. In Italy, Magnentius' hold over Rome proved tenuous, and [[Nepotianus|Julius Nepotianus]], [[Constantine the Great|Constantine's]] nephew, took and held the city for 27 days. Magnentius dispatched [[Marcellinus (magister officiorum)|Marcellinus]] (now promoted to ''[[magister officiorum]]'') to retake the city.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=15}} In [[Illyria]], [[Vetranio]] was acclaimed emperor with the support of Constantius' sister [[Constantina]] on 1 March 350.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|pp=15-16}}{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=101}} Though he publicly allied with Magnentius, many modern scholars contend that Vetranio was working for Constantius from the beginning, preventing Magnentius from threatening Constantinople until Constantius could march West.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=101}}
-Despite his efforts Magnentius remained politically vulnerable. Constantius reasoned that legitimizing the man who murdered his brother would set an unacceptable precedent, and so prepared to march West. In Italy, Magnentius' hold over Rome proved tenuous, and [[Nepotianus|Julius Nepotianus]], [[Constantine the Great|Constantine's]] nephew, took and held the city for 27 days. Magnentius dispatched [[Marcellinus (magister officiorum)|Marcellinus]] (now promoted to ''[[magister officiorum]]'') to retake the city.{{sfn|Zosimus|2017|loc=2.43.4}} In [[Illyria]], [[Vetranio]] was acclaimed emperor with the support of Constantius' sister [[Constantina]] on 1 March 350.<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":1"/> Though he publicly allied with Magnentius, many modern scholars contend that Vetranio was working for Constantius from the beginning, preventing Magnentius from threatening Constantinople until Constantius could march West.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=101}}
 There is little evidence to suggest that Magnentius' rule was tyrannical or unjust. In a funeral oration for the emperor [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]], the orator [[Libanius]] concedes that Magnentius "governed [the empire] in accordance with the laws." This, along with the speed with which he attracted the provinces of Britain and Hispania, may indicate that his administration was relatively competent.{{sfn|Libanius|1888}}
@@ Line 53: / Line 51: @@
 == Civil war ==
 {{Main|Roman civil war of 350–353}}
-By the summer of 350 it had become clear that war was inevitable between Constantius and Magnentius.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=101}} Magnentius had already moved east over the spring, and appointed his brother [[Decentius]] as ''[[Caesar (title)|caesar]]'' to control Gaul during his absence.{{sfn|Zonaras|2009|p=164}} In the East, Constantius was tied down for most of 350 in his [[Perso-Roman wars of 337–361|War against the Persians]]. However, in the autumn of 350 Constantius successfully lifted the Persian siege of [[Nisibis (East Syriac ecclesiastical province)|Nisibis]] and forged a nominal peace with the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanids]].{{sfn|Zonaras|2009|p=163}}{{sfn|Barnes|1993}} Appointing [[Constantius Gallus]] ''caesar'' and entrusting command of the Eastern legions to [[Lucillianus (magister equitum)|Lucillianus]], Constantius moved West. On 25 December 350 he accepted Vetriano's resignation in Illyria.<ref name=":1"/> Modern scholars see the event as planned, but ancient sources describe Constantius as conquering by rhetorical ability alone.{{sfn|Julian|1913}}{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=105}}
+By the summer of 350 it had become clear that war was inevitable between Constantius and Magnentius.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=101}} Magnentius had already moved east over the spring, and appointed his brother [[Decentius]] as ''[[Caesar (title)|caesar]]'' to control Gaul during his absence.{{sfn|Zonaras|2009|p=164}} In the East, Constantius was tied down for most of 350 in his [[Perso-Roman wars of 337–361|war against the Persians]]. However, in the autumn of 350 Constantius successfully lifted the Persian siege of [[Nisibis (East Syriac ecclesiastical province)|Nisibis]] and forged a nominal peace with the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanids]].{{sfn|Zonaras|2009|p=163}}{{sfn|Barnes|1993}} Appointing [[Constantius Gallus]] ''caesar'' and entrusting command of the Eastern legions to [[Lucillianus (magister equitum)|Lucillianus]], Constantius moved West. On 25 December 350 he accepted [[Vetranio |Vetranio’s]] resignation in Illyria.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|pp=16-17}}{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=105}}
-Constantius and Magnentius wintered far apart, and, in the early months of 351, both parties flirted with the idea of peace.{{sfn|Barnes|1993}} Constantius offered Magnentius control of Gaul, which Magnentius rejected.{{sfn|Zonaras|2009|p=164}}{{sfn|Zosimus|2017}} Magnentius' force may have been slowly deserting him,{{sfn|Zosimus|2017}} for he seems to have pushed for a battle:{{sfn|Eutropius|1886}} either the night before the battle or long before (accounts conflict) the important commander [[Silvanus (magister peditum)|Silvanus]] defected to Constantius.{{sfn|Zonaras|2009|p=164}} After failing to take the city of Mursa, Magnentius' force was approached by Constantius', and the [[Battle of Mursa Major]] ensued. Constantius won a [[Pyrrhic victory]] in one of the largest battles ever fought among Romans: low estimates suggest there were over 50,000 deaths. The sight of the field is reported to have reduced Constantius to tears, and to have made him fear that Rome would be unable to resist Barbarian invasion.{{sfn|Zosimus|2017}} Contemporary commentators like [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]] lament the loss, noting that enough men for an entire foreign invasion were lost.{{sfn|Eutropius|1886|loc=X.12}}
+Constantius and Magnentius wintered far apart, and, in the early months of 351, both parties flirted with the idea of peace.{{sfn|Barnes|1993}} Constantius offered Magnentius control of Gaul, which Magnentius rejected.{{sfn|Zonaras|2009|p=164}}{{sfn|Zosimus|2017}} Magnentius' force may have been slowly deserting him,{{sfn|Zosimus|2017}} for he seems to have pushed for a battle:{{sfn|Eutropius|1886}} either the night before the battle or long before (accounts conflict) the important commander [[Silvanus (magister peditum)|Silvanus]] defected to Constantius.{{sfn|Zonaras|2009|p=164}} After failing to take the city of Mursa, Magnentius' force was approached by Constantius', and the [[Battle of Mursa Major]] ensued. Constantius won a [[Pyrrhic victory]] in one of the largest battles ever fought among Romans: low estimates suggest there were over 50,000 deaths. The sight of the field is reported to have reduced Constantius to tears, and to have made him fear that Rome would be unable to resist barbarian invasion.{{sfn|Zosimus|2017}} Contemporary commentators like [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]] lament the waste of Roman soldiers, noting that enough men for an entire foreign invasion were lost.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=20}}
 ==Demise==
+[[File:Bust of Magnentius.jpg|thumb|302x302px|Marble bust of a 4th-century emperor, most likely Magnentius.<ref>[http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/detail.php?record=LSA-577 Cuirassed bust of diademed emperor (‘Magnentius’). Vienna (Viennensis). Mid-fourth century. LSA-577]. ''Last Statues of Antiquity''.</ref>]]
-[[File:Decentius - Münzkabinett, Berlin - 5549687.jpg|280px|thumb|A solidus of [[Decentius]] marked: {{Smallcaps|{{Abbreviation|dn|DOMINUS NOSTER}} decentivs {{Abbreviation|fort|FORTISSIMUS}} {{Abbreviation|caes|CAESAR}} / victoria {{Abbreviation|caes|CAESAR}} {{Abbreviation|lib|LIBEARTOR}} {{Abbreviation|romanor|ROMANORUM}}}}]]
-Magnentius retreated across the [[Alps]], perhaps after being prevented from entering Italy by the erection of garrisons loyal to Constantius.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=105}} Magnentius blocked the passages West, and Constantius engaged in skirmishes with the barbarians to the Northeast for the rest of the year.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=105-106}}
+Magnentius retreated across the [[Alps]], perhaps after being prevented from entering Italy by the erection of garrisons loyal to Constantius.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=105}} Magnentius blocked the passages West, and Constantius engaged in skirmishes with the barbarians to the Northeast for the rest of the year.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|pp=105-106}}
 The year 352 is marked by Magnentius' failed attempts to broker a peace with Constantius: Magnentius sent an embassy to Constantius who, worried about espionage, prevented them reaching him. Magnentius then sent an assembly of bishops with the message that he was willing to step down and take a soldier's posting under Constantius. Constantius rejected this offer as well.{{sfn|Zonaras|2009|p=165}} Magnentius' legions along the Rhine began defecting en masse, access to northern Gaul and Spain was blocked, and, in the end, he was unable to effectively prevent defection even in his camp.{{sfn|Rubin|1998}}
-At some time in the year 353, Magnentius may have attempted to assassinate [[Constantius Gallus]], Constantius' c''aesar'', in a bid to open the Eastern empire to attack. The incident is mentioned only in the account of Zonaras, though some scholars see a passage in Ammianus Marcellinus as corroborating it. However, some modern scholars have claimed that Zonaras' account contains chronological problems, and thus the historicity of this event is uncertain.{{sfn|Frakes|1997}} In any case, if the plot did exist, it was foiled, as Gallus outlived the civil war.
+At some time in the year 353, Magnentius may have attempted to assassinate [[Constantius Gallus]], Constantius' ''caesar'', in a bid to open the Eastern empire to attack. The incident is mentioned only in the account of Zonaras, though some scholars see a passage in Ammianus Marcellinus as corroborating it. However, some modern scholars have claimed that Zonaras' account contains chronological problems, and thus the historicity of this event is uncertain.{{sfn|Frakes|1997}} In any case, if the plot did exist, it was foiled, as Gallus outlived the civil war.
-Constantius crossed the Alps in 353,{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=106}} and Magnentius made a final stand in July of the same year at the [[Battle of Mons Seleucus]], after which he fled to [[Lugdunum]] ([[Lyon]]). There, some sources report that his home was surrounded by the forces of Constantius and that he lashed out against his brother Desiderius.{{refn|group=note|Desiderius' existence is disputed; he is mentioned only by Zonaras, perhaps trying to harmonize sources now lost to us.{{Sfn|DiMaio|1988|p=246–247}}{{Sfn|Zonaras|2009|p=166}}}} However, most sources agree that, on 10<ref name=":0"/> or 11<ref name=":1"/> August 353, he committed [[suicide]] by falling on his sword.{{sfn|Eutropius|1886|loc=X.12}}{{sfn|Zonaras|2009|p=166}}{{sfn|Zosimus|2017|loc=2.53.3}}{{sfn|Sozomen|1855}} His brother [[Decentius]] hanged himself when he received the news.
+Constantius crossed the Alps in 353,{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=106}} and Magnentius made a final stand in July of the same year at the [[Battle of Mons Seleucus]], after which he fled to [[Lugdunum]] ([[Lyon]]). There, some sources report that his home was surrounded by the forces of Constantius and that he lashed out against his brother Desiderius.{{refn|group=note|Desiderius' existence is disputed; he is mentioned only by Zonaras, perhaps trying to harmonize sources now lost to us.{{Sfn|DiMaio|1988|pp=246–247}}{{Sfn|Zonaras|2009|p=166}}}} However, most sources agree that on 10 August 353 he died [[Suicide in antiquity|by suicide]], falling on his sword.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=106}}{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=22}}{{sfn|Rubin|1998|p=128}} His brother [[Decentius]] hanged himself when he received the news.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=106}}{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=22}}
 Following the suppression of Magnentius' rebellion, Constantius began to root out his followers. The most notorious agent he employed in this search was the ''[[primicerius notariorum]]'' [[Paulus Catena]] ("Paul the Chain").
 == Religion ==
-Magnentius' religious beliefs remain a point of contention among scholars. Many argue that Magnentius was, at least nominally, a [[Christians|Christian]].{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=102}} However, some sources hint at a pagan restoration during his short reign. Epigraphic evidence suggests that he allowed pagans to perform sacrifices at night, a practice that had been banned by Constans.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=102}} [[Philostorgius]] describes Magnentius as a demon worshiper, and [[Joannes Zonaras|Zonaras]] recounts a story of him using black magic.{{sfn|Zonaras|2009|p=164}} [[Numismatics|Numismatically]], Magnentius' coinage is neither distinctively pagan nor Christian, with the exception of a series of coins bearing a [[Christogram]].{{sfn|Rubin|1998|p=131}} This symbol has come to be associated solely with Christianity, but this may not reflect attitudes at the time: MacMullen argues that Magnentius was a Pagan, and that the Chi-Rho had been so de-Christianized by the mid fourth century that he could use it freely.{{Sfn|MacMullen|1977|p=48}}
+Magnentius' religious beliefs remain a point of contention among scholars. Many argue that Magnentius was, at least nominally, a [[Christians|Christian]].{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=102}}{{sfn|Crawford|2016|p=75}} However, some sources hint at a pagan restoration during his short reign. Epigraphic evidence suggests that he allowed pagans to perform sacrifices at night, a practice that had been banned by Constans.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=102}} [[Philostorgius]] describes Magnentius as a demon worshiper, and [[Joannes Zonaras|Zonaras]] recounts a story of him using black magic.{{sfn|Rubin|1998|p=128}} [[Numismatics|Numismatically]], Magnentius' coinage is neither distinctively pagan nor Christian, with the exception of a series of coins bearing a [[Christogram]].{{sfn|Rubin|1998|p=131}} This symbol has come to be associated solely with Christianity, but this may not reflect attitudes at the time: MacMullen argues that Magnentius was a Pagan, and that the Chi-Rho had been so de-Christianized by the mid fourth century that he could use it freely.{{Sfn|MacMullen|1977|p=48}}
 ==Notes==
@@ Line 83: / Line 81: @@
 * {{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Magnentius|title=Magnentius|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|editor=((Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia))|date=7 Aug 2021|access-date=3 May 2022|ref={{harvid|Britannica|2021}}}}
 * {{in lang|fr}} {{ill|Pierre Bastien (numismat)|fr|Pierre Bastien (numismate)}}, ''Le Monnayage de Magnence (350–353)'', [[Wetteren]] (Belgium), Édition numismatique romaine, 1983
-* {{Cite book|last=Cameron|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1988|editor-last=Cameron|volume=XIII|editor-last2=Averil|editor-last3=Peter Garnsey}}
 * {{Cite book|last=Cohen|first=Henry|year=1892|title=Description Historique des Monnaies Frappées Sous L'Empire Romain Communément Appelées Médailles Impériales|volume=VIII|location=Paris|publisher=Rollin & Feuardent, Editeurs, Reu de Louvois, 4|url=https://www.forumancientcoins.com/dannyjones/Cohen/Cohen%20-%20Description%20Historique%20des%20Monnaies%20Frappees%20sous%20L%27Empire%20Romain/Cohen%20Vol%208.pdf}}
-* {{cite book|last=Crawford |first=Peter |title=Constantius II: Usurpers, Eunuchs, and the Antichrist |publisher=Pen & Sword |year=2016 }}
+*{{cite book |last=Crawford |first=Peter |title=Constantius II: Usurpers, Eunuchs, and the Antichrist |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_aJBDQAAQBAJ|publisher=Pen & Sword |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-78340-055-3}}
 * {{Cite journal|last=DiMaio|first=Michael|year=1988|title=Smoke in the Wind: Zonoras' use of Philostorgius, Zosimus, John of Antioch, and John of Rhodes in his Narrative on the Neo-Flavian Emperors|journal=Byzantion|volume=58|issue=1 |pages=230–255 |publisher=Peeters Publishers|jstor=44171050 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/44171050}}
-* {{Cite journal|last=Drinkwater|first=John F.|year=2000|title= The revolt and ethnic origin of the usurper Magnentius (350–353), and the rebellion of Vetranio (350) |journal=Chiron|volume=30| pages=131–159}}
+* {{Cite journal|last=Drinkwater|first=John F.|year=2000|title= The revolt and ethnic origin of the usurper Magnentius (350–353), and the rebellion of Vetranio (350) |url=https://publications.dainst.org/journals/chiron/article/view/221/4846|journal=Chiron|volume=30| pages=131–159}}
 * {{Cite journal|last=Drinkwater|first=John F.|year=2022|title= The battle of Mursa, 351: causes, course, and consequences |journal=Journal of Late Antiquity|volume=15|pages=131–159|doi=10.1353/jla.2022.0001 |s2cid=247442626 }}
 * {{Cite book|last=Enßlin|first=Wilhelm|author-link=Wilhelm Ensslin|title=Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft|volume=XIV.1|chapter=Magnentius (1)|year=1928|chapter-url=https://elexikon.ch/meyers/RE/XIV,1_445.png|chapter-format=PNG|language=German|ref={{harvid|RE|1928}}}}
-* {{Cite book|author-link=Eutropius (historian)|last=Eutropius|title=Abridgement of Roman History.|publisher=George Bell and Sons|year=1886|location=London|at=X.9–12|language=English|translator-last=Watson|translator-first=John Selby|url=http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/eutropius/trans10.html}}
+* {{Cite book|author-link=Eutropius (historian)|last=Eutropius|title=Abridgement of Roman History.|publisher=George Bell and Sons|year=1886|location=London|at=X.9–12|language=English|translator-last=Watson|translator-first=John Selby|url=http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/eutropius/trans10.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120530042617/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/eutropius/trans10.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=30 May 2012}}
 * {{cite book|editor-last=Finney|editor-first=Paul Corby|title=The Eerdmans Encyclopedia of Early Christian Art and Archaeology|volume=1|publisher=William V. Eerdmans Publishing Company|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan|year=2017|isbn=9780802890160 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9e1UvQEACAAJ}}
 * {{Cite journal|last=Frakes|first=Robert M.|date=1997|title=Ammianus Marcellinus and Zonaras on a Late Roman Assassination Plot|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4436456|journal=Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte|volume=46|issue=1 |pages=121–28|jstor=4436456 }}
-* {{cite book
- | first=Jill
- | last=Harries
- | title=Imperial Rome AD 284 to 363: The New Empire
- | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNqqBgAAQBAJ
- | year=2012
- | publisher=Edinburgh University Press
- | isbn=978-0-7486-2052-4
-}}
 * {{cite book |last=Hunt |year=1998 |first=David |section= The successors of Constantine|title=The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425|editor=Averil Cameron |editor2=Peter Garnsey |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-30200-5 |title-link= iarchive:the-cambridge-ancient-history-volume-13/mode/1up|name-list-style=amp |editor-link=Averil Cameron |editor2-link=Peter Garnsey |authorlink=}}
-* {{cite book|last1=Jones|first1=A. H. M|last2=Martindale|first2=J. R.|last3=Morris|first3=John|date=1971|title=The Prosopography of the later Roman Empire|url=https://archive.org/details/plre-I/page/532/mode/1up|location=Cambridge [England]|publisher=University Press|ref={{harvid|PLRE|1971}}}}
+* {{cite book |last=Jones |year=1971 |first=A.H.M. |author2=J.R. Martindale |author3=J. Morris |title=Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire |volume=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-07233-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/prosopography-later-roman-empire/PLRE-I |name-list-style=amp |author-link=A. H. M. Jones |author-link2=John Robert Martindale |author-link3=John Morris (historian) |ref={{sfnref|Jones|Martindale|Morris}}}}
 * {{Cite book|author-link=Julian (emperor)|last=Julian|title=The works of the Emperor Julian|publisher=W. Heinenmann|year=1913|isbn=0-674-99014-5|location=London|at=Orations 1.37–41.|language=English|translator-last=Wright|translator-first=Wilmer Cave}}
 * {{Cite book|author-link=Libanius|author=Libanius|translator=C. W. King|title=Julian the Emperor: Containing Gregory Nazianzen's Two Invectives and Libanius' Monody with Julian's Extant Theosophical Works|year=1888|publisher=George Bell and Sons|location=London|page=132 f|url=https://archive.org/details/julianemperorcon0000king/}}
@@ Line 110: / Line 98: @@
 |volume=6 |pages=55–78 |doi=10.3406/palla.1958.947 |jstor=43605390 |language=French}}
 * {{Cite book|last=MacMullen|first=Ramsay|title=Christianizing the Roman Empire: (A.D. 100–400)|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1977|isbn=0300036426}}
-* {{Cite journal|last=Rubin|first=Zeev|date=1998|title=Propaganda during the Userpation of Magnentius|url=http://www.urbis-libnet.org/vufind/Record/Deutsches%20Archaeologisches%20Institut.DAI000623321%7CPagan|journal=Scripta Classica Israelica|volume=17|pages=124–142}}
+* {{Cite journal|last=Rubin|first=Zeev|date=1998|title=Pagan Propaganda during the Userpation of Magnentius|url=https://scriptaclassica.org/index.php/sci/article/download/4173/3669|journal=Scripta Classica Israelica|volume=17|pages=124–142}}
 * {{Cite book |last=Seeck |first=Otto |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/regestenderkaise0000seec/page/199/mode/1up |title=Regesten der Kaiser und Päpste für die Jahre 311 bis 476 n. Chr. Vorarbeit zu einer Prosopographie der christlichen Kaiserzeit. |date=1919 |publisher=J. B. Metzersche Verlagscuchhandlung |pages=198–199 |language=German |chapter=Regesten |oclc=427874626}}
 * {{Cite book|author-link=Sozomen|last=Sozomen|url=https://archive.org/details/ecclesiasticalh00walfgoog|title=The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen: Comprising a History of the Church from A.D. 324 to A.D. 440.|publisher=Genry G. Bohn|year=1855|pages=153|isbn=9780790565682 }}

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