Police impersonation: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|Impersonation of a law enforcement officer}} |
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{{Multiple issues| |
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{{more citations needed|date=April 2009}} |
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{{original research|date=April 2009}} |
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{{globalize|date=October 2010}} |
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==Typology and methods== |
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Impersonating a [[police officer]] is sometimes committed in order to assert police-like authority in order to commit a crime. Posing as a police officer enables the offender to legitimize the appearance of an illegal act, such as: [[burglary]], making a [[traffic stop]], or [[Detention (imprisonment)|detaining]] a citizen without resistance. |
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[[Criminology]] research has developed a typology of police impersonators, categorizing offenders as (1) "police enthusiasts" (or "wannabe cops"); (2) compulsive deviants; and (3) common criminals seeking material gain through thefts and robberies committed through [[traffic stop|vehicle pull-overs]] and [[home invasion]]s.<ref name=AJCJ/> |
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A 2012 article in the ''American Journal of Criminal Justice'' noted that "Distinguishing between real and phony officers can be difficult, and impersonators present themselves in numerous manners and commit a wide variety of crimes. Impersonators do more than just pretend to be a law enforcement officer. At times, impersonators engage in serious and wide ranging crimes including [[robbery]], [[rape]], and [[homicide]]."<ref name=AJCJ>{{cite journal |last1=Rennison |first1=Callie Marie |last2=Dodge |first2=Mary |title=Police Impersonation: Pretenses and Predators |journal=American Journal of Criminal Justice |date=2012 |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=505–522 |doi=10.1007/s12103-011-9153-z |s2cid=143548460 |url=https://publicaffairs.ucdenver.edu/docs/librariesprovider36/faculty-and-staff-resources/rennison-teaching-materials---methods-and-statistics/rennison-and-dodge-2012.pdf?sfvrsn=90649eb8_2|issn=1066-2316}}</ref> The same study found that "in general, police impersonators, depending on the type of offense, may be easily deterred. In [[Traffic stop|vehicle pull-over]] cases, most impersonators fled when the targeted victim was on the phone with [[9-1-1|911]] verifying the legitimacy of the stop. Additionally, potential victims who questioned the legitimacy of the stop and challenged the fake officer tended to avoid further victimization."<ref name=AJCJ /> |
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Dressing up as a police officer in costume (e.g. for [[Halloween]]), or pretending to be a police officer for the entertainment purposes or a harmless prank toward an acquaintance is generally not considered a crime, provided that those involved recognize the imposter is not a real police officer, and the imposter is not trying to deceive those involved into thinking they are. Nevertheless, replica police uniforms sold in the UK must not be identical to the uniforms currently used by the police, and traders have been jailed in the past for selling on genuine uniforms<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2874609/Police-uniform-trader-sold-helmets-truncheons-TV-shows-prosecuted-unable-prove-weren-t-bought-terrorists.html|title=Police uniform trader who sold helmets and truncheons to TV shows is prosecuted - Daily Mail Online|work=Mail Online}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2010/10_october/18/inside_out_southeast.shtml|title=BBC - Press Office - Inside Out South East reveals illegal trade in police uniforms|work=bbc.co.uk}}</ref> |
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The 2012 study examined 56 police impersonation episodes from May 2002 to February 2010 from three U.S. metropolitan areas, dealing with 63 offenders and 71 victims. The study found that these incidents "most often involve one victim (76%), one offender (91%), no witnesses (75%), no weapon (68%), and result in no injury to the victim (96%)."<ref name=AJCJ /> The mean value of cash and property lost was $616.<ref name=AJCJ /> Of police impersonation episodes, 45% occurred on a highway, roadway, or alley; 20% occurred in or near the victim's home (such as a fake "[[knock and talk]]"); and 34% occurred in some other place.<ref name=AJCJ /> The study found that only 46% of police impersonation incidents were "cleared" (i.e., arrest made or resolved in some other way).<ref name=AJCJ /> |
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The following impersonations class as the offence: |
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Police impersonation has also facilitated [[extortion]] and [[Assault (crime)|assault]].<ref name=AJCJ /> Police "wannabees" may drive cars equipped with [[Emergency vehicle lighting|police-style emergency lights]], wear [[police uniform]]s, and carry fake police badges.<ref name=AJCJ /> Some [[sexual predator]]s have impersonated police to commit [[sexual abuse]], [[Sexual harassment|harassment]], and rape.<ref name=AJCJ /><ref>{{cite news |last1=Hatch |first1=Jenavieve |title=Men Are Impersonating Police To Sexually Exploit Women, And We're Not Paying Enough Attention |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/police-impersonation_n_5a9dbc4be4b0479c025625f1|work=HuffPost|date=March 6, 2018}}</ref> Impersonation involving police vehicle and uniforms has also been used by [[Mexican drug cartel]]s to [[smuggling|smuggle]] currency across the [[U.S.–Mexico border]];<ref>Paul Rexton Kan & Barry R. McCaffrey, ''Cartels at War: Mexico's Drug-Fueled Violence and the Threat to U.S. National Security'' (2012), p. 79.</ref> within Mexico, [[Gulf Cartel]] operatives have also posed as members of the [[Law enforcement in Mexico|Mexican police]] and [[Mexican Armed Forces|military]].<ref>Nancy E. Marion, "Gulf Cartel" in ''Drugs in American Society: An Encyclopedia of History, Politics, Culture, and the Law'', Vol. 3 (eds. Nancy E. Marion & Willard M. Oliver: ABC-CLIO, 2014), p. 453.</ref> |
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*'''Verbal identification''': The imposter announces to the unsuspecting victim that they are a police officer or other law enforcement agent. |
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*'''Fake [[Badge]] or [[Warrant card]]''': The imposter, though not in any special clothes, displays a police-like badge or identification card to the victim. Sometimes, even a real police officer will not even be able to differentiate between the real and fake badge, as some duplicates are very similar to a real badge, if not identical to one. This is much more of a problem in the USA than in the UK, as in the UK, police identification includes photographic ID as well as the police shield, whereas in the US, a police shield alone counts as ID, making it easier for people to pretend to be police officers. |
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*'''Fake [[uniform]]''': The imposter wears a uniform that looks very much like that of a police officer. |
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*'''Fake [[Police car|vehicle]]:''' The imposter places police lights (these can be either permanently mounted onto the car or temporary lights magnetically attached to the cartop), decals, siren, or other equipment on a personal vehicle to disguise it as a [[police car]] and enable the offender to pass through red traffic lights, bypass traffic other non-emergency traffic would have to wait for, make [[traffic stop]]s, or even [[arrest]]s. |
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In the United Kingdom, police impersonation "with intent to deceive" is criminalised by Section 90 of the [[Police Act 1996]].<ref name=PoliceAct>{{cite legislation UK|type=act|url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1996/16/section/90|act=Police Act|year=1996|section=90|website=legislation.gov.uk|accessdate=1 October 2021}}</ref> The same section also restricts the sale of police uniforms and paraphernalia,<ref name=PoliceAct/> although illicit trade in items such as [[warrant card]]s continues in the UK.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2010/10_october/18/inside_out_southeast.shtml|title=Inside Out South East reveals illegal trade in police uniforms|publisher=BBC|date=October 18, 2010}}</ref> |
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Much of the equipment described above is available for purchase by the general public, thereby enabling imposters to obtain the necessary materials to commit such a crime. While the equipment will not bear the name of a specific law enforcement agency, the unsuspecting victim may not notice the difference. |
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==History== |
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In an extreme case, a [[Hempstead (village), New York|Hempstead, New York]] man set up a fake [[police station]] in addition to the above, where he [[Interrogation|interrogated]] those he [[arrest]]ed.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.foxnews.com/story/alleged-fake-cop-ran-own-police-station-interrogated-suspects|title=Alleged Fake Cop Ran Own 'Police Station,' Interrogated 'Suspects'|work=Fox News}}</ref> |
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Police impersonation has a long history. In 17th and 18th-century [[London]], impostors presented to be [[constable]]s, [[Marshalsea]], or [[sheriff]]s' officers to extort bribes or commit sex crimes.<ref>Gregory Durston, ''Whores and Highwaymen: Crime and Justice in the Eighteenth-century Metropolis'' (Waterside Press, 2012), pp. 165-66.</ref> Between 1685 and 1701, 29 men in London were caught assuming the identities of law officers.<ref>Jennine Hurl-Eamon, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/30053406?seq=1 The Westminster imposters: Impersonating law enforcement in early Eighteenth Century London], ''Eighteenth-Century Studies'' (2005), 38(3), 461–483.</ref> In 18th-century [[Qing dynasty|Qing China]], the [[Law enforcement in China|police]], officials, and [[yamen]] runners were often vulnerable to impersonation.<ref>Mark McNicholas, ''Forgery and Impersonation in Imperial China: Popular Deceptions and the High Qing State'' (University of Washington Press: 2016), pp. 93-94.</ref> There were almost 150 surviving recorded cases in [[Nazi Germany]] of impersonations of its police, mostly the notorious [[Gestapo]] [[secret police]]. A study by [[Robert Gellately]] concluded that: "As the Gestapo and to some considerable extent also the [[Kriminalpolizei (Nazi Germany)|Kripo]] attained a reputation for ruthlessness, brutality and mystery, their powers and reputation not only deterred, but called forth amateur imitators. From the point-of-view of impostors, the Gestapo (and Kripo) had the additional advantage of being detectives operating mostly in civilian clothes."<ref>Robert Gellately, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/42708413?seq=1 Crime, Identity and Power: Stories of Police Imposters in Nazi Germany], ''Crime, Histoire & Sociétés'' / ''Crime, History & Societies'' (2000), 4(2), pp. 5-18.</ref> |
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In Nigeria, impersonation of [[Nigeria Police Force]] officers remains a problem, inhibiting public confidence in police.<ref>Usman Adekunle Ojedokun, [https://academic.oup.com/policing/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/police/pay024/4956950 Situational and Contextual Factors Sustaining Police Impersonation in Nigeria], ''Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice'' (2018).</ref> |
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Some of the following crimes have been committed while impersonating a police officer:{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} |
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*[[Burglary|Home invasion]], by gaining entry under the guise of a police officer, followed by [[theft]] from the premises, [[rape]], [[torture]], or in rare cases, [[murder]]. |
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*'''Theft and [[motor vehicle theft]]''' - approaching a victim, explaining that an item or a vehicle is stolen. The impersonator will then seize the "evidence" and never return it. |
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*[[Armed robbery]], following a [[traffic stop]] |
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*[[Kidnapping]] following a traffic stop or [[false arrest]] |
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*[[Sexual abuse]], from [[Sexual harassment|harassment]] to [[rape]], by feigned peace officers<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rennison |first1=Callie Marie |last2=Dodge |first2=Mary |title=Police Impersonation: Pretenses and Predators |journal=American Journal of Criminal Justice |date=2012 |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=505-522 |doi=10.1007/s12103-011-9153-z |url=https://publicaffairs.ucdenver.edu/docs/librariesprovider36/faculty-and-staff-resources/rennison-teaching-materials---methods-and-statistics/rennison-and-dodge-2012.pdf?sfvrsn=90649eb8_2 |accessdate=8 April 2020 |issn=1066-2316}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Hatch |first1=Jenavieve |title=Men Are Impersonating Police To Sexually Exploit Women, And We’re Not Paying Enough Attention |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/police-impersonation_n_5a9dbc4be4b0479c025625f1 |accessdate=April 8, 2020 |date=March 6, 2018}}</ref> |
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*'''Fake authority''', in which the officer attempts to [[extortion|extort]] money from the victim, claiming it is a fine, or can be paid on the spot to avoid further legal consequences. |
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*[[Prank]] phone calls and other [[fraudulent]] / deceptive electronic [[communications]], where one might make a comment about a group that invites retaliation. |
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During a [[2020 Nova Scotia attacks|two-day rampage in Nova Scotia in April 2020]], the perpetrator, who killed 22 people, posed as a [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] officer and a drove a replica RCMP cruiser.<ref>Nadine Yousif, [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-65107912 Nova Scotia mass shooting inquiry heavily criticises police response], BBC News (30 March 2023).</ref> |
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==Popular culture== |
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The 2014 American film ''[[Let's Be Cops]]'' features the main characters pretending to be police officers. |
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A popular webseries ''[[Dick Figures]]'' aired an episode called 'We're Cops' and featured 'red' and 'blue' rob a bank dressed as a police officer. The 1991 [[James Cameron]] film ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'' features [[Robert Patrick]] as a [[T-1000]] who impersonates a Los Angeles police officer in order to find and kill [[John Connor]]. In the [[It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia]] episode “Bums: Making a Mess All Over the City”, [[Frank Reynolds (It's Always Sunny In Philadelphia character)|Frank]] buys a decommissioned police cruiser and dresses as a cop with [[Dennis Reynolds|Dennis]]. They use their new status to receive free [[hot dogs]] and harass citizens by taking their money and possessions. Another example is the 1980 film featuring [[Dan Aykroyd]] [[The Blues Brothers (film)]] in which the Blues Brothers purchase an ex cop car [[Dodge Monaco]]. In describing the car to his brother Jake Blues, Elwood says, "It's got a cop motor, a 440-cubic-inch plant. It's got cop tires, cop suspension, cop shocks. It's a model made before catalytic converters so it'll run good on regular gas. Black and Blue is the 12th episode of the fifth season of "Third Watch" which depicts 2 NYPD officer impersonators robbing civilians. |
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== |
==Effects== |
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There is a limited body of research concerning police impersonation.<ref name=AJCJ/> Some scholars suggest that police impersonation may weaken public confidence in law enforcement and trust in authority, "particularly if victims believe that the event was a 'legitimate' police action undertaken by a corrupt cop."<ref name=AJCJ/> |
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== See also == |
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{{Wiktionary|police impersonation}} |
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* [[Impersonating a public servant]] |
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* [[Military impostor]] |
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* [[Jeremy Dewitte]] |
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==References== |
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{{Reflist}} |
{{Reflist}} |
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* |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Police Impersonation}} |
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[[Category:Crimes]] |
[[Category:Crimes]] |
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[[Category:Law enforcement]] |
[[Category:Law enforcement]] |
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[[Category:Impostors]] |
[[Category:Impostors]] |
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[[Category:Deception]] |
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Latest revision as of 18:11, 23 October 2024
Police impersonation is the act of falsely portraying oneself as a member of the police for the purpose of deception.
Typology and methods
[edit]Criminology research has developed a typology of police impersonators, categorizing offenders as (1) "police enthusiasts" (or "wannabe cops"); (2) compulsive deviants; and (3) common criminals seeking material gain through thefts and robberies committed through vehicle pull-overs and home invasions.[1]
A 2012 article in the American Journal of Criminal Justice noted that "Distinguishing between real and phony officers can be difficult, and impersonators present themselves in numerous manners and commit a wide variety of crimes. Impersonators do more than just pretend to be a law enforcement officer. At times, impersonators engage in serious and wide ranging crimes including robbery, rape, and homicide."[1] The same study found that "in general, police impersonators, depending on the type of offense, may be easily deterred. In vehicle pull-over cases, most impersonators fled when the targeted victim was on the phone with 911 verifying the legitimacy of the stop. Additionally, potential victims who questioned the legitimacy of the stop and challenged the fake officer tended to avoid further victimization."[1]
The 2012 study examined 56 police impersonation episodes from May 2002 to February 2010 from three U.S. metropolitan areas, dealing with 63 offenders and 71 victims. The study found that these incidents "most often involve one victim (76%), one offender (91%), no witnesses (75%), no weapon (68%), and result in no injury to the victim (96%)."[1] The mean value of cash and property lost was $616.[1] Of police impersonation episodes, 45% occurred on a highway, roadway, or alley; 20% occurred in or near the victim's home (such as a fake "knock and talk"); and 34% occurred in some other place.[1] The study found that only 46% of police impersonation incidents were "cleared" (i.e., arrest made or resolved in some other way).[1]
Police impersonation has also facilitated extortion and assault.[1] Police "wannabees" may drive cars equipped with police-style emergency lights, wear police uniforms, and carry fake police badges.[1] Some sexual predators have impersonated police to commit sexual abuse, harassment, and rape.[1][2] Impersonation involving police vehicle and uniforms has also been used by Mexican drug cartels to smuggle currency across the U.S.–Mexico border;[3] within Mexico, Gulf Cartel operatives have also posed as members of the Mexican police and military.[4]
In the United Kingdom, police impersonation "with intent to deceive" is criminalised by Section 90 of the Police Act 1996.[5] The same section also restricts the sale of police uniforms and paraphernalia,[5] although illicit trade in items such as warrant cards continues in the UK.[6]
History
[edit]Police impersonation has a long history. In 17th and 18th-century London, impostors presented to be constables, Marshalsea, or sheriffs' officers to extort bribes or commit sex crimes.[7] Between 1685 and 1701, 29 men in London were caught assuming the identities of law officers.[8] In 18th-century Qing China, the police, officials, and yamen runners were often vulnerable to impersonation.[9] There were almost 150 surviving recorded cases in Nazi Germany of impersonations of its police, mostly the notorious Gestapo secret police. A study by Robert Gellately concluded that: "As the Gestapo and to some considerable extent also the Kripo attained a reputation for ruthlessness, brutality and mystery, their powers and reputation not only deterred, but called forth amateur imitators. From the point-of-view of impostors, the Gestapo (and Kripo) had the additional advantage of being detectives operating mostly in civilian clothes."[10]
In Nigeria, impersonation of Nigeria Police Force officers remains a problem, inhibiting public confidence in police.[11]
During a two-day rampage in Nova Scotia in April 2020, the perpetrator, who killed 22 people, posed as a Royal Canadian Mounted Police officer and a drove a replica RCMP cruiser.[12]
Effects
[edit]There is a limited body of research concerning police impersonation.[1] Some scholars suggest that police impersonation may weaken public confidence in law enforcement and trust in authority, "particularly if victims believe that the event was a 'legitimate' police action undertaken by a corrupt cop."[1]
See also
[edit]
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Rennison, Callie Marie; Dodge, Mary (2012). "Police Impersonation: Pretenses and Predators" (PDF). American Journal of Criminal Justice. 37 (4): 505–522. doi:10.1007/s12103-011-9153-z. ISSN 1066-2316. S2CID 143548460.
- ^ Hatch, Jenavieve (March 6, 2018). "Men Are Impersonating Police To Sexually Exploit Women, And We're Not Paying Enough Attention". HuffPost.
- ^ Paul Rexton Kan & Barry R. McCaffrey, Cartels at War: Mexico's Drug-Fueled Violence and the Threat to U.S. National Security (2012), p. 79.
- ^ Nancy E. Marion, "Gulf Cartel" in Drugs in American Society: An Encyclopedia of History, Politics, Culture, and the Law, Vol. 3 (eds. Nancy E. Marion & Willard M. Oliver: ABC-CLIO, 2014), p. 453.
- ^ a b "Police Act: Section 90", legislation.gov.uk, The National Archives, 1996 c. 30 (s. 90), retrieved 1 October 2021
- ^ "Inside Out South East reveals illegal trade in police uniforms" (Press release). BBC. October 18, 2010.
- ^ Gregory Durston, Whores and Highwaymen: Crime and Justice in the Eighteenth-century Metropolis (Waterside Press, 2012), pp. 165-66.
- ^ Jennine Hurl-Eamon, The Westminster imposters: Impersonating law enforcement in early Eighteenth Century London, Eighteenth-Century Studies (2005), 38(3), 461–483.
- ^ Mark McNicholas, Forgery and Impersonation in Imperial China: Popular Deceptions and the High Qing State (University of Washington Press: 2016), pp. 93-94.
- ^ Robert Gellately, Crime, Identity and Power: Stories of Police Imposters in Nazi Germany, Crime, Histoire & Sociétés / Crime, History & Societies (2000), 4(2), pp. 5-18.
- ^ Usman Adekunle Ojedokun, Situational and Contextual Factors Sustaining Police Impersonation in Nigeria, Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice (2018).
- ^ Nadine Yousif, Nova Scotia mass shooting inquiry heavily criticises police response, BBC News (30 March 2023).