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{{Short description|One hundred years, from 1300 BC to 1201 BC}}
{{Refimprove|date=December 2009}}
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{{redirect|1200s BC|the decade|1200s BC (decade)}}


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[[Image:East-Hem 1300bc.jpg|thumb|300px|Eastern Hemisphere in 1300 BC.]]
[[Image:Gu wine vessel from the Shang Dynasty.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Chinese ritual bronze]] wine vessel, [[Shang Dynasty]], 13th century BC, [[Arthur M. Sackler Gallery]].]]
[[Image:Gu wine vessel from the Shang Dynasty.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Chinese ritual bronze]] wine vessel, [[Shang dynasty]], 13th century BC, [[Arthur M. Sackler Gallery]]]]
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{{redirects|1200s BC|the decade|1200s BC (decade)}}
The '''13th century BC''' was the period from 1300 to 1201 BC.
The '''13th century BC''' was the period from 1300 to 1201 BC.


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==The world in the 13th century BC==
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==Events==
*[[1300 BC]]: [[Cemetery H culture]] comes to an end in the [[Indus Valley]].
*[[1292 BC]]: End of the [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt]], start of the [[Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt|Nineteenth Dynasty]].
*[[1282 BC]]: [[Pandion II]], legendary [[King of Athens]], dies after a nominal reign of 25 years. He reportedly only reigned in [[Megara]] while [[Athens]] and the rest of [[Attica, Greece|Attica]] were under the control of an alliance of [[Nobles]] led by his uncle [[Metion]] (son of [[Erechtheus II|Erechtheus]] of Athens) and his sons (including in some accounts [[Daedalus]]). His four sons lead a successful military campaign to regain the throne. [[Aegeus]] becomes [[King of Athens]], [[Nisos]] reigns in [[Megara]], [[Lycus (mythology)|Lykos]] in [[Euboea]] and [[Pallas (son of Pandion)|Pallas]] in southern [[Attica]].
*(May 31), [[1279 BC]]: [[Ramesses II]] becomes leader of [[Ancient Egypt]].
*[[1278 BC]]: [[Seti I]] dies, 1 year after his son, [[Ramesses II]] is crowned.
*[[1274 BC]]: The [[Battle of Kadesh]] in [[Syria]].
*[[1258 BC]]: [[Ramses II]], king of [[ancient Egypt]], and [[Hattusilis III]], king of the [[Hittites]], sign the earliest known [[Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty|peace treaty]].
*(September 7), [[1251 BC]]: A [[solar eclipse]] on this date might mark the birth of legendary [[Heracles]] at [[Thebes, Greece]].
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*c. [[1250 BC]]: Approximately 4,000 men fight a [[Tollense valley battlefield|battle at a causeway over the Tollense valley]] in Northern Germany, the largest prehistoric battle north of the Alps known so far.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Curry|first1=Andrew|title=Slaughter at the bridge: Uncovering a colossal Bronze Age battle|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/03/slaughter-bridge-uncovering-colossal-bronze-age-battle|website=Science|accessdate=11 March 2017|date=24 March 2016}}</ref>
*[[1250 BC]]: [[Wu Ding]] [[Monarch|King]] of [[Shang Dynasty]] to [[1192 BC]].
*[[1250 BC]]: The [[Lion Gate]] at [[Mycene]] is constructed (comparable with Hittite architecture).
*[[1230s BC|c. 1230 BC]]: [[Aegeus]], legendary [[King of Athens]], receives a false message that his designated heir [[Theseus]], his son by [[Aethra (Greek mythology)|Aethra]] of [[Troezen]]a, is dead. [[Theseus]] had been sent to his overlord [[Minos]] of [[Crete]] as an offering to the [[Minotaur]]. [[Medus]], [[Aegeus]]' only other son (by [[Medea]] of [[Colchis]]), had been [[exile]]d in [[Asia]] and would become legendary ancestor to the [[Medes]]. Believing himself without heirs the [[monarch|King]] commits [[suicide]] after a reign of 48 years. He is succeeded by [[Theseus]], who actually still lives. The [[Aegean Sea]] is reportedly named in his honor.
*[[1213 BC]]: [[Theseus]], legendary [[King of Athens]], is deposed and succeeded by [[Menestheus]], great-grandson of [[Erechtheus II|Erechtheus]] and second cousin of [[Theseus]]' father [[Aegeus]]. [[Menestheus]] is reportedly assisted by [[Castor and Polydeuces]] of [[Sparta]], who want to reclaim their sister [[Helen of Troy|Helen]] from her first husband [[Theseus]]. The latter seeks refuge in [[Skyros]], whose King [[Lycomedes]] is an old friend and ally. [[Lycomedes]], however, considers his visitor a threat to the throne and proceeds to [[assassination|assassinate]] him (though other accounts place these events a decade later, in the [[1209–1200 BC|1200s BC]]).
*[[1212 BC]]: Death of Egyptian [[Pharaoh]] [[Ramesses the Great|Ramesses II]].
*[[1208 BC]]: [[Pharaoh]] [[Merneptah]] defeats a [[Libya]]n invasion.
*[[1206 BC]]: Approximate starting date of [[Bronze age collapse]], a period of [[human migration|migration]], unrest and destruction in the eastern [[Mediterranean]] and [[Near East]].
*[[1204 BC]]: [[Theseus]], legendary [[King of Athens]], is deposed after a reign of 30 years and succeeded by [[Menestheus]], great-grandson of [[Erichthonius II of Athens]] and second cousin of [[Theseus]]' father [[Aegeus]]. [[Menestheus]] is reportedly assisted by [[Castor and Polydeuces]] of [[Sparta]], who want to reclaim their sister [[Helen of Troy|Helen]] from her first husband [[Theseus]]. [[Theseus]] seeks refuge in [[Skyros]], whose King [[Lycomedes]] is an old friend and ally. [[Lycomedes]], however, considers his visitor a threat to the throne and proceeds [[assassination|assassinates]] him. (Other accounts place these events a decade earlier. See [[1210s BC]].)
*c. [[1200 BC]]: [[Oracle bone script|Earliest writing]] that survived exists in [[History of China#Ancient China|Ancient China]].
*c. 1200 BC: [[Chariot]]s appear in Ancient China.
*c. 1200 BC: Start of [[Iron Age]] in [[Near East]], eastern [[Mediterranean]], and [[India]].
*c. 1200 BC: Collapse of [[Hittites|Hittite]] power in [[Anatolia]] with the destruction of their capital [[Hattusa]].
*c. 1200 BC: Massive migrations of people around the Mediterranean and the Middle-East. See [[Sea People]] for more information.
*c. 1200 BC: [[Aramaeans|Aramaic]] nomads and [[Chaldean people|Chaldeans]] become a big threat to the former [[Kassites|Babylonian]] and [[Assyrian Empire]].
*c. 1200 BC: Migration and expansion of [[Dorian Greeks]]. Destruction of Mycenaean city [[Pylos]].
*c. 1200 BC: The proto-Scythian [[Srubna culture|Srubna (Timber-grave) culture]] expands from the lower [[Volga]] region to cover the whole of the North [[Black Sea|Pontic]] area.
*c. 1200 BC: The [[Cimmerians]] start settling the steppes of southern [[Russia]]? (Undocumented conjecture).
*c. 1200 BC: [[Olmec]] culture starts and thrives in [[Mesoamerica]].
*c. 1200 BC: [[San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán]] starts to flourish.
*c. 1200 BC: [[Ancient Pueblo Peoples]] civilization in [[North America]].


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[[Image:East-Hem 1300bc.jpg|thumb|centre|550px|Map of the Eastern Hemisphere in 1300 BC]]
==Significant persons==
Although many human societies were literate in this period, some individual persons mentioned in this article ought to be considered [[legend]]ary rather than historical.


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==Events==
*[[1251 BC]]—A lunar eclipse might mark the birth of [[Hercules]]
===Asia===
*c. [[1225 BC]]—Birth of legendary [[Helen of Troy|Helen]] to King [[Tyndareus]] of [[Sparta]] and his wife [[Leda (mythology)|Leda]]
* c. 1300–1046 BC: in China, the [[Shang dynasty]] flourishes as it settles its capital, [[Yinxu|Yin]], near [[Anyang]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Tan Koon |last=San |title=Dynastic China |publisher=The Other Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-983-9541-88-5 |page=17}}</ref> Chinese settlers swarm in compact groups to create new clearing areas towards the [[Yangtze]] basin in the south, the [[Shanxi]] terraces in the northwest and the [[Wei River]] valley. The Shang then seem to frequently wage war with the still non-Sinicized populations who inhabit the [[Huai River]] valley. Graves in the form of cruciform pits have been discovered in Anyang containing [[Chariots in ancient China|chariots]] with their yokes, numerous bronze vases and the remains of human sacrifices, as well as the first [[Oracle bone script|Chinese inscriptions]] on [[oracle bone]]s (''Jiaguwen'') or bronze vases.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Michel |last=Soutif |title=L'Asie, source de sciences et de techniques |publisher=[[EDP Sciences]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-2-7598-0125-1 |page=33}}</ref> China's Shang armies are organized into infantry and archers in companies of one hundred men, supporting sections of five chariots.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Richard A. |last=Gabriel |title=The Great Armies of Antiquity |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-275-97809-9 |page=143}}</ref>
*[[1212 BC]]—Death of [[Ramesses II]] of [[Egypt]]
* c. 1300 BC: the [[Aryan]]s dominate northwest India as far as the [[Sarasvati River]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Alain |last=Daniélou |title=Histoire de l'Inde |publisher=[[Fayard]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-2-213-63953-6 |page=223}}</ref> The [[Vedas]] mention the ''[[Dasa]]s'' (slaves) as their enemies. Dasas are interpreted as being a North [[Iran|Iranian tribe]], Dahae. The Aryans are organized in tribal monarchies headed by a [[raja]] (king), who shares power with two councils or assemblies that will differentiate over time, the sabhā (court of justice) and the samiti (council of war).<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Paul |last1=Masson-Oursel |first2=Philippe |last2=Stern |first3=H |last3=de Willman-Grabowska |title=L'Inde antique et la civilisation indienne |publisher=[[Éditions Albin Michel]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-2-226-26086-4 |page=88}}</ref> Only one raja is named in the [[Rigveda]]: [[Sudas]] of the [[Bharatas (tribe)|Bharatas]], a tribe established on the upper reaches of the Sarasvatî. He is described as the victor of the coalition of ten kings, the most powerful of which was Pûru. Subsequently, the Kurus take control of the Bharatas.<ref name="Boivin">{{Cite book |first=Michel |last=Boivin |title=Histoire de l'Inde |publisher=Presses Universitaires de France |year=2015 |isbn=978-2-13-073032-3 |page=8}}</ref>
*[[Moses]]—A Hebrew prophet found in the Old Testament in the Bible called the Exodus.
* c. 1260 BC: [[Lapita culture|Lapita]] pottery discovered at the Bourewa site southwest of [[Viti Levu]] dates back to this period.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Jeffrey L. |last=Gross |title=Waipi'O Valley |volume=1 |publisher=Xlibris Corporation |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-5245-3905-4 |page=221}}</ref>
*[[Merneptah]], [[Pharaoh]] of the [[Nineteenth Dynasty]] of [[Egypt]] ([[1210s BC|1212 BC]]–[[1202 BC]])
*[[Amenmesse]], [[Pharaoh]] of the [[Nineteenth Dynasty]] of [[Egypt]] ([[1202 BC]]–[[1190s BC|1199 BC]])
*[[Pan Geng]] of [[Shang dynasty]] [[China]]


==Sovereign States==
===Middle East===
* c. 1350–1210 BC: the Igihalkid dynasty in [[Elam]]. They resume the title of "Kings of Anshan and Susa".<ref>{{Cite book |first=Louis Vanden |last=Berghe |title=Reliefs rupestres de l'Irān ancien : Bruxelles, Musées royaux d'art et d'histoire, 26 octobre 1983-29 janvier 1984 |publisher=Musées royaux d'art et d'histoire |year=1983 |page=25}}</ref>
* c. 1306–1186 BC: the [[Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt]]. [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], then [[Pi-Ramesses]], are the capitals of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt]].<ref name="Margueron">{{Cite book |first=Jean-Claude |last=Margueron |title=Le Proche-Orient et l'Égypte antiques |publisher=Hachette Éducation Technique |year=2012 |isbn=978-2-01-140096-3 |page=384}}</ref> It is a period of relative prosperity. During the reign of [[Ramesses II]], the construction of the [[Great Hypostyle Hall]] of the temples of [[Karnak]], the [[Luxor Temple]] and the temples of [[Abu Simbel]] are completed.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Xavier |last=Barral I Altet |title=Histoire de l'art |publisher=Presses Universitaires de France |year=2013 |isbn=978-2-13-062338-0 |page=19}}</ref>
* 1307–1275 BC: the first Assyrian mention of the ''Ahlamu'', proto-[[Aramaic]] people, during the reign of [[Adad-nirari I]], in the region of the north of the Euphrates. The Aramaeans, a Semitic people reported from the 14th century BC by the [[Amarna letters|archives]] of [[Amarna]] and then [[Ugarit]], settled in North [[Mesopotamia]], then in [[Aram (region)|Aram]] (now [[Syria]]) and [[Lebanon]] where they formed kingdoms in the [[11th century BC]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Juliet |last=Clutton-Brock |title=The Walking Larder : Patterns of Domestication, Pastoralism, and Predation |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-317-59838-1 |page=133}}</ref> The biblical tradition of the sons of Jacob, apparently originating from the Aram Naharayim or "Aram of the two rivers", in the loop of the Euphrates, around the towns of [[Harran]] and Nahur, seems to confirm that this region was populated by Proto-Aramaic pastors around the 13th century BC.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.clio.fr/BIBLIOTHEQUE/les_arameens_un_peuple_une_langue_une_ecriture_au_dela_des_empires.asp |title=Les Araméens, un peuple, une langue, une écriture, au-delà des empires |first=André |last=Lemaire |website=www.clio.fr}}</ref>
* 1274 BCE: the Egyptian and Hittite Empires clash in the [[Battle of Kadesh]], with heavy losses to each side but no decisive outcome.
* [[1207 BC]]: [[Merneptah]] repels attacks by northern invaders (the "[[Sea Peoples|Sea-Peoples]]") in the 8th year of his reign, according to the [[Great Karnak Inscription]]. [[Eric H. Cline|Eric Cline]] closely links this event with the beginning of the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]].<ref>[[Eric H. Cline|Cline, Eric]]. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bRcu-ysocX4 ''1177 BC: The Year Civilization Collapsed''] [video], 2016, 1h10'17. See 5'41-6'19 for the invasion of the Sea People in the 5th yr of [[Merneptah]]'s reign and the 8th year of [[Ramses III]]'s, and 4'30 for the start of the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]] "on either side of 1200 BC".</ref>


===Europe===
⚫
See: [[List of sovereign states in the 13th century BC]].
* c. 1300–1200 BC: [[Aegean civilization|Bronze IIIB]] in [[Greece]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Claude |last=Baurain |title=Les Grecs et la Méditerranée orientale : des siècles "obscurs" à la fin de l'époque archaïque |publisher=[[Presses universitaires de France]] |year=1997 |page=60}}</ref> The [[Lion Gate]] and the [[Treasury of Atreus]] are built in [[Mycenae]]. It is a time of peace and prosperity in the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]]. Mycenaean imports to the Levant peak. A [[Uluburun shipwreck|wreck]] found on the southern coast of [[Anatolia]] contained ingots of copper, tin, ivory, Syrian, Cypriot and Mycenaean vases, and pieces of elephant and hippo ivory. The [[Acropolis of Athens]] is developed: towards the end of the century, a [[Cyclopean masonry|Cyclopean wall]] four to six meters thick, known as the “pelasgic wall” (''Pelargikon''), is constructed, as well as a well to supply the citadel with water.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Roland |last=Étienne |title=Athènes, espaces urbains et histoire |publisher=[[Hachette (publisher)|Hachette]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-2-01-181444-9 |page=23}}</ref> [[Linear B]] tablets are created in [[Pylos]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=L'Europe au temps d'Ulysse. |publisher=RMN - Grand Palais |year=1999 |isbn=978-2-7118-6293-1 |page=234}}</ref>
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*c. 1300–1200 BC: approximately 4,000 men fight a [[Tollense valley battlefield|battle at a causeway over the Tollense valley]] in Northern Germany, the largest known prehistoric battle north of the Alps.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Curry|first1=Andrew|title=Slaughter at the bridge: Uncovering a colossal Bronze Age battle|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/slaughter-bridge-uncovering-colossal-bronze-age-battle|website=Science|access-date=11 March 2017|date=24 March 2016}}</ref>
* c. 1300–500 BC: the [[Lusatian culture]] in [[Poland]], parts of the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]], eastern [[Germany]] and northern [[Ukraine]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=T. Douglas |last=Price |title=Ancient Scandinavia |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-023198-9 |page=212}}</ref>
* c. 1250–850 BC: the [[Urnfield culture]], characterized by vast cemeteries housing urns with the ashes of the deceased and offerings, marks the Late Bronze Age in Western Europe.<ref name="Gimbutas">{{Cite book |last=Gimbutas |first=Marija |author-link=Marija Gimbutas |title=Bronze Age cultures in Central and Eastern Europe |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |year=1965 |isbn=978-3-11-166814-7 |page=245}}</ref>
* c. 1250–1000 BC: the culture of [[Necropolis of Pantalica|Pantalica]] develops inland in [[Sicily]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Robert |last=Leighton |title=Sicily Before History: An Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8014-8585-5 |page=150}}</ref>
* 1225–1190 BC: [[Helladic chronology|Late Helladic IIIB2]] in mainland Greece.<ref name="Brunet">{{Cite book |first=Olivier |last=Brunet |title=Les marqueurs archéologiques du pouvoir |publisher=Publications de la Sorbonne |year=2016 |isbn=979-10-351-0005-6 |page=28}}</ref> The perimeters of the defense systems of the Mycenaean palaces ([[Mycenae]], [[Tiryns]], [[Midea (Argolid)|Midea]]) are widely extended, a sign that insecurity is increasing. The end of the period was marked by widespread destruction on most sites: Mycenae, Tyrinth, Midéa, [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], [[Orchomenus (Boeotia)|Orchomenus]], [[Dimini]], and [[Pylos]], whose unfortified palaces have not been rebuilt.<ref name="Demoule">{{Cite book |language=fr |first1=Jean-Paul |last1=Demoule |first2=Dominique |last2=Garcia |first3=Alain |last3=Schnapp |title=Une histoire des civilisations |publisher=La Découverte |year=2018 |isbn=978-2-7071-8878-6 |page=319}}</ref>

==Sovereign states==
* [[List of sovereign states in the 13th century BC]].


== References ==
== References ==
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{{Decades and years}}
{{Decades and years}}
{{Centuries}}
{{Centuries}}
{{Authority control}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:13th Century Bc}}
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[[Category:13th century BC| ]]
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[[Category:Centuries|-87]]

Latest revision as of 22:27, 23 October 2024

"1200s BC" redirects here. For the decade, see 1200s BC (decade).
Millennium
2nd millennium BC
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Chinese ritual bronze wine vessel, Shang dynasty, 13th century BC, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery

The 13th century BC was the period from 1300 to 1201 BC.

The world in the 13th century BC

[edit]
Map of the Eastern Hemisphere in 1300 BC

Events

[edit]

Asia

[edit]
  • c. 1300–1046 BC: in China, the Shang dynasty flourishes as it settles its capital, Yin, near Anyang.[1] Chinese settlers swarm in compact groups to create new clearing areas towards the Yangtze basin in the south, the Shanxi terraces in the northwest and the Wei River valley. The Shang then seem to frequently wage war with the still non-Sinicized populations who inhabit the Huai River valley. Graves in the form of cruciform pits have been discovered in Anyang containing chariots with their yokes, numerous bronze vases and the remains of human sacrifices, as well as the first Chinese inscriptions on oracle bones (Jiaguwen) or bronze vases.[2] China's Shang armies are organized into infantry and archers in companies of one hundred men, supporting sections of five chariots.[3]
  • c. 1300 BC: the Aryans dominate northwest India as far as the Sarasvati River.[4] The Vedas mention the Dasas (slaves) as their enemies. Dasas are interpreted as being a North Iranian tribe, Dahae. The Aryans are organized in tribal monarchies headed by a raja (king), who shares power with two councils or assemblies that will differentiate over time, the sabhā (court of justice) and the samiti (council of war).[5] Only one raja is named in the Rigveda: Sudas of the Bharatas, a tribe established on the upper reaches of the Sarasvatî. He is described as the victor of the coalition of ten kings, the most powerful of which was Pûru. Subsequently, the Kurus take control of the Bharatas.[6]
  • c. 1260 BC: Lapita pottery discovered at the Bourewa site southwest of Viti Levu dates back to this period.[7]

Middle East

[edit]

Europe

[edit]

Sovereign states

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ San, Tan Koon (2014). Dynastic China. The Other Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-983-9541-88-5.
  2. ^ Soutif, Michel (2012). L'Asie, source de sciences et de techniques. EDP Sciences. p. 33. ISBN 978-2-7598-0125-1.
  3. ^ Gabriel, Richard A. (2002). The Great Armies of Antiquity. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-275-97809-9.
  4. ^ Daniélou, Alain (1983). Histoire de l'Inde. Fayard. p. 223. ISBN 978-2-213-63953-6.
  5. ^ Masson-Oursel, Paul; Stern, Philippe; de Willman-Grabowska, H (2012). L'Inde antique et la civilisation indienne. Éditions Albin Michel. p. 88. ISBN 978-2-226-26086-4.
  6. ^ Boivin, Michel (2015). Histoire de l'Inde. Presses Universitaires de France. p. 8. ISBN 978-2-13-073032-3.
  7. ^ Gross, Jeffrey L. (2017). Waipi'O Valley. Vol. 1. Xlibris Corporation. p. 221. ISBN 978-1-5245-3905-4.
  8. ^ Berghe, Louis Vanden (1983). Reliefs rupestres de l'Irān ancien : Bruxelles, Musées royaux d'art et d'histoire, 26 octobre 1983-29 janvier 1984. Musées royaux d'art et d'histoire. p. 25.
  9. ^ Margueron, Jean-Claude (2012). Le Proche-Orient et l'Égypte antiques. Hachette Éducation Technique. p. 384. ISBN 978-2-01-140096-3.
  10. ^ Barral I Altet, Xavier (2013). Histoire de l'art. Presses Universitaires de France. p. 19. ISBN 978-2-13-062338-0.
  11. ^ Clutton-Brock, Juliet (2014). The Walking Larder : Patterns of Domestication, Pastoralism, and Predation. Routledge. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-317-59838-1.
  12. ^ Lemaire, André. "Les Araméens, un peuple, une langue, une écriture, au-delà des empires". www.clio.fr.
  13. ^ Cline, Eric. 1177 BC: The Year Civilization Collapsed [video], 2016, 1h10'17. See 5'41-6'19 for the invasion of the Sea People in the 5th yr of Merneptah's reign and the 8th year of Ramses III's, and 4'30 for the start of the Late Bronze Age collapse "on either side of 1200 BC".
  14. ^ Baurain, Claude (1997). Les Grecs et la Méditerranée orientale : des siècles "obscurs" à la fin de l'époque archaïque. Presses universitaires de France. p. 60.
  15. ^ Étienne, Roland (2004). Athènes, espaces urbains et histoire. Hachette. p. 23. ISBN 978-2-01-181444-9.
  16. ^ L'Europe au temps d'Ulysse. RMN - Grand Palais. 1999. p. 234. ISBN 978-2-7118-6293-1.
  17. ^ Curry, Andrew (24 March 2016). "Slaughter at the bridge: Uncovering a colossal Bronze Age battle". Science. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
  18. ^ Price, T. Douglas (2015). Ancient Scandinavia. Oxford University Press. p. 212. ISBN 978-0-19-023198-9.
  19. ^ Gimbutas, Marija (1965). Bronze Age cultures in Central and Eastern Europe. De Gruyter. p. 245. ISBN 978-3-11-166814-7.
  20. ^ Leighton, Robert (1999). Sicily Before History: An Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age. Cornell University Press. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-8014-8585-5.
  21. ^ Brunet, Olivier (2016). Les marqueurs archéologiques du pouvoir. Publications de la Sorbonne. p. 28. ISBN 979-10-351-0005-6.
  22. ^ Demoule, Jean-Paul; Garcia, Dominique; Schnapp, Alain (2018). Une histoire des civilisations (in French). La Découverte. p. 319. ISBN 978-2-7071-8878-6.
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