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{{Short description|Vehicle with a retracting solid roof}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}

[[File:VOLVO C70(in transforming).JPG|thumb|A [[Volvo C70]] with retractable hardtop]]
[[File:VOLVO C70(in transforming).JPG|thumb|A [[Volvo C70]] with retractable hardtop]]


A '''retractable hardtop''' — also known as "coupé convertible" or "coupé cabriolet" — is a car with an automatically operated, self-storing [[hardtop]], as opposed to the folding textile-based roof used by traditional [[convertible]] cars.
A '''retractable hardtop''' — also known as "coupé convertible" or "coupé cabriolet" — is a car with an automatically operated, self-storing [[hardtop]], as opposed to the folding textile-based roof used by traditional [[convertible]] cars.


The benefits of improved climate control and security are traded off against increased mechanical complexity, cost, weight and often reduced luggage capacity.
Improved climate control and security benefits are traded against increased mechanical complexity, cost, weight, and often reduced luggage capacity.


A 2006 ''[[New York Times]]'' article suggested the retractable hardtop may herald the demise of the textile-roofed convertible,<ref name="nyt">{{cite news| title = New Again: The Hideaway Hardtop | newspaper=The New York Times |first=Rob |last=Sass |date=10 December 2006 |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/10/automobiles/10RETRACT.html?ex=1323406800&en=a440f0f4ff67f836&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss | accessdate=6 March 2011}}</ref> and a 2007 ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'' article suggested "more and more convertibles are eschewing soft cloth tops in favor of sophisticated folding metal roofs, making them practical in all climates, year-round."<ref name="wsj">{{cite news|title=Convertibles with Hard Tops |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |first=Matt |last=Vella |date=26 April 2007 |url= https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB117753756980082567 |accessdate=3 February 2014}}</ref>
A 2006 ''[[New York Times]]'' article suggested the retractable hardtop might herald the demise of the textile-roofed convertible,<ref name="nyt"/> and a 2007 ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'' article suggested "more and more convertibles are eschewing soft cloth tops in favor of sophisticated folding metal roofs, making them practical in all climates, year-round."<ref name="wsj">{{cite news|title=Convertibles with Hard Tops |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |first=Matt |last=Vella |date=26 April 2007 |url= https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB117753756980082567 |access-date=3 February 2014}}</ref>


== History ==
== History ==
[[File:1938Peugeot402LE4Y IMG 7281.jpg|thumb|[[Peugeot 402|Peugeot 402 Eclipse Decapotable]] (1938)]]
[[File:Paris - RM auctions - 20150204 - Lancia Belna Eclipse - 1934 - 027.jpg|thumb|1934 [[Lancia Belna]] Eclipse]]
[[File:Paris - RM auctions - 20150204 - Lancia Belna Eclipse - 1934 - 027.jpg|thumb|1934 [[Lancia Belna]] Eclipse]]
[[File:Peugeot 601 C Eclipse 1934 Pourtout.jpg|thumb|1934 [[Peugeot 601]] C Eclipse]]
[[File:Paris - Retromobile 2013 - Peugeot 401 Coupé transformable Eclipse - 1935 - 101.jpg|thumb|1934 Peugeot 401D Coupé transformable Eclipse (Pourtout)]]
[[File:1958 Ford Fairlane 500 Skyliner.JPG|thumb|right|1958 [[Ford Fairlane 500 Skyliner]] while roof is being raised or lowered]]
'''1919''' Ben P. Ellerbeck conceived a retractable hardtop – a manually operated system on a [[Hudson Motor Car Company|Hudson]] coupe that allowed unimpeded use of the [[rumble seat]] even with the top down<ref name="drivingtoday">{{cite web | title=Ford Skyliner | publisher=Driving Today | first=Jack | last=Nerad | url=http://www.drivingtoday.com/greatest_cars/ford_skyliner/index.html | accessdate=3 February 2014 | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221195452/http://www.drivingtoday.com/greatest_cars/ford_skyliner/index.html | archivedate=21 February 2014 }}</ref> – but never saw production.<ref name="retractableonline">{{cite web| title=History, Revival |publisher=Retractable Hardtop Online |url =http://retractable.free.fr/uk/index.html |accessdate=3 February 2014}}</ref>


'''1922''' Ben P. Ellerbeck was granted a patent (U.S. No. 1,379,906 on 31 May 1921) for a retractable hardtop roof design for cars.<ref name="Gosden">{{cite magazine |last1=Gosden |first1=W.E. |title=The first Fliptop? Ellerbeck had a Better Idea |magazine=Special Interest Autos |date=April 1979 |pages=20–21}}</ref> He developed several scale models for the 1922 Automobile Body Builders Exhibition in New York City.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Creager |first1=Reid |title=Going Like 100: the convertible celebrates a milestone birthday, all started by an uncelebrated inventor |magazine=Inventors Digest |date=February 2022 |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=14–16 |url= https://www.inventorsdigest.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/INV-vol-38-02-February-2022Final.pdf |access-date=14 January 2024}}</ref> In 1922, he modified a 1919 [[Hudson Super Six]] roadster with his manually operated gear and spring "flip top" system.<ref name="Gosden"/> It allowed unimpeded use of the [[rumble seat]] even with the top down.<ref name="drivingtoday">{{cite web |title=Ford Skyliner |work=Driving Today |first=Jack |last=Nerad |url= http://www.drivingtoday.com/greatest_cars/ford_skyliner/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140221195452/http://www.drivingtoday.com/greatest_cars/ford_skyliner/index.html |archive-date=21 February 2014 |access-date=13 January 2024}}</ref> The design was not put into production.<ref name="retractableonline">{{cite web| title=History, Revival |work=Retractable Hardtop Online |url= http://retractable.free.fr/uk/index.html |access-date=3 February 2014}}</ref>
'''1934''' [[Lancia]] introduced the first production, power-operated retractable hardtop in 1934, the [[Lancia Belna|Belna Eclipse]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://rmsothebys.com/en/auctions/pa15/paris/lots/r105-1934-lancia-belna-eclipse-by-pourtout/181559| |title=1934 Lancia Belna Eclipse by Pourtout |accessdate=9 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yN8DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA253&dq=Popular+Science+1935+plane+%22Popular+Mechanics%22 |title=Disappearing Top On Auto Worked By Push Button |journal=Popular Mechanics |date=February 1935 |page=253 |volume=63 |issue=2 |accessdate=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=QdsDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA43&dq=Popular+Science+1935+plane+%22Popular+Mechanics%22 |title=Latest Foreign Auto Has Disappearing Top |journal=Popular Mechanics |date=January 1936 |page=53 |volume=65 |issue=1 |accessdate=14 August 2013 }}</ref> designed and patented by [[Georges Paulin]].<ref name="nyt"/> The Belna was a French-built Lancia Augusta. The French coachbuilder, [[Marcel Pourtout]], custom-built examples of Paulin's designs on other makes like [[Panhard]] and [[Peugeot 402]], [[Peugeot 401|401]] or [[Peugeot 601|601]].<ref name="nyt"/>


'''1931''' [[Georges Paulin]] made his idea public by applying for a patent on a detachable hard roof design that could ultimately be moved and stowed automatically in a car's rear luggage compartment, under a reverse-hinged rear-deck lid.<ref name=BuchananRed/>
'''1941''' [[Chrysler]] introduced a retractable hardtop [[concept car]], the Chrysler Thunderbolt.<ref name="drivingtoday"/>


'''1932''' The French patent system granted Paulin patent number 733.380 for his ''Eclipse'' roof system on 5 July 1932.<ref name=BuchananRed>{{cite web|url= http://www.redroom.com/articlestory/the-story-lancia-paulin-and-john-moir |last=Buchanan |first=James |title=The Story of Lancia, Paulin and John Moir |website=redroom.com |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110726032435/http://www.redroom.com/articlestory/the-story-lancia-paulin-and-john-moir |archive-date=26 July 2011 |access-date=13 January 2024}}</ref>
'''1953''' [[Ford Motor Company]] spent an estimated [[United States dollar|US$]]2 million (US${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|2000000|1953}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}) to engineer a [[Continental Mark II]] with a servo-operated retractable roof. The project was headed by Ben Smith, a 30-year-old draftsman.<ref name="greatcarstv">{{cite web |title=Lucy Loved Ford's First Hard Top Convertible |publisher=GreatcarsTV.com |first=Bob |last=Merlis |date=6 March 2007 |url=http://www.greatcarstv.com/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=87 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081222023503/http://www.greatcarstv.com/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=87 |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 December 2008 }}{{Failed verification|date=February 2014}}</ref> The concept was rejected for cost and marketing reasons.<ref name="drivingtoday"/> Engineering work was recycled to the Ford Division which used the retractable mechanism in their 1957-1959 flagship [[Ford Fairlane 500 Skyliner]] after an estimated [[United States dollar|US$]]18 million (US${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|18000000|1957}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}) more was spent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ateupwithmotor.com/model-histories/ford-skyliner/ |author=Aaron Severson |title=Raising the Roof: The Ford Skyliner ‘Retrac’ |publisher=Ate Up With Motor |date= |accessdate=2016-12-09}}</ref>


'''1934''' Paulin's ''Eclipse'' retractable hard roof <ref name="nyt">{{cite news| title = New Again: The Hideaway Hardtop |newspaper=The New York Times |first=Rob |last=Sass |date=10 December 2006 |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/10/automobiles/10RETRACT.html?ex=1323406800&en=a440f0f4ff67f836&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss | access-date=6 March 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151029090916/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/10/automobiles/10RETRACT.html?ex=1323406800&en=a440f0f4ff67f836&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss |archive-date=29 October 2015}}</ref> was first presented on the [[Peugeot 401|Peugeot 401D Éclipse Décapotable]], a low convertible coupé.<ref name=AutoWeek>{{cite news |title=1935 Peugeot Model 401D Eclipse: The first retractable hardtop |website=autoweek.com |first=Brooks T. |last=Brierley |url= https://www.autoweek.com/news/a2119691/1935-peugeot-model-401d-eclipse-first-retractable-hardtop/ |date=17 June 2001 |accessdate=31 March 2021}}</ref><ref name=mainspot>{{cite web |title=From the Zero to the Eclipse |url= http://peugeot.mainspot.net/hist11.shtml |website=Peugeot.mainspot.net |access-date=31 March 2021 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100117200913/http://peugeot.mainspot.net/hist11.shtml |archive-date=17 January 2010}}</ref> In 1933, Paulin showed his designs to premier coachbuilder [[Carrosserie Pourtout|Marcel Pourtout]], who hired him as lead designer, and in 1934 they equipped first a Peugeot 401D, followed by a 601C, with "Eclipse" roofs and bodywork, on chassis provided by [[Darl'mat|Emile Darl'mat]]. The same year, a [[Lancia Belna]], a French-built Lancia Augusta, was also built as an Eclipse.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://rmsothebys.com/en/auctions/pa15/paris/lots/r105-1934-lancia-belna-eclipse-by-pourtout/181559 |title=1934 Lancia Belna Eclipse by Pourtout |access-date=9 June 2019}}</ref>
'''1955''' Brothers Ed and Jim Gaylord showed their first prototype at the 1955 Paris motor show,<ref name="howstuffworks">{{cite web| title=1950 Gaylord concept cars |publisher=Howstuffworks.com |author=Auto Editors of ''Consumer Guide'' |date=13 November 2007 | url=http://auto.howstuffworks.com/1950s-gaylord-concept-cars.htm |accessdate=6 March 2011}}</ref> but the car failed to reach production.


[[File:1938Peugeot402LE4Y IMG 7281.jpg|thumb|Factory [[Peugeot 402|Peugeot 402 Eclipse Decapotable]] (1938) ]]
'''1957''' [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] introduced the [[Ford Fairlane 500 Skyliner|Fairlane 500 Skyliner]] in the United States. A total of 48,394 were built from 1957 to 1959.<ref name="drivingtoday"/> The retractable top was noted for its complexity and usually decent reliability<ref>{{cite book |last=Willson |first=Quentin |title=The Ultimate Classic Car Book |year=1995 |publisher=DK Publishing |isbn=0-7894-0159-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ultimateclassicc00quen }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=the Auto Editors of ''Consumer Guide'' |url=http://auto.howstuffworks.com/1957-1959-ford-fairlane-skyliner.htm/printable |title=1957-1959 Ford Fairlane 500 Skyliner |publisher=Auto.howstuffworks.com |date=20 July 2007 |accessdate=14 August 2013 }}</ref> in the pre-transistor era. Its mechanism contained 10 power relays, 10 [[limit switch]]es, four lock motors, three drive motors, eight circuit breakers, as well as {{convert|610|ft|m}} of electrical wire,<ref name="drivingtoday"/> and could raise or lower the top in about 40 seconds. The Skyliner was a [[halo car]] with little luggage space (i.e., practicality), and cost twice that of a baseline Ford [[sedan (car)|sedan]].
'''1935''' Peugeot purchased Paulin's patent, and introduced the first factory production, power-operated, retractable hardtop in 1935, the [[Peugeot 402|"402BL Éclipse Décapotable"]],<ref>{{cite magazine |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yN8DAAAAMBAJ&q=Popular+Science+1935+plane+%22Popular+Mechanics%22&pg=PA253 |title=Disappearing Top On Auto Worked By Push Button |magazine=Popular Mechanics |date=February 1935 |page=253 |volume=63 |issue=2 |access-date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=QdsDAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA1-PA43 |title=Latest Foreign Auto Has Disappearing Top |magazine=Popular Mechanics |date=January 1936 |page=53 |volume=65 |issue=1 |access-date=14 August 2013 }}</ref> of which some 470 were built.<ref name="nyt"/> Pourtout build custom examples, designed by Paulin, on other makes including [[Delage]] and [[Panhard]] as well as the "Eclipse" coupé-convertibles based on the [[Peugeot 301]], [[Peugeot 401|401]], [[Peugeot 601|601]], [[Peugeot 302|302]], and [[Peugeot 402|402]].<ref name="nyt"/>


[[File:1941 Chrysler LeBaron Thunderbolt - rvl.jpg|thumb|1941 Chrysler Thunderbolt concept car]]
'''1989''' [[Toyota]] introduced a modern retractable hardtop, the [[Toyota Soarer#Z20 series (1986–1991)|MZ20 Soarer Aerocabin]]. The car featured an electric folding hardtop and was marketed as a 2-seater with a cargo area behind the front seats. Production was 500 units.
'''1941''' [[Chrysler]] introduced a retractable hardtop [[concept car]], the Chrysler Thunderbolt.<ref>{{cite web |author=((Auto Editors of ''Consumer Guide'')) |title=1941 Chrysler Thunderbolt Roadster |url= https://auto.howstuffworks.com/1941-chrysler-thunderbolt-roadster.htm |website=auto.howstuffworks.com |date=29 November 2007 |access-date=15 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Vanderbilt Cup Races - Blog - Mystery Friday Foto #4 Solved: The 1941 Chrysler Thunderbolt concept car with links to Tucker 1044 and 1937 Chrysler's Chrysler |url= https://www.vanderbiltcupraces.com/blog/article/mystery_friday_foto_4_an_early_concept_car |website=vanderbiltcupraces.com |date=30 January 2023 |access-date=15 January 2024}}</ref>

'''1947''' American [[Playboy Automobile Company]] marketed one of the first series produced convertibles, with a retractable roof consisting of more than one section. Ninety-seven production models were made until the company's bankruptcy in 1951.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Radu |first1=Vlad |title=Remembering the Playboy, America's First Production Convertible With a Retractable Hardtop |url= https://www.autoevolution.com/news/remembering-the-playboy-america-s-first-production-convertible-with-a-retractable-hardtop-190494.html |work=autoevolution |date=6 June 2022 |access-date=15 January 2024}}</ref>

{{Multiple image |align=right |header= |total_width=
| image1 = Tentoonstelling RAI. Wagen met dichte kap merk Playboy, Bestanddeelnr 902-7262.jpg
| width1 = {{#expr: (875 / 1167 * 220 * 1156 / 908) round 0}}
| caption1 = |alt1 =
| image2 = Tentoonstelling RAI. Wagen met open kap merk Playboy, Bestanddeelnr 902-7263.jpg
| width2 = 220
| caption2 =
| footer = The 1948 Playboy car with its top in a closed and open configuration }}

'''1953''' [[Ford Motor Company]] spent an estimated [[United States dollar|US$]]2 million (US${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|2000000|1953}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}) to engineer a [[Continental Mark II]] with a servo-operated retractable roof. The concept was rejected for cost and marketing reasons.<ref name="drivingtoday"/> Engineering work was used by Ford for the retractable mechanism in their 1957 through 1959 flagship [[Ford Fairlane 500 Skyliner]].

'''1955''' Brothers Ed and Jim Gaylord showed a prototype at the 1955 Paris Motor Show, but the car failed to reach production.<ref>{{cite web| title=1950 Gaylord concept cars |website=auto.howstuffworks.com |author=((Auto Editors of ''Consumer Guide'')) |date=13 November 2007 |url= http://auto.howstuffworks.com/1950s-gaylord-concept-cars.htm |archive-url= http://web.archive.org/web/20210117132912/http://auto.howstuffworks.com/1950s-gaylord-concept-cars.htm |archive-date=17 January 2021 |access-date=13 January 2024}}</ref>

'''1956''' After working for 4,000 hours and investing $100 in the whole car, Raymond P. Meyette built a one-piece power-operated hardtop convertible using a 1952 Nash Ambassador chassis.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Sand |first1=George X. |title=They told him it could not be built - so he built it himself: A Hardtop Convertible |magazine=Popular Mechanics |date=December 1956 |volume=106 |issue=6 |pages=138–139 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=q-EDAAAAMBAJ&dq=Popular+Mechanics+after+four+years+of+trial+and+error+Raymond+P.+Meyette+hardtop+convertible&pg=PA138 |access-date=13 January 2024}}</ref>

[[File:1958 Ford Fairlane 500 Skyliner.JPG|thumb|1958 [[Ford Fairlane 500 Skyliner]] with roof in mid folding action]]
'''1957''' [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] introduced the [[Ford Fairlane 500 Skyliner|Fairlane 500 Skyliner]] in the United States. Further development of the 1953 Continental Mark II retractable proposal cost an estimated [[United States dollar|US$]]18 million (US${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|18000000|1957}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}).<ref>{{cite web|url= http://ateupwithmotor.com/model-histories/ford-skyliner/ |first=Aaron |last=Severson |title=Raising the Roof: The Ford Skyliner 'Retrac' |date=26 April 2009 |work=Ate Up With Motor |access-date=9 December 2016}}</ref> The Skyliner was a [[halo car]] with little luggage space and was priced double the baseline Ford [[sedan (car)|sedan]]. A total of 48,394 were built from 1957 until 1959.<ref name="drivingtoday"/> Its mechanism contained ten power relays, ten [[limit switch]]es, four lock motors, three drive motors, eight circuit breakers, as well as {{convert|610|ft|m}} of electrical wire.<ref name="drivingtoday"/> It could raise or lower the top in about 40 seconds. The retractable top was noted for its complexity and usual reliability in the pre-transistor era.<ref>{{cite book |last=Willson |first=Quentin |title=The Ultimate Classic Car Book |year=1995 |publisher=DK Publishing |isbn=0-7894-0159-2 |url-access=registration |url= https://archive.org/details/ultimateclassicc00quen }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=((Auto Editors of ''Consumer Guide'')) |url= http://auto.howstuffworks.com/1957-1959-ford-fairlane-skyliner.htm/printable |title=1957-1959 Ford Fairlane 500 Skyliner |website=auto.howstuffworks.com |date=20 July 2007 |access-date=14 August 2013 }}</ref>

'''1989''' [[Toyota]] introduced a retractable hardtop, the [[Toyota Soarer#Z20 series (1986–1991)|MZ20 Soarer Aerocabin]]. The car featured an electric folding hardtop and was marketed as a two-seater with a cargo area behind the front seats. Production was 500 units.


'''1995''' The [[Mitsubishi GTO]] Spyder by ASC was marketed in the U.S.<ref name="retractableonline"/> The design was further popularized by such cars as the 1996 [[Mercedes-Benz SLK]].<ref name="nyt"/> and 2001 [[Peugeot 206|Peugeot 206 CC]].
'''1995''' The [[Mitsubishi GTO]] Spyder by ASC was marketed in the U.S.<ref name="retractableonline"/> The design was further popularized by such cars as the 1996 [[Mercedes-Benz SLK]].<ref name="nyt"/> and 2001 [[Peugeot 206|Peugeot 206 CC]].


'''2006''' Peugeot presented a concept four-door retractable hardtop convertible, the [[Peugeot 407 Macarena]].<ref name="Edmunds">{{cite web |title=¡Hey, Macarena! Heuliez Creates an Open-Top Peugeot 407 |work=Edmunds |date=28 January 2006 |url= http://www.edmunds.com/insideline/do/News/articleId=109085 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061219010531/http://www.edmunds.com/insideline/do/News/articleId%3D109085 |archive-date=19 December 2006}}</ref> Produced by French coachbuilding specialist [[Heuliez]], the Macarena's top folded in about 30 seconds.<ref name="Edmunds"/> It has a reinforcing beam behind the front seats incorporating LCD screens into the crossmember for the rear passengers.<ref name="Edmunds"/>
'''2006''' Peugeot presented a concept four-door retractable hardtop convertible, the [[Peugeot 407 Macarena]].<ref name="edmunds">
{{cite web
|title = ¡Hey, Macarena! Heuliez Creates an Open-Top Peugeot 407
|publisher = Edmunds, 01-28-2006
|url = http://www.edmunds.com/insideline/do/News/articleId=109085
|url-status = dead
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20061219010531/http://www.edmunds.com/insideline/do/News/articleId%3D109085
|archivedate = 2006-12-19
}}</ref> Produced by French coachbuilding specialist [[Heuliez]], the Macarena's top can be folded in about 30 seconds.<ref name="edmunds"/> It has a reinforcing beam behind the front seats which incorporates LCD screens into the crossmember for the rear passengers.<ref name="edmunds"/>


== Construction ==
== Construction ==
[[File:2008 BMW 320Ci Cabrio Schliessen 2.jpg|thumb|Closing of the retractable hardtop of a [[BMW 3 Series (E90)#Convertible (E93)|BMW 3-series (E93)]]]]
[[File:2008 BMW 320Ci Cabrio Schliessen 2.jpg|thumb|Closing of the retractable hardtop of a [[BMW 3 Series (E90)#Convertible (E93)|BMW 3-series (E93)]] ]]

Retractable hardtops are commonly made from between two and five sections of metal or plastic and often rely on complex dual-hinged [[Trunk (car)|trunk/boot]] lids that enable the trunk lid to both receive the retracting top from the front and also receive parcels or luggage from the rear. The trunk also often includes a divider mechanism to prevent loading of luggage that would conflict with the operation of the hardtop.
Retractable hardtops are commonly made from between two and five sections of metal or plastic and often rely on complex dual-hinged [[Trunk (car)|trunk/boot]] lids that enable the trunk lid to both receive the retracting top from the front and also receive parcels or luggage from the rear. The trunk also often includes a divider mechanism to prevent the loading of luggage that would conflict with the operation of the hardtop.


=== Variations ===
=== Variations ===
* The [[Volkswagen Eos]] features a five-segment retractable roof where one section is itself an independently sliding transparent sunroof.<ref name="wsj"/>
* The [[Volkswagen Eos]] features a five-segment retractable roof where one section is an independently sliding transparent sunroof.<ref name="wsj"/>
* The [[Mercedes-Benz SL-Class|Mercedes SL]] hardtop features a glass section that rotates during retraction to provide a more compact "stack."
* The [[Mercedes-Benz SL-Class|Mercedes SL]] hardtop features a glass section that rotates during retraction to provide a more compact "stack."
* The [[Mazda MX-5 (NC)|third-generation Mazda MX-5]] was available with an optional power retractable hardtop, in lieu of the standard folding-textile soft-top. Compared to the regular soft-top, the hardtop weighed {{convert|77|lb|abbr=on}} more yet had no reduction in cargo capacity.<ref name="autoweek.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.autoweek.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20061009/FREE/61003001/1004|title=2007 Mazda MX-5 Miata Power Retractable Hardtop |accessdate=6 March 2011 |publisher=Autoweek |first=Mark |last=Vaughn|date=10 September 2006}}</ref> The MX-5 was one of the few cars offering both hardtop and soft-top convertible choices. The hardtop roof was constructed of polycarbonate and manufactured by the German firm Webasto.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.caranddriver.com/news/2007-mazda-mx-5-miata-hardtop-car-news |title=2007 Mazda MX-5 Miata Hardtop |work=Car and Driver |date=1 September 2006 |accessdate=28 June 2018}}</ref>
* The [[Mazda MX-5 (NC)|third-generation Mazda MX-5]] was available with an optional power retractable hardtop in place of the standard folding-textile soft-top. Compared to the regular soft-top, the hardtop weighed {{convert|77|lb|abbr=on}} more. It did not reduce cargo capacity.<ref name="autoweek.com">{{cite web|url= http://www.autoweek.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20061009/FREE/61003001/1004|title=2007 Mazda MX-5 Miata Power Retractable Hardtop |access-date=6 March 2011 |website=autoweek.com |first=Mark |last=Vaughn |date=10 September 2006}}</ref> The hardtop roof was polycarbonate and manufactured by the German firm Webasto.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.caranddriver.com/news/2007-mazda-mx-5-miata-hardtop-car-news |title=2007 Mazda MX-5 Miata Hardtop |work=Car and Driver |date=1 September 2006 |access-date=28 June 2018}}</ref>
* The [[Chrysler Sebring]]'s (and its successor the [[Chrysler 200]]'s) retractable hardtop also is marketed alongside a soft-top. According to development engineer Dave Lauzun, during construction, the [[Karmann|Karmann-made]] tops are dropped into a body that is largely identical: both soft-top and retractable feature the same automatic tonneau cover, luggage divider and luggage space.<ref name="youtube.com">{{cite web | title = 2008 Chrysler Sebring Convertible |first=Dave |last=Lauzun |publisher=Autonetwork.com | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jiIEyCFR9Gg | accessdate=3 February 2014}}</ref> The retractable does feature an underbody cross-brace not included in the softtop.
* The retractable hardtop used on the [[Chrysler Sebring]] (and its successor the [[Chrysler 200]]) was marketed alongside a soft-top. According to development engineer Dave Lauzun, the [[Karmann|Karmann-made]] tops were installed into identical body designs and used the same automatic tonneau cover, luggage divider, and luggage space.<ref name="youtube.com">{{cite web | title=2008 Chrysler Sebring Convertible |first=Dave |last=Lauzun |website=Autonetwork.com |url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jiIEyCFR9Gg |archive-url= https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/jiIEyCFR9Gg |archive-date=21 December 2021 |url-status=live| access-date=3 February 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The retractable version featured an underbody cross-brace not included in the softtop.


== Comparison with soft tops ==
== Comparison with soft tops ==
The retractable hardtop's advantages include:
The retractable hardtop's advantages include:
* More weatherly when roof is raised
* More weatherly when the roof is raised
* More secure than fabric tops<ref name="wsj" /><ref name="automobilemag.com">{{cite journal|url=http://www.automobilemag.com/features/great_drives/0908_luxury_hardtop_convertible_comparison/index.html |title=Great Drive: Luxury Hardtop Convertible Comparison |journal=Automobile |date=August 2009 |accessdate=14 August 2013 }}</ref>
* More secure than fabric tops<ref name="wsj" /><ref name="automobilemag.com">{{cite magazine |url= http://www.automobilemag.com/features/great_drives/0908_luxury_hardtop_convertible_comparison/index.html |title=Great Drive: Luxury Hardtop Convertible Comparison |magazine=Automobile |date=August 2009 |access-date=14 August 2013 }}</ref>
* Increased [[Torsion (mechanics)|structural rigidity]]
* Increased [[Torsion (mechanics)|structural rigidity]]
* May enable consolidation/simplification of a manufacturer's car lineup; for instance the [[BMW Z4]] ([[BMW E89|E89]]) was offered only as a coupé-convertible (hardtop), compared to the preceding [[BMW E85|E85]] generation that had separate coupé and cabriolet (soft-top) variants.
* May enable consolidation/simplification of a manufacturer's car lineup; for example, the [[BMW Z4]] ([[BMW E89|E89]]) was offered only as a coupé-convertible (hardtop), compared to the preceding [[BMW E85|E85]] generation that had separate coupé and cabriolet (soft-top) variants.


The retractable hardtop's disadvantages include:
The retractable hardtop's disadvantages include:
* Higher initial cost
* Higher initial cost
* Increased mechanical complexity
* Increased mechanical complexity
* Potentially diminished passenger and trunk space compared to a soft-top convertible.<ref name="motortrend.com">{{cite journal |first=Arthur |last=St. Antoine |url= http://www.motortrend.com/roadtests/convertibles/112_1005_luxury_convertible_comparison/ |title=Luxury Convertible Comparison: 2010 Audi A5 vs 2010 BMW 335i vs 2009 Infiniti G37 vs 2010 Lexus IS 350 |journal=Motor Trend |date=May 2010 |accessdate=3 February 2014}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web|url= http://www.caranddriver.com/comparisons/2007-vw-eos-vs-audi-a4-bmw-328i-volvo-c70-saab-9-3-comparison-tests |title=2007 VW Eos vs. Audi A4, BMW 328i, Volvo C70, Saab 9-3 – Comparison Tests |publisher=Caranddriver.com |date=June 2007 |first=Tony |last=Swan |accessdate=3 February 2014}}</ref>
* Potentially diminished passenger and trunk space compared to a soft-top convertible.<ref name="motortrend.com">{{cite magazine |first=Arthur |last=St. Antoine |url= http://www.motortrend.com/roadtests/convertibles/112_1005_luxury_convertible_comparison/ |title=Luxury Convertible Comparison: 2010 Audi A5 vs 2010 BMW 335i vs 2009 Infiniti G37 vs 2010 Lexus IS 350 |magazine=Motor Trend |date=May 2010 |access-date=3 February 2014}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web|url= http://www.caranddriver.com/comparisons/2007-vw-eos-vs-audi-a4-bmw-328i-volvo-c70-saab-9-3-comparison-tests |title=2007 VW Eos vs. Audi A4, BMW 328i, Volvo C70, Saab 9-3 – Comparison Tests |website=caranddriver.com |date=June 2007 |first=Tony |last=Swan |access-date=3 February 2014}}</ref>
* Higher weight and center of gravity than soft-top convertibles, potentially reducing [[automobile handling|handling]].<ref name="caranddriver.com">{{cite journal|url= http://www.caranddriver.com/reviews/comparisons/10q1/2010_audi_a5_2.0t_quattro_vs._2010_bmw_328i_2009_infiniti_g37_2010_lexus_is350c-comparison_tests |first=Tony |last=Swan |title=2010 Audi A5 2.0T Quattro vs. 2010 BMW 328i, 2009 Infiniti G37, 2010 Lexus IS350C – Comparison Tests |journal=Car and Driver |date=March 2010 |accessdate=3 February 2014}}</ref><ref name="motortrend.com"/><ref name="ReferenceA"/>
* Higher weight and center of gravity than soft-top convertibles, potentially reducing [[automobile handling|handling]].<ref name="caranddriver.com">{{cite magazine |url= http://www.caranddriver.com/reviews/comparisons/10q1/2010_audi_a5_2.0t_quattro_vs._2010_bmw_328i_2009_infiniti_g37_2010_lexus_is350c-comparison_tests |first=Tony |last=Swan |title=2010 Audi A5 2.0T Quattro vs. 2010 BMW 328i, 2009 Infiniti G37, 2010 Lexus IS350C – Comparison Tests |magazine=Car and Driver |date=March 2010 |access-date=3 February 2014}}</ref><ref name="motortrend.com"/><ref name="ReferenceA"/>
* Potential need for more than minimum clearance while operating the hardtop. For example, the [[Volvo C70]] requires {{convert|6.5|ft|m|0}} of vertical clearance during operation<ref name="volvoownerdoc">{{cite web |title=2007 Volvo C70 |publisher=Volvocars.com, C70 owner documentation, Page 93 |url= http://new.volvocars.com/ownersdocs/2007/2007_C70/07c70_04.htm |accessdate=3 February 2014}}</ref>, the [[Cadillac XLR]] requires {{convert|6|ft|10+1/2|in|0|abbr=on}} of vertical clearance and the [[Mercedes SLK]]'s trunk lid extends rearward while lowering or lifting the top.
* Potential need for more than minimum clearance while operating the hardtop. For example, the [[Volvo C70]] requires {{convert|6.5|ft|m|0}} of vertical clearance during operation,<ref name="volvoownerdoc">{{cite web |title=2007 Volvo C70 |website=volvocars.com, C70 owner documentation, Page 93 |url= http://new.volvocars.com/ownersdocs/2007/2007_C70/07c70_04.htm |access-date=3 February 2014}}</ref> the [[Cadillac XLR]] requires {{convert|6|ft|10+1/2|in|0|abbr=on}} of vertical clearance and the [[Mercedes SLK]]'s trunk lid extends rearward while lowering or lifting the top.


== List of retractable hardtop models ==
== List of retractable hardtop models ==
Line 66: Line 83:


== Gallery ==
== Gallery ==
<gallery mode=packed style="font-size:90%; line-height:130%">
<gallery mode="packed" style="font-size:90%; line-height:130%">
File:Mazda MX-5 hardtop.jpg|[[Mazda MX-5|Mazda Miata Power Retractable Hard Top (PRHT)]] c. 2007, with {{convert|77|lb|kg|0|abbr=on}} [[polycarbonate]] hardtop and identical cargo capacity to the soft top version<ref name="autoweek.com"/>
File:Mazda MX-5 hardtop.jpg|[[Mazda MX-5 (NC)|Mazda Miata Power Retractable Hard Top (PRHT)]] c. 2007, with polycarbonate hardtop<ref name="autoweek.com"/>
File:Cadillac XLR 2006.jpg|[[Cadillac XLR]] c. 2007, with fully retracted aluminum (i.e., lightweight) hardtop concealed by self-storing tonneau cover, the hardtop manufactured by a supplier joint venture of [[Mercedes-Benz]] and [[Porsche]]<ref name="mtrend">{{cite journal | title=2004 Cadillac XLR |journal=Motor Trend |date=August 2002 |first=Jack |last=Keebler | url =http://www.motortrend.com/roadtests/112_0208_cadxlr |accessdate=6 March 2011}}</ref>
File:Cadillac XLR 2006.jpg|[[Cadillac XLR]] c. 2007, aluminum hardtop made by a joint venture of [[Mercedes-Benz]] and [[Porsche]]<ref name="mtrend">{{cite magazine |title=2004 Cadillac XLR |magazine=Motor Trend |date=August 2002 |first=Jack |last=Keebler |url= http://www.motortrend.com/roadtests/112_0208_cadxlr |access-date=6 March 2011}}</ref>
File:Daihatsu.copen.arp.750pix.jpg|[[Daihatsu Copen]] c. 2001 with retracted hardtop, qualifying for the ultra-compact Japanese [[Kei car|Kei]] class
File:Daihatsu.copen.arp.750pix.jpg|[[Daihatsu Copen]] c. 2001, a retractable hardtop in the Japanese [[Kei car|Kei]] class
File:Paris 2006 - Ford Focus CC.JPG|[[Ford Focus (International)#Additional variants|Ford Focus CC]] c. 2006 with its roof retracted, its final assembly performed by [[Pininfarina]]
File:Paris 2006 - Ford Focus CC.JPG|[[Ford Focus (second generation, Europe)#Coupé-Cabriolet|Ford Focus CC]] c. 2006, its retractable hardtop final assembly by [[Pininfarina]]
File:Chevrolet SSR.jpg|[[Chevrolet SSR]] c. 2004, a retractable hardtop convertible [[pickup truck]], its top engineered by [[American Specialty Cars|ASC]]
File:Chevrolet SSR.jpg|[[Chevrolet SSR]] c. 2004, [[pickup truck]] retractable hardtop engineered by [[American Specialty Cars|ASC]]
File:Volkswagen Eos Front-view.JPG|[[Volkswagen Eos]] c. 2007, the five-segment top features an independently sliding sunroof, made by [[OASys (Automotive)|OASys]]
File:Volkswagen Eos Front-view.JPG|[[Volkswagen Eos]] c. 2007, the five-segment top includes a sliding sunroof made by [[OASys (Automotive)|OASys]]
File:Opel_Astra_TwinTop_(H,_Facelift)_%E2%80%93_Heckansicht,_15._Mai_2011,_Wuppertal.jpg|[[Opel Astra]] Twintop with a three-part folding metal roof which sits in the upper half of the boot space, leaving considerable luggage space below it. Sold from 2005-2012.
File:Opel_Astra_TwinTop_(H,_Facelift)_%E2%80%93_Heckansicht,_15._Mai_2011,_Wuppertal.jpg|[[Opel Astra]] Twintop (2005-2012), three-part roof stores in the upper half of the boot for luggage space below it
</gallery>
</gallery>



Latest revision as of 11:28, 24 October 2024

A Volvo C70 with retractable hardtop

A retractable hardtop — also known as "coupé convertible" or "coupé cabriolet" — is a car with an automatically operated, self-storing hardtop, as opposed to the folding textile-based roof used by traditional convertible cars.

Improved climate control and security benefits are traded against increased mechanical complexity, cost, weight, and often reduced luggage capacity.

A 2006 New York Times article suggested the retractable hardtop might herald the demise of the textile-roofed convertible,[1] and a 2007 Wall Street Journal article suggested "more and more convertibles are eschewing soft cloth tops in favor of sophisticated folding metal roofs, making them practical in all climates, year-round."[2]

History

[edit]
1934 Lancia Belna Eclipse
1934 Peugeot 401D Coupé transformable Eclipse (Pourtout)

1922 Ben P. Ellerbeck was granted a patent (U.S. No. 1,379,906 on 31 May 1921) for a retractable hardtop roof design for cars.[3] He developed several scale models for the 1922 Automobile Body Builders Exhibition in New York City.[4] In 1922, he modified a 1919 Hudson Super Six roadster with his manually operated gear and spring "flip top" system.[3] It allowed unimpeded use of the rumble seat even with the top down.[5] The design was not put into production.[6]

1931 Georges Paulin made his idea public by applying for a patent on a detachable hard roof design that could ultimately be moved and stowed automatically in a car's rear luggage compartment, under a reverse-hinged rear-deck lid.[7]

1932 The French patent system granted Paulin patent number 733.380 for his Eclipse roof system on 5 July 1932.[7]

1934 Paulin's Eclipse retractable hard roof [1] was first presented on the Peugeot 401D Éclipse Décapotable, a low convertible coupé.[8][9] In 1933, Paulin showed his designs to premier coachbuilder Marcel Pourtout, who hired him as lead designer, and in 1934 they equipped first a Peugeot 401D, followed by a 601C, with "Eclipse" roofs and bodywork, on chassis provided by Emile Darl'mat. The same year, a Lancia Belna, a French-built Lancia Augusta, was also built as an Eclipse.[10]

Factory Peugeot 402 Eclipse Decapotable (1938)

1935 Peugeot purchased Paulin's patent, and introduced the first factory production, power-operated, retractable hardtop in 1935, the "402BL Éclipse Décapotable",[11][12] of which some 470 were built.[1] Pourtout build custom examples, designed by Paulin, on other makes including Delage and Panhard as well as the "Eclipse" coupé-convertibles based on the Peugeot 301, 401, 601, 302, and 402.[1]

1941 Chrysler Thunderbolt concept car

1941 Chrysler introduced a retractable hardtop concept car, the Chrysler Thunderbolt.[13][14]

1947 American Playboy Automobile Company marketed one of the first series produced convertibles, with a retractable roof consisting of more than one section. Ninety-seven production models were made until the company's bankruptcy in 1951.[15]

The 1948 Playboy car with its top in a closed and open configuration

1953 Ford Motor Company spent an estimated US$2 million (US$22,776,119 in 2023 dollars[16]) to engineer a Continental Mark II with a servo-operated retractable roof. The concept was rejected for cost and marketing reasons.[5] Engineering work was used by Ford for the retractable mechanism in their 1957 through 1959 flagship Ford Fairlane 500 Skyliner.

1955 Brothers Ed and Jim Gaylord showed a prototype at the 1955 Paris Motor Show, but the car failed to reach production.[17]

1956 After working for 4,000 hours and investing $100 in the whole car, Raymond P. Meyette built a one-piece power-operated hardtop convertible using a 1952 Nash Ambassador chassis.[18]

1958 Ford Fairlane 500 Skyliner with roof in mid folding action

1957 Ford introduced the Fairlane 500 Skyliner in the United States. Further development of the 1953 Continental Mark II retractable proposal cost an estimated US$18 million (US$195,270,142 in 2023 dollars[16]).[19] The Skyliner was a halo car with little luggage space and was priced double the baseline Ford sedan. A total of 48,394 were built from 1957 until 1959.[5] Its mechanism contained ten power relays, ten limit switches, four lock motors, three drive motors, eight circuit breakers, as well as 610 feet (190 m) of electrical wire.[5] It could raise or lower the top in about 40 seconds. The retractable top was noted for its complexity and usual reliability in the pre-transistor era.[20][21]

1989 Toyota introduced a retractable hardtop, the MZ20 Soarer Aerocabin. The car featured an electric folding hardtop and was marketed as a two-seater with a cargo area behind the front seats. Production was 500 units.

1995 The Mitsubishi GTO Spyder by ASC was marketed in the U.S.[6] The design was further popularized by such cars as the 1996 Mercedes-Benz SLK.[1] and 2001 Peugeot 206 CC.

2006 Peugeot presented a concept four-door retractable hardtop convertible, the Peugeot 407 Macarena.[22] Produced by French coachbuilding specialist Heuliez, the Macarena's top folded in about 30 seconds.[22] It has a reinforcing beam behind the front seats incorporating LCD screens into the crossmember for the rear passengers.[22]

Construction

[edit]
Closing of the retractable hardtop of a BMW 3-series (E93)

Retractable hardtops are commonly made from between two and five sections of metal or plastic and often rely on complex dual-hinged trunk/boot lids that enable the trunk lid to both receive the retracting top from the front and also receive parcels or luggage from the rear. The trunk also often includes a divider mechanism to prevent the loading of luggage that would conflict with the operation of the hardtop.

Variations

[edit]
  • The Volkswagen Eos features a five-segment retractable roof where one section is an independently sliding transparent sunroof.[2]
  • The Mercedes SL hardtop features a glass section that rotates during retraction to provide a more compact "stack."
  • The third-generation Mazda MX-5 was available with an optional power retractable hardtop in place of the standard folding-textile soft-top. Compared to the regular soft-top, the hardtop weighed 77 lb (35 kg) more. It did not reduce cargo capacity.[23] The hardtop roof was polycarbonate and manufactured by the German firm Webasto.[24]
  • The retractable hardtop used on the Chrysler Sebring (and its successor the Chrysler 200) was marketed alongside a soft-top. According to development engineer Dave Lauzun, the Karmann-made tops were installed into identical body designs and used the same automatic tonneau cover, luggage divider, and luggage space.[25] The retractable version featured an underbody cross-brace not included in the softtop.

Comparison with soft tops

[edit]

The retractable hardtop's advantages include:

  • More weatherly when the roof is raised
  • More secure than fabric tops[2][26]
  • Increased structural rigidity
  • May enable consolidation/simplification of a manufacturer's car lineup; for example, the BMW Z4 (E89) was offered only as a coupé-convertible (hardtop), compared to the preceding E85 generation that had separate coupé and cabriolet (soft-top) variants.

The retractable hardtop's disadvantages include:

  • Higher initial cost
  • Increased mechanical complexity
  • Potentially diminished passenger and trunk space compared to a soft-top convertible.[27][28]
  • Higher weight and center of gravity than soft-top convertibles, potentially reducing handling.[29][27][28]
  • Potential need for more than minimum clearance while operating the hardtop. For example, the Volvo C70 requires 6.5 feet (2 m) of vertical clearance during operation,[30] the Cadillac XLR requires 6 ft 10+12 in (2 m) of vertical clearance and the Mercedes SLK's trunk lid extends rearward while lowering or lifting the top.

List of retractable hardtop models

[edit]
[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e Sass, Rob (10 December 2006). "New Again: The Hideaway Hardtop". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 29 October 2015. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
  2. ^ a b c Vella, Matt (26 April 2007). "Convertibles with Hard Tops". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
  3. ^ a b Gosden, W.E. (April 1979). "The first Fliptop? Ellerbeck had a Better Idea". Special Interest Autos. pp. 20–21.
  4. ^ Creager, Reid (February 2022). "Going Like 100: the convertible celebrates a milestone birthday, all started by an uncelebrated inventor" (PDF). Inventors Digest. Vol. 38, no. 2. pp. 14–16. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
  5. ^ a b c d Nerad, Jack. "Ford Skyliner". Driving Today. Archived from the original on 21 February 2014. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  6. ^ a b "History, Revival". Retractable Hardtop Online. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
  7. ^ a b Buchanan, James. "The Story of Lancia, Paulin and John Moir". redroom.com. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  8. ^ Brierley, Brooks T. (17 June 2001). "1935 Peugeot Model 401D Eclipse: The first retractable hardtop". autoweek.com. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
  9. ^ "From the Zero to the Eclipse". Peugeot.mainspot.net. Archived from the original on 17 January 2010. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
  10. ^ "1934 Lancia Belna Eclipse by Pourtout". Retrieved 9 June 2019.
  11. ^ "Disappearing Top On Auto Worked By Push Button". Popular Mechanics. Vol. 63, no. 2. February 1935. p. 253. Retrieved 14 August 2013.
  12. ^ "Latest Foreign Auto Has Disappearing Top". Popular Mechanics. Vol. 65, no. 1. January 1936. p. 53. Retrieved 14 August 2013.
  13. ^ Auto Editors of Consumer Guide (29 November 2007). "1941 Chrysler Thunderbolt Roadster". auto.howstuffworks.com. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  14. ^ "Vanderbilt Cup Races - Blog - Mystery Friday Foto #4 Solved: The 1941 Chrysler Thunderbolt concept car with links to Tucker 1044 and 1937 Chrysler's Chrysler". vanderbiltcupraces.com. 30 January 2023. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  15. ^ Radu, Vlad (6 June 2022). "Remembering the Playboy, America's First Production Convertible With a Retractable Hardtop". autoevolution. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  16. ^ a b 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved 29 February 2024.
  17. ^ Auto Editors of Consumer Guide (13 November 2007). "1950 Gaylord concept cars". auto.howstuffworks.com. Archived from the original on 17 January 2021. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  18. ^ Sand, George X. (December 1956). "They told him it could not be built - so he built it himself: A Hardtop Convertible". Popular Mechanics. Vol. 106, no. 6. pp. 138–139. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  19. ^ Severson, Aaron (26 April 2009). "Raising the Roof: The Ford Skyliner 'Retrac'". Ate Up With Motor. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
  20. ^ Willson, Quentin (1995). The Ultimate Classic Car Book. DK Publishing. ISBN 0-7894-0159-2.
  21. ^ Auto Editors of Consumer Guide (20 July 2007). "1957-1959 Ford Fairlane 500 Skyliner". auto.howstuffworks.com. Retrieved 14 August 2013.
  22. ^ a b c "¡Hey, Macarena! Heuliez Creates an Open-Top Peugeot 407". Edmunds. 28 January 2006. Archived from the original on 19 December 2006.
  23. ^ a b Vaughn, Mark (10 September 2006). "2007 Mazda MX-5 Miata Power Retractable Hardtop". autoweek.com. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
  24. ^ "2007 Mazda MX-5 Miata Hardtop". Car and Driver. 1 September 2006. Retrieved 28 June 2018.
  25. ^ Lauzun, Dave. "2008 Chrysler Sebring Convertible". Autonetwork.com. Archived from the original on 21 December 2021. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
  26. ^ "Great Drive: Luxury Hardtop Convertible Comparison". Automobile. August 2009. Retrieved 14 August 2013.
  27. ^ a b St. Antoine, Arthur (May 2010). "Luxury Convertible Comparison: 2010 Audi A5 vs 2010 BMW 335i vs 2009 Infiniti G37 vs 2010 Lexus IS 350". Motor Trend. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
  28. ^ a b Swan, Tony (June 2007). "2007 VW Eos vs. Audi A4, BMW 328i, Volvo C70, Saab 9-3 – Comparison Tests". caranddriver.com. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
  29. ^ Swan, Tony (March 2010). "2010 Audi A5 2.0T Quattro vs. 2010 BMW 328i, 2009 Infiniti G37, 2010 Lexus IS350C – Comparison Tests". Car and Driver. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
  30. ^ "2007 Volvo C70". volvocars.com, C70 owner documentation, Page 93. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
  31. ^ Keebler, Jack (August 2002). "2004 Cadillac XLR". Motor Trend. Retrieved 6 March 2011.