Pancreatic pseudocyst: Difference between revisions
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| differential = [[Intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm]] |
| differential = [[Intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm]] |
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| prevention = |
| prevention = |
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| treatment = Cystogastrostomy<ref name=cyto/> |
| treatment = [[Cystogastrostomy]]<ref name=cyto/> |
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| medication = |
| medication = |
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| prognosis = |
| prognosis = |
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A '''pancreatic pseudocyst''' is a circumscribed collection of fluid rich in [[Digestive enzymes#Pancreatic enzymes|pancreatic enzymes]], [[blood]], and [[necrotic tissue]], typically located in the [[lesser sac]] of the abdomen. Pancreatic [[pseudocysts]] are usually complications of [[pancreatitis]],<ref name="pmid19115466">{{cite journal |vauthors=Habashi S, Draganov PV |title=Pancreatic pseudocyst |journal=World J. Gastroenterol. |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=38–47 |date=January 2009 |pmid=19115466 |pmc=2653285 |doi=10.3748/wjg.15.38 | |
A '''pancreatic pseudocyst''' is a circumscribed collection of fluid rich in [[Digestive enzymes#Pancreatic enzymes|pancreatic enzymes]], [[blood]], and [[non-necrotic tissue]], typically located in the [[lesser sac]] of the abdomen. Pancreatic [[pseudocysts]] are usually complications of [[pancreatitis]],<ref name="pmid19115466">{{cite journal |vauthors=Habashi S, Draganov PV |title=Pancreatic pseudocyst |journal=World J. Gastroenterol. |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=38–47 |date=January 2009 |pmid=19115466 |pmc=2653285 |doi=10.3748/wjg.15.38 |doi-access=free }}</ref> although in children they frequently occur following abdominal [[physical trauma|trauma]]. Pancreatic pseudocysts account for approximately 75% of all pancreatic masses.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Pancreas: An Integrated Textbook of Basic Science, Medicine, and Surgery|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CGhTz-I3S1gC&q=Pancreatic%2520pseudocysts%2520account%2520for%2520approximately%252075%2525%2520of%2520all%2520pancreatic%2520masses.&pg=PA496|publisher = John Wiley & Sons|date = 2009-01-26|isbn = 9781444300130|first1 = Hans G.|last1 = Beger|first2 = Markus|last2 = Buchler|first3 = Richard|last3 = Kozarek|first4 = Markus|last4 = Lerch|first5 = John P.|last5 = Neoptolemos|first6 = Andrew|last6 = Warshaw|first7 = David|last7 = Whitcomb|first8 = Keiko|last8 = Shiratori}}</ref> |
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==Signs and symptoms== |
==Signs and symptoms== |
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Signs and symptoms of pancreatic pseudocyst include abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, vomiting and lack of appetite.<ref name="web">{{Cite web|title = Pancreatic pseudocyst: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia|url = https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000272.htm|website = www.nlm.nih.gov| |
Signs and symptoms of pancreatic pseudocyst include abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, vomiting and lack of appetite.<ref name="web">{{Cite web|title = Pancreatic pseudocyst: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia|url = https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000272.htm|website = www.nlm.nih.gov|access-date = 2015-08-10}}</ref> |
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===Complications=== |
===Complications=== |
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Complications of pancreatic pseudocysts include [[infection]], [[hemorrhage]], obstruction and rupture. For obstruction, it can cause compression in the [[GI tract]] from the stomach to [[Large intestine|colon]], |
Complications of pancreatic pseudocysts include [[infection]], [[hemorrhage]], obstruction of nearby hollow structures, and rupture. For obstruction, it can cause compression in the [[GI tract]] (from the stomach to the [[Large intestine|colon]]), [[urinary system]], [[biliary system]], and arteriovenous system.{{medical citation needed|date=August 2015}} |
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==Causes== |
==Causes== |
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==Pathophysiology== |
==Pathophysiology== |
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Pancreatic pseudocysts are sometimes called false [[cysts]] because they do not have an [[epithelial]] lining. The wall of the pseudocyst is vascular and fibrotic, encapsulated in the area around the pancreas. Pancreatitis or [[abdominal]] trauma can cause its formation.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Medical surgical nursing|last = Ignatavicius|first = Donna|publisher = Elsevier|year = 2016|isbn = 978-1-4557-7255-1|pages = 1226}}</ref> Treatment usually depends on the mechanism that brought about the pseudocyst. Pseudocysts take up to 6 weeks to completely form.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Master techniques in Surgery|last = |
Pancreatic pseudocysts are sometimes called false [[cysts]] because they do not have an [[epithelial]] lining. The wall of the pseudocyst is vascular and fibrotic, encapsulated in the area around the pancreas. Pancreatitis or [[abdominal]] trauma can cause its formation.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Medical surgical nursing|last = Ignatavicius|first = Donna|publisher = Elsevier|year = 2016|isbn = 978-1-4557-7255-1|pages = 1226}}</ref> Treatment usually depends on the mechanism that brought about the pseudocyst. Pseudocysts take up to 6 weeks to completely form.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Master techniques in Surgery|last = Lillemoe|first = Keith|publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|year = 2013|isbn = 978-1-60831-172-9|pages = 147}}</ref> |
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==Diagnosis== |
==Diagnosis== |
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[[File:UPMCEast CTscan.jpg|thumb|CT scan]] |
[[File:UPMCEast CTscan.jpg|thumb|CT scan]] |
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Diagnosis of |
Diagnosis of pancreatic pseudocyst can be based on cyst fluid analysis:<ref name="diag">{{Cite web |date=2023-06-13 |title=Pancreatic Pseudocysts: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology |url=https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/184237-overview |access-date=2024-08-17}}</ref> |
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* [[Carcinoembryonic antigen]] (CEA) and CA-125 (low in pseudocysts and elevated in tumors); |
* [[Carcinoembryonic antigen]] (CEA) and CA-125 (low in pseudocysts and elevated in tumors); |
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* Fluid viscosity (low in pseudocysts and elevated in tumors); |
* Fluid viscosity (low in pseudocysts and elevated in tumors); |
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* [[Ultrasonography]]<ref name="pmid18333098">{{cite journal |vauthors=Aghdassi AA, Mayerle J, Kraft M, Sielenkämper AW, Heidecke CD, Lerch MM |title=Pancreatic pseudocysts - when and how to treat? |journal=HPB (Oxford) |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=432–41 |year=2006 |pmid=18333098 |pmc=2020756 |doi=10.1080/13651820600748012 }}</ref> – the role of ultrasonography in imaging the pancreas is limited by patient habitus, operator experience and the fact that the pancreas lies behind the stomach (and so a gas-filled stomach will obscure the pancreas). |
* [[Ultrasonography]]<ref name="pmid18333098">{{cite journal |vauthors=Aghdassi AA, Mayerle J, Kraft M, Sielenkämper AW, Heidecke CD, Lerch MM |title=Pancreatic pseudocysts - when and how to treat? |journal=HPB (Oxford) |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=432–41 |year=2006 |pmid=18333098 |pmc=2020756 |doi=10.1080/13651820600748012 }}</ref> – the role of ultrasonography in imaging the pancreas is limited by patient habitus, operator experience and the fact that the pancreas lies behind the stomach (and so a gas-filled stomach will obscure the pancreas). |
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* [[Computerized tomography]]<ref name="pmid18376299">{{cite journal |vauthors=Aghdassi A, Mayerle J, Kraft M, Sielenkämper AW, Heidecke CD, Lerch MM |title=Diagnosis and treatment of pancreatic pseudocysts in chronic pancreatitis |journal=Pancreas |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=105–12 |date=March 2008 |pmid=18376299 |doi=10.1097/MPA.0b013e31815a8887 |s2cid=1964674 }}</ref> – this is the gold standard for initial assessment and follow-up. |
* [[Computerized tomography]]<ref name="pmid18376299">{{cite journal |vauthors=Aghdassi A, Mayerle J, Kraft M, Sielenkämper AW, Heidecke CD, Lerch MM |title=Diagnosis and treatment of pancreatic pseudocysts in chronic pancreatitis |journal=Pancreas |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=105–12 |date=March 2008 |pmid=18376299 |doi=10.1097/MPA.0b013e31815a8887 |s2cid=1964674 }}</ref> – this is the gold standard for initial assessment and follow-up. |
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* [[Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography]] (MRCP) – to establish the relationship of the pseudocyst to the pancreatic ducts, though not routinely used<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Pancreatic Pseudocyst: Therapeutic Dilemma|journal = International Journal of Inflammation|volume = 2012|pages = 1–7|doi = 10.1155/2012/279476|pmid = 22577595|pmc = 3345229|year = 2012|last1 = Khanna|first1 = A. K.|last2 = Tiwary|first2 = Satyendra K.|last3 = Kumar|first3 = Puneet}}</ref> |
* [[Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography]] (MRCP) – to establish the relationship of the pseudocyst to the pancreatic ducts, though not routinely used<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Pancreatic Pseudocyst: Therapeutic Dilemma|journal = International Journal of Inflammation|volume = 2012|pages = 1–7|doi = 10.1155/2012/279476|pmid = 22577595|pmc = 3345229|year = 2012|last1 = Khanna|first1 = A. K.|last2 = Tiwary|first2 = Satyendra K.|last3 = Kumar|first3 = Puneet|doi-access = free}}</ref> |
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==Treatment== |
==Treatment== |
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[[File:Tpn 3bag.jpg|thumb|150 px|TPN formula]] |
[[File:Tpn 3bag.jpg|thumb|150 px|TPN formula]] |
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Pancreatic pseudocyst treatment should be aimed at avoiding any complication (1 in 10 cases become infected). They also tend to rupture, and have shown that larger cysts have a higher likelihood to become more symptomatic, even needing surgery.<ref>{{Cite web|url =https://eMedicine.Medscape.com/article/184237-treament|title = Pancreatic pseudocyst Treatment| |
Pancreatic pseudocyst treatment should be aimed at avoiding any complication (1 in 10 cases become infected). They also tend to rupture, and have shown that larger cysts have a higher likelihood to become more symptomatic, even needing surgery.<ref>{{Cite web|url =https://eMedicine.Medscape.com/article/184237-treament|title = Pancreatic pseudocyst Treatment|access-date = August 11, 2015|website = Medscape.com|publisher = eMedicine}}</ref> If no signs of [[infection]] are present, initial treatment may include conservative measures such as bowel rest ([[Nil per os|NPO]]), parenteral nutrition ([[Total parenteral nutrition|TPN]]), and observation. If symptoms do not improve, then endoscopic drainage may be necessary. The majority of pseudocysts can be treated endoscopically; surgical intervention is rarely necessary.<ref name=Elta>{{cite journal |last1=Elta |first1=GH |last2=Enestvedt |first2=BK |last3=Sauer |first3=BG |last4=Lennon |first4=AM |title=ACG Clinical Guideline: Diagnosis and Management of Pancreatic Cysts. |journal=The American Journal of Gastroenterology |date=April 2018 |volume=113 |issue=4 |pages=464–479 |doi=10.1038/ajg.2018.14 |pmid=29485131|s2cid=3584079 }}</ref> |
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In the event of surgery: |
In the event of surgery: |
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* [[Cystogastrostomy]]: In this surgical procedure a connection is created between the back wall of the stomach and the cyst such that the cyst drains into the stomach.<ref name="cyto">{{ |
* [[Cystogastrostomy]]: In this surgical procedure a connection is created between the back wall of the stomach and the cyst such that the cyst drains into the stomach.<ref name="cyto">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QlfEX9-eZocC&q=cystogastrostomy&pg=PA136 |title=Operative strategies in laparoscopic surgery |last1=Rosenthal |first1=Raul J. |date=1995 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-540-59214-3 |editor-last=Phillips |editor-first=Edward H. |location=Berlin Heidelberg |page=136 |language=en |access-date=26 November 2017}}</ref> |
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* Cystojejunostomy: In this procedure a connection is created between the cyst and the [[small intestine]] so that the cyst fluid directly into the small intestine.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Operative Techniques in Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary Surgery|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=I-aoBwAAQBAJ&q=Cyst%2520Jejunostomy%2520drained%2520cyst%2520into%2520the%2520small%2520intestine&pg=PT1032|publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|date = 2015-03-26|isbn = 9781496319067|first = Steven|last = Hughes}}</ref> |
* Cystojejunostomy: In this procedure a connection is created between the cyst and the [[small intestine]] so that the cyst fluid directly into the small intestine.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Operative Techniques in Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary Surgery|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=I-aoBwAAQBAJ&q=Cyst%2520Jejunostomy%2520drained%2520cyst%2520into%2520the%2520small%2520intestine&pg=PT1032|publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|date = 2015-03-26|isbn = 9781496319067|first = Steven|last = Hughes}}</ref> |
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* |
* Cystoduodenostomy: In this procedure a connection is created between the [[duodenum]] (the first part of the intestine) and the cyst to allow drainage of the cyst content into duodenum.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Surgical Anatomy and Technique: A Pocket Manual|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=l6u8BAAAQBAJ&q=cystoduodenostomy&pg=PA401|publisher = Springer Science & Business Media|date = 2013-11-08|isbn = 9781461485636|first1 = Lee J.|last1 = Skandalakis|first2 = John E.|last2 = Skandalakis}}</ref> The type of surgical procedure depends on the location of the cyst. For pseudocysts that occur in the head of the pancreas a cystoduodenostomy is usually performed.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Scott-Conner & Dawson: Essential Operative Techniques and Anatomy|last = Scott-Conner|first = Carol|publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|year = 2009|isbn = 978-1-4511-5172-5|pages = 455}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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==Further reading== |
==Further reading== |
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* {{Cite book|title = The Pancreas: An Integrated Textbook of Basic Science, Medicine, and Surgery|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CGhTz-I3S1gC&q=what%2520causes%2520pancreatic%2520pseudocyst&pg=PA323|publisher = John Wiley & Sons|date = 2009-01-26|isbn = 9781444300130|first1 = Hans G.|last1 = Beger|first2 = Markus|last2 = Buchler|first3 = Richard|last3 = Kozarek|first4 = Markus|last4 = Lerch|first5 = John P.|last5 = Neoptolemos|first6 = Andrew|last6 = Warshaw|first7 = David|last7 = Whitcomb|first8 = Keiko|last8 = Shiratori}} |
* {{Cite book|title = The Pancreas: An Integrated Textbook of Basic Science, Medicine, and Surgery|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CGhTz-I3S1gC&q=what%2520causes%2520pancreatic%2520pseudocyst&pg=PA323|publisher = John Wiley & Sons|date = 2009-01-26|isbn = 9781444300130|first1 = Hans G.|last1 = Beger|first2 = Markus|last2 = Buchler|first3 = Richard|last3 = Kozarek|first4 = Markus|last4 = Lerch|first5 = John P.|last5 = Neoptolemos|first6 = Andrew|last6 = Warshaw|first7 = David|last7 = Whitcomb|first8 = Keiko|last8 = Shiratori}} |
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* {{cite journal|last1=Habashi|first1=Samir|last2=Draganov|first2=Peter V|title=Pancreatic pseudocyst|journal=World Journal of Gastroenterology|date=2009|volume=15|issue=1|pages=38–47|doi=10.3748/wjg.15.38|issn=1007-9327|pmid=19115466|pmc=2653285}} |
* {{cite journal|last1=Habashi|first1=Samir|last2=Draganov|first2=Peter V|title=Pancreatic pseudocyst|journal=World Journal of Gastroenterology|date=2009|volume=15|issue=1|pages=38–47|doi=10.3748/wjg.15.38|issn=1007-9327|pmid=19115466|pmc=2653285 |doi-access=free }} |
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* {{cite journal|last1=Braden|first1=Barbara|last2=Dietrich|first2=Christoph F|title=Endoscopic ultrasonography-guided endoscopic treatment of pancreatic pseudocysts and walled-off necrosis: New technical developments|journal=World Journal of Gastroenterology|date=2014|volume=20|issue=43|pages=16191–6|doi=10.3748/wjg.v20.i43.16191|issn=2219-2840|pmid=25473173|pmc=4239507}} |
* {{cite journal|last1=Braden|first1=Barbara|last2=Dietrich|first2=Christoph F|title=Endoscopic ultrasonography-guided endoscopic treatment of pancreatic pseudocysts and walled-off necrosis: New technical developments|journal=World Journal of Gastroenterology|date=2014|volume=20|issue=43|pages=16191–6|doi=10.3748/wjg.v20.i43.16191|issn=2219-2840|pmid=25473173|pmc=4239507 |doi-access=free }} |
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== External links == |
== External links == |
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{{Medical resources |
{{Medical resources |
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| ICD10 = {{ICD10|K|86|3|k|80}} |
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|K|86|3|k|80}} |
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| ICD9 = {{ICD9|577.2}} |
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|577.2}} |
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| DiseasesDB = 9530 |
| DiseasesDB = 9530 |
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| ICDO = |
| ICDO = |
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| OMIM = |
| OMIM = |
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| MedlinePlus = 000272 |
| MedlinePlus = 000272 |
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| eMedicineSubj = med |
| eMedicineSubj = med |
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| eMedicineTopic = 2674 |
| eMedicineTopic = 2674 |
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| eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|radio|576}} |
| eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|radio|576}} |
||
| MeshID = D010192 |
| MeshID = D010192 |
||
}} |
}} |
Latest revision as of 19:33, 24 October 2024
Pancreatic pseudocyst | |
---|---|
A pancreatic pseudocyst as seen on CT | |
Specialty | Gastroenterology |
Symptoms | Abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, vomiting and lack of appetite[1] |
Complications | Infection, hemorrhage, obstruction |
Causes | Pancreatitis (chronic), Pancreatic neoplasm [2] |
Diagnostic method | Cyst fluid analysis[3] |
Differential diagnosis | Intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm |
Treatment | Cystogastrostomy[4] |
A pancreatic pseudocyst is a circumscribed collection of fluid rich in pancreatic enzymes, blood, and non-necrotic tissue, typically located in the lesser sac of the abdomen. Pancreatic pseudocysts are usually complications of pancreatitis,[5] although in children they frequently occur following abdominal trauma. Pancreatic pseudocysts account for approximately 75% of all pancreatic masses.[6]
Signs and symptoms
[edit]Signs and symptoms of pancreatic pseudocyst include abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, vomiting and lack of appetite.[1]
Complications
[edit]Complications of pancreatic pseudocysts include infection, hemorrhage, obstruction of nearby hollow structures, and rupture. For obstruction, it can cause compression in the GI tract (from the stomach to the colon), urinary system, biliary system, and arteriovenous system.[medical citation needed]
Causes
[edit]Pancreatic pseudocyst can occur due to a variety of reasons, among them pancreatitis (chronic), pancreatic neoplasm and/or pancreatic trauma.[2]
Pathophysiology
[edit]Pancreatic pseudocysts are sometimes called false cysts because they do not have an epithelial lining. The wall of the pseudocyst is vascular and fibrotic, encapsulated in the area around the pancreas. Pancreatitis or abdominal trauma can cause its formation.[7] Treatment usually depends on the mechanism that brought about the pseudocyst. Pseudocysts take up to 6 weeks to completely form.[8]
Diagnosis
[edit]Diagnosis of pancreatic pseudocyst can be based on cyst fluid analysis:[3]
- Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) and CA-125 (low in pseudocysts and elevated in tumors);
- Fluid viscosity (low in pseudocysts and elevated in tumors);
- Amylase (usually high in pseudocysts and low in tumors)
The most useful imaging tools are:
- Ultrasonography[9] – the role of ultrasonography in imaging the pancreas is limited by patient habitus, operator experience and the fact that the pancreas lies behind the stomach (and so a gas-filled stomach will obscure the pancreas).
- Computerized tomography[10] – this is the gold standard for initial assessment and follow-up.
- Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) – to establish the relationship of the pseudocyst to the pancreatic ducts, though not routinely used[11]
Treatment
[edit]Pancreatic pseudocyst treatment should be aimed at avoiding any complication (1 in 10 cases become infected). They also tend to rupture, and have shown that larger cysts have a higher likelihood to become more symptomatic, even needing surgery.[12] If no signs of infection are present, initial treatment may include conservative measures such as bowel rest (NPO), parenteral nutrition (TPN), and observation. If symptoms do not improve, then endoscopic drainage may be necessary. The majority of pseudocysts can be treated endoscopically; surgical intervention is rarely necessary.[13]
In the event of surgery:
- Cystogastrostomy: In this surgical procedure a connection is created between the back wall of the stomach and the cyst such that the cyst drains into the stomach.[4]
- Cystojejunostomy: In this procedure a connection is created between the cyst and the small intestine so that the cyst fluid directly into the small intestine.[14]
- Cystoduodenostomy: In this procedure a connection is created between the duodenum (the first part of the intestine) and the cyst to allow drainage of the cyst content into duodenum.[15] The type of surgical procedure depends on the location of the cyst. For pseudocysts that occur in the head of the pancreas a cystoduodenostomy is usually performed.[16]
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ a b "Pancreatic pseudocyst: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". www.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2015-08-10.
- ^ a b Atluri, Pavan (2005-01-01). The Surgical Review: An Integrated Basic and Clinical Science Study Guide. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 9780781756419.
- ^ a b "Pancreatic Pseudocysts: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology". 2023-06-13. Retrieved 2024-08-17.
- ^ a b Rosenthal, Raul J. (1995). Phillips, Edward H. (ed.). Operative strategies in laparoscopic surgery. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer. p. 136. ISBN 978-3-540-59214-3. Retrieved 26 November 2017.
- ^ Habashi S, Draganov PV (January 2009). "Pancreatic pseudocyst". World J. Gastroenterol. 15 (1): 38–47. doi:10.3748/wjg.15.38. PMC 2653285. PMID 19115466.
- ^ Beger, Hans G.; Buchler, Markus; Kozarek, Richard; Lerch, Markus; Neoptolemos, John P.; Warshaw, Andrew; Whitcomb, David; Shiratori, Keiko (2009-01-26). The Pancreas: An Integrated Textbook of Basic Science, Medicine, and Surgery. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444300130.
- ^ Ignatavicius, Donna (2016). Medical surgical nursing. Elsevier. p. 1226. ISBN 978-1-4557-7255-1.
- ^ Lillemoe, Keith (2013). Master techniques in Surgery. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 147. ISBN 978-1-60831-172-9.
- ^ Aghdassi AA, Mayerle J, Kraft M, Sielenkämper AW, Heidecke CD, Lerch MM (2006). "Pancreatic pseudocysts - when and how to treat?". HPB (Oxford). 8 (6): 432–41. doi:10.1080/13651820600748012. PMC 2020756. PMID 18333098.
- ^ Aghdassi A, Mayerle J, Kraft M, Sielenkämper AW, Heidecke CD, Lerch MM (March 2008). "Diagnosis and treatment of pancreatic pseudocysts in chronic pancreatitis". Pancreas. 36 (2): 105–12. doi:10.1097/MPA.0b013e31815a8887. PMID 18376299. S2CID 1964674.
- ^ Khanna, A. K.; Tiwary, Satyendra K.; Kumar, Puneet (2012). "Pancreatic Pseudocyst: Therapeutic Dilemma". International Journal of Inflammation. 2012: 1–7. doi:10.1155/2012/279476. PMC 3345229. PMID 22577595.
- ^ "Pancreatic pseudocyst Treatment". Medscape.com. eMedicine. Retrieved August 11, 2015.
- ^ Elta, GH; Enestvedt, BK; Sauer, BG; Lennon, AM (April 2018). "ACG Clinical Guideline: Diagnosis and Management of Pancreatic Cysts". The American Journal of Gastroenterology. 113 (4): 464–479. doi:10.1038/ajg.2018.14. PMID 29485131. S2CID 3584079.
- ^ Hughes, Steven (2015-03-26). Operative Techniques in Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary Surgery. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 9781496319067.
- ^ Skandalakis, Lee J.; Skandalakis, John E. (2013-11-08). Surgical Anatomy and Technique: A Pocket Manual. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9781461485636.
- ^ Scott-Conner, Carol (2009). Scott-Conner & Dawson: Essential Operative Techniques and Anatomy. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 455. ISBN 978-1-4511-5172-5.
Further reading
[edit]- Beger, Hans G.; Buchler, Markus; Kozarek, Richard; Lerch, Markus; Neoptolemos, John P.; Warshaw, Andrew; Whitcomb, David; Shiratori, Keiko (2009-01-26). The Pancreas: An Integrated Textbook of Basic Science, Medicine, and Surgery. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444300130.
- Habashi, Samir; Draganov, Peter V (2009). "Pancreatic pseudocyst". World Journal of Gastroenterology. 15 (1): 38–47. doi:10.3748/wjg.15.38. ISSN 1007-9327. PMC 2653285. PMID 19115466.
- Braden, Barbara; Dietrich, Christoph F (2014). "Endoscopic ultrasonography-guided endoscopic treatment of pancreatic pseudocysts and walled-off necrosis: New technical developments". World Journal of Gastroenterology. 20 (43): 16191–6. doi:10.3748/wjg.v20.i43.16191. ISSN 2219-2840. PMC 4239507. PMID 25473173.