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The saif (Arabic: سيف), sometimes called a shamshir (from Persian: شمشیر), depending on the era, originated in Arabia before the 7th century. Little is known about this weapon besides what Al-Kindi wrote in his treatise On Swords in the 9th century.

Description

In the article "Introduction to the Study of Islamic Arms and Armour", A. Rahman Zaky says the saif is "[a]n Arab sword, [with] a rather broad blade and sometimes with a peculiarly hooked pommel. The size varies greatly. It is found in most countries in which the Arabs have lived, and each has its own variety. Early Arab chroniclers used to mention two kinds of swords: Saif Anith, which was made of iron, and Saif Fulath or Muzakka, which was made of steel."^[2]

Etymology

Saif is an Arab word for swords in general, not a certain type. The term xiphos, Greek for a double-edged straight sword, may be related to saif.

Anatomy

The handle is the miqbad; the pommel, halq; and the quillon, haris. The blade is composed of the false edge and the true edge, which are known as the zafiya or hafat zafiya and the haqiqia, respectively. The sword's point is referred to as the nuqtat. Some Arab swords may contain a fuller, which is called an 'akmal, but others do not. Therefore the area where the fuller would be is completely flat.

History

The production of the Arab sword has four distinct periods: Pre-Islamic (ancient swords before the 7th century), Early Islamic (old swords 7th to 8th centuries), Islamic Golden Age (swords of the 9th to early-13th centuries) and the Abandonment (late swords of the late-13th to 16th centuries). Most information on Arab swords come from literature.

Pre-Islamic

Prior to the rise of Islam in the 630s, the settled communities in the Arabian peninsula developed into distinctive civilizations, and are limited to archaeological evidence. Accounts written outside of Arabia and Arab oral traditions were later recorded by Islamic scholars. Among the most prominent civilizations were the Dilmun which arose around the end of the fourth millennium BC and lasted to about 600 AD and the Thamud which arose around 3000 BC^{[citation needed]} and lasted to about 300 AD. Additionally, from the beginning of the first millennium BC, Southern Arabia was the home to a number of kingdoms such as the Sabaeans and the coastal areas of Eastern Arabia were controlled by the Iranian Parthians and Sassanians from 300BC. The Arabs of the peninsula, thus, had their own local system of warfare, that was not of big armies, but of small battles and skirmishes among tribes.^[3]

Early Islamic

Swords in Mu'tah, called Mashrafiya swords, were so highly regarded, that Muhammad ordered in 629 a raid on the city to capture them.^[4] In the case of other captured weapons we can be less sure about where they were produced. This is true of the weapons taken from the Jewish tribe known as the Banu Qaynuqa. In his sira Muhammad's biographer Ibn Ishaq, recounts that during Muhammad's life-time this tribe was noted as arms manufacturers, or as possessing large stocks of arms in Medina; it is possible that some of their arms were produced there.^[5]

Islamic Golden Age

By the years of the Islamic golden age, the sabers and double-edged swords of the Middle East co-existed.

Abandonment

In the later years of the Arab sword, of the seven listed places by Al-Kindi where it was manufactured, four remained by the later half of the 13th century. With Khorasan and Damascus razed by the Mongols and Byzantium conquered by the Crusaders in the Fourth Crusade, the Arab sword took a strong decline. Its final end came in the 16th century, when the Ottomans seized Egypt in 1517 and Yemen in 1552–60 with the scimitar, the shamshir, and the kilij, thus marking the end of the Arab sword. Neither the Mongols, Crusaders nor Ottomans had shown an interest in the Arab sword. These groups had their own traditions, and thus displaced it. The last two places, Sri Lanka and Kedah, had slowly grown influenced by neighboring traditions and thus ceased to make it altogether.

In c. 1350, Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya wrote a treatise on Arab arms called "Al-Furusiyya".^[6] In this text, he proclaims that aside from horsemanship, lance, and archery, swordsmanship was a fourth discipline of Furusiyya.^[7]

Manufacturing

Al-Kindi lists seven places from which Arab swords were forged. Starting with the best; Yemen, Khorasan, Damascus, Egypt, Rum (meaning Byzantium), Sri Lanka and Qalah (possibly Kedah).

Use

During the early Islamic years, the Arabs sheathed their weapons in baldrics. The use of sword and baldric was consciously abandoned by the Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil (847–861) in favor of the saber and belt. But the use of sword and baldric seems to have retained a ceremonial and religious significance. For example, the Zangid ruler Nur ad-Din (1146–74) was anxious to demonstrate that he was a pious traditionalist, searching out the old methods preferred by Muhammad. Consequently, among his reforms he re-adopted the custom of wearing a sword suspended from a baldric. His successor Salah ad-Din (1138–1193), known in the west as Saladin, did the same and it is noteworthy that he was buried with his sword, "he took it with him to Paradise."^[8]

According to David Nicolle, the Arab sword was used mainly for cutting.^[9] He cites Usama ibn Munqidh's memoir as evidence, that when Usama was being attacked by a Hashshashin, Usama struck the assassin down.^[10] Other stories by Usama add credence to David Nicolle's theory.

During the Mamluk period the saber seems to have been the preferred weapon of the warrior elite but the most finely decorated edged weapons were swords. Swords were used in the most important ceremonial events in the Mamluk period, that is, in the investiture of Mamluk sultans and caliphs of the restored Abbasid dynasty where the ruler was "girded" with the "Bedouin sword" saif badawi. There are no surviving descriptions of such swords but it can be suggested as a hypothesis that the exquisitely decorated Mamluk sword blades now preserved in Istanbul are in fact saif badawi.^[11]

References

^ "Sword of Umar". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2022-06-09.
^ Zaky 1961, p. 21.
^ Zaky 1965, p. 107.
^ Alexander 2001, p. 200.
^ Alexander 2001, p. 200.
^ ed. Nizam al-Din al-Fatih, Madinah al Munawara: Maktaba Dar al-Turath, 1990.
^ "Arab epic heroes and horses". Halle an der Saale: 29. Deutscher Orientalistentag. Archived from the original on July 18, 2011. Furusiyya covers four disciplines: the tactics of attack and withdrawal (al-karr wa-l-farr); archery; jousts with spears; duels with swords. [...] Only the Muslim conquerors and the knights of the faith have fully mastered these four arts.
^ Alexander 2001, pp. 204–205.
^ Nicolle 1994, pp. 13–14.
^ Cobb 2008, p. 129.
^ Alexander 2001, pp. 204–205.

Bibliography

Alexander, David (2001). Swords and Sabers during the Early Islamic Period. Gladius XXI. http://gladius.revistas.csic.es/index.php/gladius/article/viewFile/86/86
Cobb, Paul M. (2008). The Book of Contemplation: Islam and the Crusades (Penguin Classics). Penguin Classics. ISBN 0140455132.
Hitti, Phillip K. (2000). An Arab-Syrian Gentleman and Warrior in the Period of the Crusades. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231121253.
Hoyland, Robert G. (2006). Medieval Islamic Swords and Swordmaking. Gibb Memorial Trust. ISBN 0906094526.
Nicolle, David (1994). Saracen Faris AD 1050-1250. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85532-453-4.
Scanlon, George T. (1961). A Muslim Manual of War. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 978-1-61797-111-2.
Zaky, A. Rahman (1965). A Preliminary Bibliography of Medieval Arabic Military Literature. Gladius IV. http://gladius.revistas.csic.es/index.php/gladius/article/viewFile/191/193
Zaky, A. Rahman (1961). Introduction to the Study of Islamic Swords and Armour. Gladius I. http://gladius.revistas.csic.es/index.php/gladius/article/viewFile/211/213

External links

Media related to Sabres at Wikimedia Commons

[1] "Sword of Umar". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2022-06-09.

[2] Zaky 1961, p. 21.

[3] Zaky 1965, p. 107.

[4] Alexander 2001, p. 200.

[5] Alexander 2001, p. 200.

[6] . Nizam al-Din al-Fatih, Madinah al Munawara: Maktaba Dar al-Turath, 1990.

[7] "Arab epic heroes and horses". Halle an der Saale: 29. Deutscher Orientalistentag. Archived from the original on July 18, 2011. Furusiyya covers four disciplines: the tactics of attack and withdrawal (al-karr wa-l-farr); archery; jousts with spears; duels with swords. [...] Only the Muslim conquerors and the knights of the faith have fully mastered these four arts.

[8] Alexander 2001, pp. 204–205.

[9] Nicolle 1994, pp. 13–14.

[10] Cobb 2008, p. 129.

[11] Alexander 2001, pp. 204–205.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Short description|Weapon from  The Arabian Peninsula}}
-[[File:Sword_of_Umar_ibn_al-Khittab-mohammad_adil_rais.JPG|thumb|Sword of [[Caliph Umar]]{{cn}}]]
+[[File:Sword_of_Umar_ibn_al-Khittab-mohammad_adil_rais.JPG|thumb|Sword of [[Caliph Umar]], found in Topkapi Museum, Istanbul, Turkey<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sword of Umar |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11670/sword-of-umar/ |access-date=2022-06-09 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref>]]
-The '''Saif''' ({{lang-ar|سيف}}), sometimes simply called '''Arabian sword''', has its origins in [[Arabia]] prior to the 7th century. Not much is known about this particular weapon, other than what [[Al-Kindi]] wrote in his treatise ''On Swords'' in the 9th century.
+The '''saif''' ({{langx|ar|سيف}}), sometimes  called a '''shamshir''' (from {{langx|fa|شمشیر}}), depending on the era, originated in [[Arabia]] before the 7th century. Little is known about this weapon besides what [[Al-Kindi]] wrote in his treatise ''On Swords'' in the 9th century.
 ==Description==
-In the article, "Introduction to the Study of Islamic Arms and Armour" by Dr. A. Rahman Zaky, he writes about the Saif as "An Arab sword, [with] a rather broad-blade and sometimes with a peculiarly hooked pommel. The size varies greatly. It is found in most countries in which the Arabs have lived, and each has its own variety. Early Arab chroniclers used to mention two kinds of swords: '''Saif Anith''', which was made of iron, and '''Saif Fulath''' or '''Muzakka''', which was made of steel."<ref>Zaky 1961, pp. 21</ref>
+In the article "Introduction to the Study of Islamic Arms and Armour", A. Rahman Zaky says the saif is "[a]n Arab sword, [with] a rather broad blade and sometimes with a peculiarly hooked pommel. The size varies greatly. It is found in most countries in which the Arabs have lived, and each has its own variety. Early Arab chroniclers used to mention two kinds of swords: '''Saif Anith''', which was made of iron, and '''Saif Fulath''' or '''Muzakka''', which was made of steel."<ref>Zaky 1961, p. 21.</ref>
 ==Etymology==
-Mostly the word "Saif" is an Arab common word for a sword, and it does not refer to a certain type. The term [[Xiphos]], which is Greek for double-edged straight sword, can have a certain connection to the term saif.
+''Saif'' is an Arab word for swords in general, not a certain type. The term ''[[xiphos]]'', Greek for a double-edged straight sword, may be related to ''saif''.
 ==Anatomy==
-The handle is referred to as ''miqbad''. The pommel is called the ''halq'' and the quillon is the ''haris''. The blade is composed of the false edge and the true edge, which are known as the ''zafiya'' or ''hafat zafiya'' and the ''haqiqia'', respectively. The sword's point is referred to as the ''nuqtat''.
+The handle is the ''miqbad''; the pommel, ''halq''; and the quillon, ''haris''. The blade is composed of the false edge and the true edge, which are known as the ''zafiya'' or ''hafat zafiya'' and the ''haqiqia'', respectively. The sword's point is referred to as the ''nuqtat''.
 Some Arab swords may contain a fuller, which is called an '''akmal'', but others do not. Therefore the area where the fuller would be is completely flat.
 ==History==
-The production of the Arab sword has four distinct periods: Pre-Islamic (Ancient swords before the 7th century), Early Islamic (Old swords 7th to 8th centuries), [[Islamic Golden Age]] (Swords of the 9th to early-13th centuries) and the Abandonment (Late swords of the late-13th to 16th centuries). Most information on Arab swords come from literature.
+The production of the Arab sword has four distinct periods: [[Pre-Islamic Arabia|Pre-Islamic]] (ancient swords before the 7th century), [[Early Islamic period|Early Islamic]] (old swords 7th to 8th centuries), [[Islamic Golden Age]] (swords of the 9th to early-13th centuries) and the Abandonment (late swords of the late-13th to 16th centuries). Most information on Arab swords come from literature.
 ===Pre-Islamic===
-Prior to the rise of Islam in the 630s, the settled communities in the Arabian peninsula developed into distinctive civilizations, and are limited to archaeological evidence. Accounts written outside of Arabia and Arab oral traditions were later recorded by Islamic scholars. Among the most prominent civilizations were the [[Dilmun]] which arose around the end of the fourth millennium BCE and lasted to about 600CE and the [[Thamud]] which arose around 3000BCE and lasted to about 300CE. Additionally, from the beginning of the first millennium BCE, Southern Arabia was the home to a number of kingdoms such as the [[Sabaeans]] and the coastal areas of Eastern Arabia were controlled by the Iranian Parthians and Sassanians from 300BCE. The Arabs of the peninsula, thus, had their own local system of warfare, that was not of big armies, but of small battles and skirmishes among tribes.<ref>Zaky 1965, pp. 107</ref>
+Prior to the rise of Islam in the 630s, the settled communities in the Arabian peninsula developed into distinctive civilizations, and are limited to archaeological evidence. Accounts written outside of Arabia and Arab oral traditions were later recorded by Islamic scholars. Among the most prominent civilizations were the [[Dilmun]] which arose around the end of the fourth millennium BC and lasted to about 600 AD and the [[Thamud]] which arose around 3000 BC{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} and lasted to about 300 AD. Additionally, from the beginning of the first millennium BC, Southern Arabia was the home to a number of kingdoms such as the [[Sabaeans]] and the coastal areas of Eastern Arabia were controlled by the Iranian [[Parthia|Parthians]] and [[Sassanians]] from 300BC. The Arabs of the peninsula, thus, had their own local system of warfare, that was not of big armies, but of small battles and skirmishes among tribes.<ref>Zaky 1965, p. 107.</ref>
 ===Early Islamic===
-Swords in [[Mu'tah]], called '''Mashrafiya swords''', were so highly regarded, that [[Muhammad]] ordered in 629 a raid on the city to capture it (source?). In the case of other captured weapons we can be less sure about where they were produced. This is true of the weapons taken from the Jewish tribe known as the [[Banu Qaynuqa]]. In his ''sira'' the Prophet's biographer [[Ibn Ishaq]], recounts that during the Prophet's life-time this tribe was noted as arms manufacturers, or as possessing large stocks of arms in Medina; it is possible that some of their arms were produced there.<ref>Alexander 2001, pp. 200</ref>
+Swords in [[Mu'tah]], called '''Mashrafiya swords''', were so highly regarded, that [[Muhammad]] ordered in 629 a raid on the city to capture them.<ref>Alexander 2001, p. 200.</ref> In the case of other captured weapons we can be less sure about where they were produced. This is true of the weapons taken from the Jewish tribe known as the [[Banu Qaynuqa]]. In his ''sira'' Muhammad's biographer [[Ibn Ishaq]], recounts that during Muhammad's life-time this tribe was noted as arms manufacturers, or as possessing large stocks of arms in Medina; it is possible that some of their arms were produced there.<ref>Alexander 2001, p. 200.</ref>
 ===Islamic Golden Age===
-By the years of the Islamic golden age, the sabers and double-edged swords of the Middle East co-existed.
+By the years of the Islamic golden age, the [[Sabre|sabers]] and [[double-edged swords]] of the Middle East co-existed.
 ===Abandonment===
+[[File:Paris 2e Bibliothèque nationale Site Richelieu-Louvois Musée de la BnF Épée 847.jpg|thumb|250px|Sword of Boabdil — hispano-moorish sword of the XV-XVI c.]]
-In the later years of the Arab sword, of the seven listed places by Al-Kindi where it was manufactured, four remained by the later half of the 13th century. With Khorasan and Damascus razed by the [[Mongols]] and Byzantium conquered by the Crusaders in the [[Fourth Crusade]], the Arab sword took a strong decline. Its final end came in the 16th century, when the [[Ottomans]] seized Egypt in 1517 and Yemen in 1552–60 with the [[Scimitar]], the [[Shamshir]], and the [[Kilij]], thus marking the end of the Arab sword. Neither the Mongols, Crusaders nor Ottomans had shown an interest in the Arab sword. These groups had their own traditions, and thus displaced it. The last two places, Sri Lanka and Kedah, had slowly grown influenced by neighboring traditions and thus ceased to make it altogether.
+In the later years of the Arab sword, of the seven listed places by Al-Kindi where it was manufactured, four remained by the later half of the 13th century. With Khorasan and Damascus razed by the [[Mongols]] and [[Byzantium]] conquered by the Crusaders in the [[Fourth Crusade]], the Arab sword took a strong decline. Its final end came in the 16th century, when the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] seized Egypt in 1517 and Yemen in 1552–60 with the [[scimitar]], the [[shamshir]], and the [[kilij]], thus marking the end of the Arab sword. Neither the Mongols, Crusaders nor Ottomans had shown an interest in the Arab sword. These groups had their own traditions, and thus displaced it. The last two places, [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Kedah]], had slowly grown influenced by neighboring traditions and thus ceased to make it altogether.
-In c. 1350, [[Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya]] wrote a treatise on Arab arms called "[[Furusiyya|Al-Furusiyya]]".<ref>ed. Nizam al-Din al-Fatih, Madinah al Munawara: Maktaba Dar al-Turath, 1990.</ref> In this text, he proclaims that aside from horsemanship, lance and archery, swordsmanship was a fourth discipline of Furusiyya.<ref>{{cite web|title=Arab epic heroes and horses|url=http://www.dot2004.de/programm.php?abstract=601|publisher=29. Deutscher Orientalistentag|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718231602/http://www.dot2004.de/programm.php?abstract=601|archive-date=July 18, 2011|location=Halle an der Saale|quote="Furusiyya covers four disciplines: the tactics of attack and withdrawal (al-karr wa-l-farr); archery; jousts with spears; duels with swords. [...] Only the Muslim conquerors and the knights of the faith have fully mastered these four arts."}}</ref>
+In c. 1350, [[Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya]] wrote a treatise on Arab arms called "[[Furusiyya|Al-Furusiyya]]".<ref>ed. Nizam al-Din al-Fatih, Madinah al Munawara: Maktaba Dar al-Turath, 1990.</ref> In this text, he proclaims that aside from horsemanship, lance, and archery, swordsmanship was a fourth discipline of Furusiyya.<ref>{{cite web|title=Arab epic heroes and horses|url=http://www.dot2004.de/programm.php?abstract=601|publisher=29. Deutscher Orientalistentag|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718231602/http://www.dot2004.de/programm.php?abstract=601|archive-date=July 18, 2011|location=Halle an der Saale|quote="Furusiyya covers four disciplines: the tactics of attack and withdrawal (al-karr wa-l-farr); archery; jousts with spears; duels with swords. [...] Only the Muslim conquerors and the knights of the faith have fully mastered these four arts."}}</ref>
 ==Manufacturing==
-Al-Kindi lists seven places from which Arab swords were forged. Starting with the best; [[India]], [[Yemen]], [[Khorasan Province|Khorasan]], [[Damascus]], [[Egypt]], Rum (meaning [[Byzantium]]), [[Sri Lanka]] and Qalah (possibly [[Kedah]]).
+Al-Kindi lists seven places from which Arab swords were forged. Starting with the best; [[Yemen]], [[Khorasan Province|Khorasan]], [[Damascus]], [[Egypt]], Rum (meaning [[Byzantium]]), [[Sri Lanka]] and Qalah (possibly [[Kedah]]).
 ==Use==
-During the early Islamic years, the Arabs sheathed their weapons in [[baldric]]s. The use of sword and baldric was consciously abandoned by the Abbasid caliph [[al-Mutawakkil]] (847-861) in favor of the saber and belt. But the use of sword and baldric seems to have retained a ceremonial and religious significance. For example, the Zangid ruler [[Nur ad-Din, atabeg of Aleppo|Nur ad-Din]] (1146–74) was anxious to demonstrate that he was a pious traditionalist, searching out the old methods preferred by the Prophet. Consequently, among his reforms he re-adopted the custom of wearing a sword suspended from a baldric. His successor [[Saladin|Salah ad-Din]] (1138-1193), known in the west as Saladin, did the same and it is noteworthy that he was buried with his sword, «he took it with him to Paradise.»<ref>Alexander 2001, pp. 204-205</ref>
+During the early Islamic years, the Arabs sheathed their weapons in [[baldric]]s. The use of sword and baldric was consciously abandoned by the Abbasid caliph [[al-Mutawakkil]] (847–861) in favor of the saber and belt. But the use of sword and baldric seems to have retained a ceremonial and religious significance. For example, the [[Zangid]] ruler [[Nur ad-Din, atabeg of Aleppo|Nur ad-Din]] (1146–74) was anxious to demonstrate that he was a pious traditionalist, searching out the old methods preferred by Muhammad. Consequently, among his reforms he re-adopted the custom of wearing a sword suspended from a baldric. His successor [[Saladin|Salah ad-Din]] (1138–1193), known in the west as Saladin, did the same and it is noteworthy that he was buried with his sword, "he took it with him to Paradise."<ref>Alexander 2001, pp. 204–205.</ref>
-According to David Nicolle, the Arab sword was used mainly for cutting.<ref>Nicolle 1994, pp. 13-14</ref> He cites [[Usama ibn Munqidh|Usama ibn Munqidh's]] memoir as evidence, that when Usama was being attacked by a [[Order of Assassins|Hashshashin]], Usama struck the assassin down.<ref>Cobb 2008, pp. 129</ref> Other stories by Usama add credence to David Nicolle's theory.
+According to [[David Nicolle]], the Arab sword was used mainly for cutting.<ref>Nicolle 1994, pp. 13–14.</ref> He cites [[Usama ibn Munqidh|Usama ibn Munqidh's]] memoir as evidence, that when Usama was being attacked by a [[Order of Assassins|Hashshashin]], Usama struck the assassin down.<ref>Cobb 2008, p. 129.</ref> Other stories by Usama add credence to David Nicolle's theory.
-During the Mamluk period the saber seems to have been the preferred weapon of the warrior elite but the most finely decorated edged weapons were swords. Swords were used in the most important ceremonial events in the Mamluk period, that is, in the investiture of Mamluk sultans and caliphs of the restored Abbasid dynasty where the ruler was «girded» with the «Bedouin sword» '''saif badawi'''. There are no surviving descriptions of such swords but it can be suggested as a hypothesis that the exquisitely decorated Mamluk sword blades now preserved in [[Istanbul]] are in fact ''saif badawi''.<ref>Alexander 2001, pp. 204-205</ref>
+During the Mamluk period the saber seems to have been the preferred weapon of the warrior elite but the most finely decorated edged weapons were swords. Swords were used in the most important ceremonial events in the [[Mamluk period]], that is, in the investiture of Mamluk sultans and caliphs of the restored [['Abbasid Dynasty|Abbasid dynasty]] where the ruler was "girded" with the "Bedouin sword" '''saif badawi'''. There are no surviving descriptions of such swords but it can be suggested as a hypothesis that the exquisitely decorated Mamluk sword blades now preserved in [[Istanbul]] are in fact ''saif badawi''.<ref>Alexander 2001, pp. 204–205.</ref>
 ==References==
@@ Line 58: / Line 59: @@
 * {{cite book|last=Zaky |first=A. Rahman |title=Introduction to the Study of Islamic Swords and Armour |publisher=Gladius I |year=1961 }} http://gladius.revistas.csic.es/index.php/gladius/article/viewFile/211/213
-==External link==
+==External links==
+{{Commons category-inline}}
-{{Commonscatinline}}
+{{Swords by region}}
 [[Category:Middle Eastern swords]]