Duchy of Warsaw: Difference between revisions

Duchy of Warsaw
*Księstwo Warszawskie* (Polish)
*Duché de Varsovie* (French)
*Herzogtum Warschau* (German)
Duchy of Warsaw Księstwo Warszawskie (Polish); Duché de Varsovie (French); Herzogtum Warschau (German)
1807–1815
	Military banner Coat of arms
	Lesser coat of arms:;
	The Duchy of Warsaw in 1812
Status	Satellite state of the French Empire,; Personal union with the Kingdom of Saxony
Capital	Warsaw
Common languages	Polish; French; German;
Religion	Roman Catholic
Government	Unitary parliamentary semi-constitutional monarchy
Duke
• 1807–1815	Frederick Augustus I
Governor-general of the Duchy of Warsaw
• 1807-1809	Louis-Nicolas Davout
Prime Minister
• 1807	Stanisław Małachowski
• 1807–1808	Ludwik S. Gutakowski
• 1808–1809	Józef Poniatowski
• 1809–1815	Stanisław K. Potocki
Legislature	Sejm
• Upper house	Senate
• Lower house	Chamber of Deputies
Historical era	Napoleonic Wars
• Treaties of Tilsit	9 June 1807
• Constitution	22 July 1807
• Battle of Raszyn	19 April 1809
• Treaty of Schönbrunn	14 October 1809
• Invasion of Russia	24 June 1812
• Congress of Vienna	9 June 1815
Currency	Złoty
Preceded by	Succeeded by
	South Prussia
	West Prussia
	New East Prussia
	Netze District
	West Galicia
Congress Poland
Grand Duchy of Posen
West Prussia
Free City of Cracow
Today part of	Poland; Lithuania; Belarus¹
	¹ Sopoćkinie area

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The Duchy of Warsaw (Polish: Księstwo Warszawskie; French: Duché de Varsovie; German: Herzogtum Warschau), also known as the Grand Duchy of Warsaw^[1] and Napoleonic Poland,^[2] was a French client state established by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1807, during the Napoleonic Wars. It initially comprised the ethnically Polish lands ceded to France by Prussia under the terms of the Treaties of Tilsit, and was augmented in 1809 with territory ceded by Austria in the Treaty of Schönbrunn. It was the first attempt to re-establish Poland as a sovereign state after the 18th-century partitions and covered the central and southeastern parts of present-day Poland.

The duchy was held in personal union by Napoleon's ally, Frederick Augustus I of Saxony, who became the duke of Warsaw and remained a legitimate candidate for the Polish throne. Following Napoleon's failed invasion of Russia, Napoleon seemingly abandoned the duchy, and it was left to be occupied by Prussian and Russian troops until 1815, when it was formally divided between the two countries at the Congress of Vienna. The east-central territory of the duchy acquired by the Russian Empire was subsequently transformed into a polity called Congress Poland, and Prussia formed the Grand Duchy of Posen in the west. The city of Kraków, Poland's cultural centre, was granted "free city" status until its incorporation into Austria in 1846.

History

The area of the duchy had already been liberated by a popular uprising that had escalated from anti-conscription rioting in 1806. One of the first tasks for the new government included providing food to the French army fighting the Russians in East Prussia.

The Duchy of Warsaw was created by French Emperor Napoleon I, as part of the Treaty of Tilsit with Prussia. Its creation met the support of both local republicans in partitioned Poland, and the large Polish diaspora in France, who openly supported Napoleon as the only man capable of restoring Polish sovereignty after the Partitions of Poland of the late 18th century. However, it was created as a satellite state^[3] (and was only a duchy, rather than a kingdom). The Duchy has also been described as a puppet state^[4]^[5]^[6] or a client state^[7]^[8] of Napoleon's France.

The newly recreated state was formally an independent duchy, allied to France, and in a personal union with the Kingdom of Saxony. King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony was compelled by Napoleon to make his new realm a constitutional monarchy, with a parliament (the Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw).

The Varsovian duchy was never allowed to develop as a truly independent state; Frederick Augustus' rule was subordinated to the requirements of the French raison d'état, who largely treated the state as a source of resources. The most important person in the duchy was, in fact, the French ambassador,^{[citation needed]} based in the duchy's capital, Warsaw. Significantly, the duchy lacked its own diplomatic representation abroad.^[9]

In 1809, a short war with Austria started. Although the Duchy of Warsaw won the Battle of Raszyn, Austrian troops entered Warsaw, but Varsovian and French forces then outflanked their enemy and captured Kraków, Lwów and some of the areas annexed by Austria in the Partitions of Poland. During the war, the German colonists settled by Prussia during Partitions openly rose up against the Varsovian government.^[10] After the Battle of Wagram, the ensuing Treaty of Schönbrunn allowed for a significant expansion of the duchy's territory southwards with the regaining of once-Polish and Lithuanian lands.

Peninsular War

Napoleon's campaign against Russia

As a result of Napoleon's campaign in 1812 against Russia, the Poles expected that the duchy would be upgraded to the status of a kingdom and that during Napoleon's invasion of Russia, they would be joined by the liberated territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Poland's historic partner in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. On 28 June, the Sejm formed the General Confederation of the Kingdom of Poland, establishing a system of government similar to the former commonwealth with the hope of reclaiming the partitioned territories. However, Napoleon did not want to make a permanent decision that would tie his hands before his anticipated peace settlement with Russia, and did not recognize the confederation of 28 June. Nevertheless, he proclaimed the attack on Russia as a second Polish war and allowed the Lithuanian Provisional Governing Commission to fall under Polish influence.

Any peace settlement or restoration of Poland-Lithuania were not to be, however. Napoleon's Grande Armée, including a substantial contingent of Polish troops, set out with the purpose of bringing the Russian Empire to its knees, but his military ambitions were frustrated by his failure to supply the army in Russia and Russia's refusal to surrender after the capture of Moscow; few returned from the march back. The failed campaign against Russia proved to be a major turning point in Napoleon's fortunes.

After Napoleon's defeat in the east, most of the territory of the Duchy of Warsaw was occupied by Russia in January 1813 during their advance on France and its allies. The rest of the duchy was restored to Prussia. Although several isolated fortresses held out for more than a year, the existence of the Varsovian state in anything but the name came to an end. Alexander I of Russia created a Provisional Highest Council of the Duchy of Warsaw to govern the area through his generals.

The Congress of Vienna and the Fourth Partition

Although many European states and ex-rulers were represented at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the decision-making was largely in the hands of the major powers. It was perhaps inevitable, therefore, that both Prussia and Russia would effectively partition Poland between them; Austria was to more-or-less retain its gains of the First Partition of 1772.

Russia sought all territories of the Duchy of Warsaw. It kept all its gains from the three previous partitions, together with Białystok and the surrounding territory that it had obtained in 1807. Its demands for the whole Duchy of Warsaw were denied by other European powers.

Prussia regained some of the territory it had lost to the Duchy of Warsaw in 1807: a portion of what it had conquered in the Second Partition. The Kulmerland and Gdańsk (Danzig) became part of the Province of West Prussia; the remaining territories (i.e., Greater Poland/Poznań), which covered an area of approximately 29,000 km² (11,000 sq mi), were reconstituted into the Grand Duchy of Posen. The Grand Duchy and its populace had some nominal autonomy (although it was de facto subordinate to Prussia) but following the 1848 Greater Poland Uprising was fully integrated into Prussia as the Province of Posen.

The city of Kraków and some surrounding territory, previously part of the Duchy of Warsaw, were established as the semi-independent Free City of Cracow [sic], under the "protection" of its three powerful neighbors. The city's territory measured some 1,164 km² (449 sq mi), and had a population of about 88,000 people. The city was eventually annexed by Austria in 1846, becoming the Grand Duchy of Kraków.

Finally, the bulk of the former Duchy of Warsaw, measuring some 128,000 km² (49,000 sq mi), was re-established as what is commonly referred to as the "Congress Kingdom" of Poland, in a personal union with the Russian Empire. This broadly corresponded to the Prussian and Austrian portions of the Third Partition (apart from the area around Białystok) plus around half of Prussia's Second Partition conquests and a small part of Austria's First Partition gains. De facto a Russian puppet state, it maintained its separate status only until 1831 when it was effectively annexed to the Russian Empire. Its constituent territories became the Vistula Land in 1867.

Government and politics

Constitution

The Constitution of the Duchy of Warsaw could be considered liberal for its time. It provided for a bicameral Sejm consisting of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. A Council of Ministers functioned as the executive body of the duchy. Serfdom was partially abolished, as the serfs were granted personal freedom without gaining any economic liberties or privileges. All classes were to be equal before the law, although the nobility was still greatly favoured as members of the Sejm. While Roman Catholicism was the state religion, and religious tolerance was also guaranteed by the constitution.

Administrative divisions

The administrative divisions of Duchy of Warsaw were based on departments, each headed by a prefect. This organization was based on the French model, as the entire duchy was in fact created by Napoleon and based on French ideas, although departments were divided into Polish powiats (counties).

There were 6 initial departments, after 1809 (after Napoleon's defeat of the Austrians and the Treaty of Schönbrunn) increased to 10 (as the duchy territory increased). Each department was named after its capital city.

In January 1807:

Warsaw Department (Polish: Departament warszawski)
Poznań Department (Polish: Departament poznański)
Kalisz Department (Polish: Departament kaliski)
Bydgoszcz Department (Polish: Departament bydgoski)
Płock Department (Polish: Departament płocki)
Łomża Department (Polish: Departament łomżyński) – for the first few months known as Białystok Department (Polish: Departament białostocki)^{[citation needed]}

The above 6 departments were divided into 60 powiats.

Added in 1809:

Kraków Department (Polish: Departament krakowski)
Lublin Department (Polish: Departament lubelski)
Radom Department (Polish: Departament radomski)
Siedlce Department (Polish: Departament siedlecki)

Napoleon conferring the Constitution in 1807

Military

The duchy's armed forces were completely under French control via its war minister, Prince Józef Poniatowski, who was also a Marshal of France. In fact, the duchy was heavily militarized, bordered as it was by Prussia, the Austrian Empire, and Russia, and it was to be a significant source for troops in various campaigns of Napoleon.

The duchy's army was of considerable size when compared to the duchy's number of inhabitants. Initially consisting of 30,000 of regular soldiers (made up of both cavalry and infantry),^[11] its numbers were to rise to over 60,000 in 1810, and by the time of Napoleon's campaign in Russia in 1812, its army totaled almost 120,000 troops out of a total population of just 4.3 million people – a similar number of troops in total available to Napoleon at Austerlitz, from a country of more than 25 million people.

Economy

The heavy drain on its resources by forced military recruitment, combined with a drop in exports of grain, caused significant problems for the duchy's economy. To make matters worse, in 1808 the French Empire imposed on the duchy an agreement at Bayonne to buy from France the debts owed to it by Prussia.^[12] The debt, amounting to more than 43 million francs in gold, was bought at a discounted rate of 21 million francs.^[12]

Although the duchy made its payments in installments to France over a four-year period, Prussia was unable to pay it (due to a very large indemnity it owed to France), causing the Polish economy to suffer heavily. Indeed, to this day the phrase "sum of Bayonne" is a synonym in Polish for a huge amount of money.^[12] All these problems resulted in both inflation and over-taxation.

To counter the threat of bankruptcy, the authorities intensified the development and modernization of agriculture. Also, a protectionist policy was introduced to protect industry.

Geography and demographics

According to the Treaties of Tilsit, the area of the duchy covered roughly the areas of the 2nd and 3rd Prussian partitions, with the exception of Danzig (Gdańsk), which became the Free City of Danzig under joint French and Saxon "protection", and of the district around Białystok, which became part of Russia. The Prussian territory was made up of territory from the former Prussian provinces of New East Prussia, Southern Prussia, New Silesia, and West Prussia. In addition, the new state was given the area along the Noteć river and the Land of Chełmno.

Altogether, the duchy had an initial area of around 104,000 square kilometres (40,000 sq mi), with a population of approximately 2,600,000. The bulk of its inhabitants were Poles.^[13]

In 1809 the Duchy annexed West Galicia, the area of the 1795 Austrian partition, and the district of Zamość (Zamoscer Kreis [de]): The duchy's area increased significantly, to around 155,000 km² (60,000 sq mi), and the population also substantially increased, to roughly 4,300,000.

According to the 1810 census, the duchy had a population of 4,334,000, of whom a clear majority were ethnic Poles. Jews constituted 7% of the inhabitants (perhaps an underestimation), Germans – 6%, Lithuanians and Ruthenians – 4%.^[14]

Legacy

Superficially, the Duchy of Warsaw was just one of the various states set up during Napoleon's dominance over Eastern and Central Europe, lasting only a few years and passing with his fall. However, its establishment a little over a decade after the Second and Third Partitions, that had appeared to wipe Poland off the map, meant that Poles had their hopes rekindled of a resurrected Polish state. Even with Napoleon's defeat, a Polish state continued in some form until the increasingly autocratic Russian state eliminated Poland once again as a separate entity. Altogether, this meant that an identifiable Polish state was in existence for at least a quarter of a century.

At the 200th anniversary of the creation of this iteration of the Polish state, numerous commemorative events dedicated to that event were held in the Polish capital of Warsaw. In addition, the Polish Ministry of Defense asked for the honor of holding a joint parade of Polish and French soldiers to which President Nicolas Sarkozy agreed.^[15]

References

^ "A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country, since 1776: Poland". US Department of state. Archived from the original on 2020-07-21. Retrieved 2022-02-23.
^ The Cambridge History of Poland. Cambridge University Press. 15 September 2016. ISBN 9781316620038.
^ Williamson, David G. (2011). Poland Betrayed: The Nazi-Soviet Invasions of 1939. Stackpole Books. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8117-0828-9.
^ Bilenky, Serhiy (2022). "Vadym Adadurov. "Napoleonida" na skhodi Ievropy: Uiavlennia, proekty ta diial'nist' uriadu Frantsii shchodo pivdenno-zakhidnykh okrain Rosiis'koi imperii na pochatku XIX stolittia". East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies. 9 (1): 253–258. doi:10.21226/ewjus717. ISSN 2292-7956. S2CID 247911190.
^ Prazmowska, Anita (30 June 2010). Poland: A Modern History. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85773-677-2. Archived from the original on 8 September 2023. Retrieved 22 May 2023. As a result of this, the Duchy of Warsaw was created.... Nevertheless, although a French puppet state, the Duchy was...
^ Summerville, Christopher (30 September 2005). Napoleon's Polish Gamble: Eylau & Friedland 1807 – Campaign Chronicles. Pen and Sword. p. 154. ISBN 978-1-84415-260-5.
^ Wroński, Marcin (2 December 2022). "Income inequality in the Duchy of Warsaw (1810/11)". Scandinavian Economic History Review. 72: 67–81. doi:10.1080/03585522.2022.2148736. ISSN 0358-5522.
^ Lyons, Martyn (1994), Lyons, Martyn (ed.), "The Unsheathed Sword, 2: Britain, Spain, Russia", Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the French Revolution, London: Macmillan Education UK, pp. 213–228, doi:10.1007/978-1-349-23436-3_15, ISBN 978-1-349-23436-3, retrieved 10 May 2023
^ Roberts, Andrew (2014). Napoleon: A Life. New York: Viking. ISBN 9780698176287. chap. 19 (no pg. no. in e-book).
^ Kolonizacja niemiecka w południowo-wschodniej cześci Królestwa Polskiego w latach 1815–1915 Wiesław Śladkowski Wydawn. Lubelskie, 1969, page 234
^ Wandycz, Piotr S. (1 February 1975). The Lands of Partitioned Poland, 1795–1918. University of Washington Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-295-80361-6.
^ ^a ^b ^c Paul Robert Magocsi; Jean W. Sedlar; Robert A. Kann; Charles Jelavich; Joseph Rothschild (1974). A History of East Central Europe. University of Washington Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-295-95358-8. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
^ "ВАРШАВСЬКЕ КНЯЗІВСТВО [Електронний ресурс]". ІНСТИТУТ ІСТОРІЇ УКРАЇНИ. НАЦІОНАЛЬНА АКАДЕМІЯ НАУК УКРАЇНИ.
^ Czubaty, Jarosław (2016). The Duchy of Warsaw, 1807–1815: A Napoleonic Outpost in Central Europe. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 109.
^ "Rp.pl: Najważniejsze wiadomości gospodarcze, prawne i polityczne z Polski i ze świata. Aktualne wiadomości z dnia – rp.pl". www.rp.pl. Archived from the original on 2020-08-26. Retrieved 2020-08-26.

External links

52°14′35″N 21°1′0″E / 52.24306°N 21.01667°E / 52.24306; 21.01667 (Pałac Prezydencki)

[1] "A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country, since 1776: Poland". US Department of state. Archived from the original on 2020-07-21. Retrieved 2022-02-23.

[2] The Cambridge History of Poland. Cambridge University Press. 15 September 2016. ISBN 9781316620038.

[3] Williamson, David G. (2011). Poland Betrayed: The Nazi-Soviet Invasions of 1939. Stackpole Books. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8117-0828-9.

[4] Bilenky, Serhiy (2022). "Vadym Adadurov. "Napoleonida" na skhodi Ievropy: Uiavlennia, proekty ta diial'nist' uriadu Frantsii shchodo pivdenno-zakhidnykh okrain Rosiis'koi imperii na pochatku XIX stolittia". East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies. 9 (1): 253–258. doi:10.21226/ewjus717. ISSN 2292-7956. S2CID 247911190.

[5] Prazmowska, Anita (30 June 2010). Poland: A Modern History. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85773-677-2. Archived from the original on 8 September 2023. Retrieved 22 May 2023. As a result of this, the Duchy of Warsaw was created.... Nevertheless, although a French puppet state, the Duchy was...

[6] Summerville, Christopher (30 September 2005). Napoleon's Polish Gamble: Eylau & Friedland 1807 – Campaign Chronicles. Pen and Sword. p. 154. ISBN 978-1-84415-260-5.

[7] Wroński, Marcin (2 December 2022). "Income inequality in the Duchy of Warsaw (1810/11)". Scandinavian Economic History Review. 72: 67–81. doi:10.1080/03585522.2022.2148736. ISSN 0358-5522.

[8] Lyons, Martyn (1994), Lyons, Martyn (ed.), "The Unsheathed Sword, 2: Britain, Spain, Russia", Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the French Revolution, London: Macmillan Education UK, pp. 213–228, doi:10.1007/978-1-349-23436-3_15, ISBN 978-1-349-23436-3, retrieved 10 May 2023

[9] Roberts, Andrew (2014). Napoleon: A Life. New York: Viking. ISBN 9780698176287. chap. 19 (no pg. no. in e-book).

[10] Kolonizacja niemiecka w południowo-wschodniej cześci Królestwa Polskiego w latach 1815–1915 Wiesław Śladkowski Wydawn. Lubelskie, 1969, page 234

[11] Wandycz, Piotr S. (1 February 1975). The Lands of Partitioned Poland, 1795–1918. University of Washington Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-295-80361-6.

[MagocsiSedlar1974-49-12] Paul Robert Magocsi; Jean W. Sedlar; Robert A. Kann; Charles Jelavich; Joseph Rothschild (1974). A History of East Central Europe. University of Washington Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-295-95358-8. Retrieved 11 May 2012.

[13] "ВАРШАВСЬКЕ КНЯЗІВСТВО [Електронний ресурс]". ІНСТИТУТ ІСТОРІЇ УКРАЇНИ. НАЦІОНАЛЬНА АКАДЕМІЯ НАУК УКРАЇНИ.

[14] Czubaty, Jarosław (2016). The Duchy of Warsaw, 1807–1815: A Napoleonic Outpost in Central Europe. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 109.

[15] "Rp.pl: Najważniejsze wiadomości gospodarcze, prawne i polityczne z Polski i ze świata. Aktualne wiadomości z dnia – rp.pl". www.rp.pl. Archived from the original on 2020-08-26. Retrieved 2020-08-26.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{Short description|Polish state (1807–1815)}}
 {{morefootnotes|date=May 2023}}
-{{Short description|Napoleonic client state (1807–1815)}}
 {{for|the medieval state|Duchy of Warsaw (Middle Ages)}}
 {{Infobox country
 | native_name            = {{native name|pl|Księstwo Warszawskie}}<br>{{native name|fr|Duché de Varsovie}}<br>{{native name|de|Herzogtum Warschau}}
 | conventional_long_name = Duchy of Warsaw
-| status                 = Client state
+| status                 = Satellite state
 | empire                 = France
-| status_text            = [[Client state]] of the [[First French Empire|French Empire]],<br />[[Personal union]] with the [[Kingdom of Saxony]]
+| status_text            = [[Satellite state]] of the [[First French Empire|French Empire]],<br />[[Personal union]] with the [[Kingdom of Saxony]]
-| era                    = Napoleonic Wars
+| era                    = [[Napoleonic Wars]]
-| government_type        = [[Constitutional monarchy]]
+| government_type        = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[semi-constitutional monarchy]]
 | p1                     = South Prussia
-| flag_p1                = Flag of the Kingdom of Prussia (1803-1892).svg
 | p2                     = West Prussia
-| flag_p2                = Flag of the Kingdom of Prussia (1803-1892).svg
 | p3                     = New East Prussia
-| flag_p3                = Flag of the Kingdom of Prussia (1803-1892).svg
 | p4                     = Netze District
-| flag_p4                = Flag of the Kingdom of Prussia (1803-1892).svg
 | p5                     = West Galicia
-| flag_p5                = Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg
-| p6                     =
-| flag_p6                =
 | s1                     = Congress Poland
-| flag_s1                = Royal Standard of the Tsar of Poland (1815–1830).svg
 | s2                     = Grand Duchy of Posen
-| flag_s2                = Flagge Preußen - Provinz Posen (1815).svg
 | s3                     = West Prussia
-| flag_s3                = Flagge Preußen - Provinz Westpreußen.svg
 | s4                     = Free City of Cracow
-| flag_s4                = Flag of Krakow.svg
 | year_start             = 1807
 | date_start             = 9 June
@@ Line 56: / Line 45: @@
 | year_deputy3           = 1808–1809
 | year_deputy4           = 1809–1815
+| title_representative    = [[Governor-general|Governor-general of the Duchy of Warsaw]]
+| representative1          = [[Louis-Nicolas Davout]]
+| year_representative1     = 1807-1809
 | legislature            = [[Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw|Sejm]]
 | house1                 = [[Senate of Poland|Senate]]
@@ Line 61: / Line 53: @@
 | image_coat             = Grand Coat of Arms of Duchy of Warsaw.svg
 | symbol                 = Coat of arms of Poland
+| other_symbol           = {{center|[[File:Coat of Arms of Duchy of Warsaw.svg|80px]]}}
-| image_flag             =
-| flag                   = Flag of Poland
+| other_symbol_type      = Lesser coat of arms:
+| image_flag             = Banner of the Duchy of Warsaw.svg
+| flag_type              = [[List of Polish flags|Military banner]]
+| flag_size              = 105px
 | image_map              = Duchy of Warsaw (1812).svg
 | image_map_caption      = The Duchy of Warsaw in 1812
-| common_languages       = [[Polish language|Polish]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]]
+| common_languages       = {{ubl|Polish|French|German}}
-| religion               = [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]
+| religion               = Roman Catholic
 | capital                = [[Warsaw]]
 | currency               = [[Polish złoty#First złoty|Złoty]]
+| today                  = [[Poland]]<br>[[Lithuania]]<br>[[Belarus]]¹
+| footnotes              = ¹ [[Sopoćkinie]] area
 }}
-The '''Duchy of Warsaw''' ({{lang-pl|Księstwo Warszawskie}}; {{lang-fr|Duché de Varsovie}}; {{lang-de|Herzogtum Warschau}}), also known as the '''Grand Duchy of Warsaw'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://history.state.gov/countries/poland|title=A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country, since 1776: Poland|publisher=US Department of state}}</ref> and '''Napoleonic Poland''',<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eB7iDAAAQBAJ&dq=napoleonic+poland&pg=PA232|isbn=9781316620038|title=The Cambridge History of Poland|date=15 September 2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> was a [[First French Empire|French]] [[client state]] established by [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] in 1807, during the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. It initially comprised the ethnically Polish lands ceded to France by [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] under the terms of the [[Treaties of Tilsit]], and was augmented in 1809 with territory ceded by [[Austrian Empire|Austria]] in the [[Treaty of Schönbrunn]]. It was the first attempt to re-establish Poland as a sovereign state after the 18th-century [[partitions of Poland|partitions]] and covered the central and southeastern parts of present-day Poland.
+The '''Duchy of Warsaw''' ({{langx|pl|Księstwo Warszawskie}}; {{langx|fr|link=no|Duché de Varsovie}}; {{langx|de|link=no|Herzogtum Warschau}}), also known as the '''Grand Duchy of Warsaw'''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://history.state.gov/countries/poland |title=A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country, since 1776: Poland |publisher=US Department of state |access-date=2022-02-23 |archive-date=2020-07-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721223619/https://history.state.gov/countries/poland |url-status=live }}</ref> and '''Napoleonic Poland''',<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eB7iDAAAQBAJ&dq=napoleonic+poland&pg=PA232 |isbn=9781316620038 |title=The Cambridge History of Poland |date=15 September 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> was a [[First French Empire|French]] [[client state]] established by [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] in 1807, during the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. It initially comprised the ethnically Polish lands ceded to France by [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] under the terms of the [[Treaties of Tilsit]], and was augmented in 1809 with territory ceded by [[Austrian Empire|Austria]] in the [[Treaty of Schönbrunn]]. It was the first attempt to re-establish Poland as a sovereign state after the 18th-century [[partitions of Poland|partitions]] and covered the central and southeastern parts of present-day Poland.
-The duchy was held in [[personal union]] by Napoleon's ally, [[Frederick Augustus I of Saxony]], who became the Duke of Warsaw and remained a legitimate candidate for the [[List of Polish monarchs|Polish throne]]. Following [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia|Napoleon's failed invasion of Russia]], the duchy was occupied by Prussian and [[Russian Empire|Russian]] troops until 1815, when it was formally divided between the two countries at the [[Congress of Vienna]]. The east-central territory of the duchy acquired by the Russian Empire was subsequently transformed into a [[polity]] called [[Congress Poland]], and Prussia formed the [[Grand Duchy of Posen]] in the west. The city of Kraków, Poland's cultural centre, was [[Free City of Cracow|granted "free city" status]] until its incorporation into Austria in 1846.
+The duchy was held in [[personal union]] by Napoleon's ally, [[Frederick Augustus I of Saxony]], who became the duke of Warsaw and remained a legitimate candidate for the [[List of Polish monarchs|Polish throne]]. Following [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia|Napoleon's failed invasion of Russia]], Napoleon seemingly abandoned the duchy, and it was left to be occupied by Prussian and [[Russian Empire|Russian]] troops until 1815, when it was formally divided between the two countries at the [[Congress of Vienna]]. The east-central territory of the duchy acquired by the Russian Empire was subsequently transformed into a [[polity]] called [[Congress Poland]], and Prussia formed the [[Grand Duchy of Posen]] in the west. The city of Kraków, Poland's cultural centre, was [[Free City of Cracow|granted "free city" status]] until its incorporation into Austria in 1846.
 ==History==
 The area of the duchy had already been liberated by [[Greater Poland Uprising (1806)|a popular uprising]] that had escalated from anti-conscription rioting in 1806. One of the first tasks for the new government included providing food to the French army fighting the Russians in [[East Prussia]].
-The Duchy of Warsaw was officially created by French Emperor [[Napoleon I]], as part of the [[Treaties of Tilsit|Treaty of Tilsit]] with [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]]. Its creation met the support of both local republicans in partitioned Poland, and the large Polish diaspora in France, who openly supported Napoleon as the only man capable of restoring Polish sovereignty after the [[Partitions of Poland]] of the late [[18th century]]. However, it was created as a [[satellite state]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Williamson |first=David G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtg8a-0ggkEC&q=warsaw+satellite&pg=PA1 |title=Poland Betrayed: The Nazi-Soviet Invasions of 1939 |date=2011 |publisher=Stackpole Books |isbn=978-0-8117-0828-9 |pages=1 |language=en}}</ref> (and was only a [[duchy]], rather than a [[monarchy|kingdom]]). (The Duchy has also been described as a [[puppet state]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bilenky |first=Serhiy |date=2022 |title=Vadym Adadurov. "Napoleonida" na skhodi Ievropy: Uiavlennia, proekty ta diial'nist' uriadu Frantsii shchodo pivdenno-zakhidnykh okrain Rosiis'koi imperii na pochatku XIX stolittia |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=1048050 |journal=East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies |language=English |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=253–258 |doi=10.21226/ewjus717 |s2cid=247911190 |issn=2292-7956}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Prazmowska |first=Anita |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6J-LDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Duchy+of+Warsaw%22+%22puppet+state%22&pg=PT5 |title=Poland: A Modern History |date=2010-06-30 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-85773-677-2 |language=en |quote=As a result of this, the Duchy of Warsaw was created.... Nevertheless, although a French puppet state, the Duchy was...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Summerville |first=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PwCSAwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Duchy+of+Warsaw%22+%22puppet+state%22&pg=PA154 |title=Napoleon's Polish Gamble: Eylau & Friedland 1807 - Campaign Chronicles |date=2005-09-30 |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=978-1-84415-260-5 |pages=154 |language=en}}</ref> or a [[client state]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wroński |first=Marcin |date=2022-12-02 |title=Income inequality in the Duchy of Warsaw (1810/11) |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/03585522.2022.2148736 |journal=Scandinavian Economic History Review |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1080/03585522.2022.2148736 |issn=0358-5522}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Lyons |first=Martyn |title=The Unsheathed Sword, 2: Britain, Spain, Russia |date=1994 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-23436-3_15 |work=Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the French Revolution |pages=213–228 |editor-last=Lyons |editor-first=Martyn |access-date=2023-05-10 |place=London |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-23436-3_15 |isbn=978-1-349-23436-3}}</ref> of Napoleon's France).
+The Duchy of Warsaw was created by French Emperor [[Napoleon I]], as part of the [[Treaties of Tilsit|Treaty of Tilsit]] with [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]]. Its creation met the support of both local republicans in partitioned Poland, and the large Polish diaspora in France, who openly supported Napoleon as the only man capable of restoring Polish sovereignty after the [[Partitions of Poland]] of the late 18th century. However, it was created as a [[satellite state]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Williamson |first=David G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtg8a-0ggkEC&q=warsaw+satellite&pg=PA1 |title=Poland Betrayed: The Nazi-Soviet Invasions of 1939 |date=2011 |publisher=Stackpole Books |isbn=978-0-8117-0828-9 |pages=1 |language=en }}</ref> (and was only a [[duchy]], rather than a kingdom). The Duchy has also been described as a [[puppet state]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bilenky |first=Serhiy |date=2022 |title=Vadym Adadurov. "Napoleonida" na skhodi Ievropy: Uiavlennia, proekty ta diial'nist' uriadu Frantsii shchodo pivdenno-zakhidnykh okrain Rosiis'koi imperii na pochatku XIX stolittia |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=1048050 |journal=East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies |language=English |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=253–258 |doi=10.21226/ewjus717 |s2cid=247911190 |issn=2292-7956 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Prazmowska |first=Anita |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6J-LDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Duchy+of+Warsaw%22+%22puppet+state%22&pg=PT5 |title=Poland: A Modern History |date=30 June 2010 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-85773-677-2 |language=en |quote=As a result of this, the Duchy of Warsaw was created.... Nevertheless, although a French puppet state, the Duchy was... |access-date=22 May 2023 |archive-date=8 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908024617/https://books.google.com/books?id=6J-LDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Duchy%20of%20Warsaw%22%20%22puppet%20state%22&pg=PT5 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Summerville |first=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PwCSAwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Duchy+of+Warsaw%22+%22puppet+state%22&pg=PA154 |title=Napoleon's Polish Gamble: Eylau & Friedland 1807 – Campaign Chronicles |date=30 September 2005 |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=978-1-84415-260-5 |pages=154 |language=en }}</ref> or a [[client state]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wroński |first=Marcin |date=2 December 2022 |title=Income inequality in the Duchy of Warsaw (1810/11) |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/03585522.2022.2148736 |journal=Scandinavian Economic History Review |volume=72 |pages=67–81 |doi=10.1080/03585522.2022.2148736 |issn=0358-5522 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Lyons |first=Martyn |title=The Unsheathed Sword, 2: Britain, Spain, Russia |date=1994 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-23436-3_15 |work=Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the French Revolution |pages=213–228 |editor-last=Lyons |editor-first=Martyn |access-date=10 May 2023 |place=London |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-23436-3_15 |isbn=978-1-349-23436-3 }}</ref> of Napoleon's France.
 [[File:Prince Joseph Poniatowski by Józef Grassi.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Prince [[Józef Poniatowski]], Commander in Chief of the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw, by [[Josef Grassi]]]]
 The newly recreated state was formally an independent duchy, allied to [[First French Empire|France]], and in a [[personal union]] with the [[Kingdom of Saxony]]. King [[Frederick Augustus I of Saxony]] was compelled by Napoleon to make his new realm a [[constitutional monarchy]], with a parliament (the [[Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw]]).
@@ Line 84: / Line 81: @@
 The Varsovian duchy was never allowed to develop as a truly independent state; Frederick Augustus' rule was subordinated to the requirements of the French ''[[raison d'état]]'', who largely treated the state as a source of resources. The most important person in the duchy was, in fact, the French ambassador,{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}} based in the duchy's capital, Warsaw. Significantly, the duchy lacked its own diplomatic representation abroad.<ref>[[Andrew Roberts (historian)|Roberts, Andrew]] (2014). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=rjVBAwAAQBAJ Napoleon: A Life]''. New York: Viking. {{ISBN|9780698176287}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=rjVBAwAAQBAJ&q=%22no+diplomatic+representation%22 chap. 19] (no pg. no. in e-book).</ref>
-In 1809, a short war with [[Austrian Empire|Austria]] started. Although the Duchy of Warsaw won the [[Battle of Raszyn (1809)|Battle of Raszyn]], Austrian troops entered Warsaw, but Varsovian and French forces then outflanked their enemy and captured [[Kraków]], [[Lwów]] and some of the areas annexed by Austria in the [[Partitions of Poland]]. During the war, the German colonists settled by Prussia during Partitions openly rose up against the Varsovian government.<ref>''Kolonizacja niemiecka w południowo-wschodniej cześci Królestwa Polskiego w latach 1815-1915'' Wiesław Śladkowski Wydawn. Lubelskie, 1969, page 234</ref> After the [[Battle of Wagram]], the ensuing [[Treaty of Schönbrunn]] allowed for a significant expansion of the duchy's territory southwards with the regaining of once-Polish and Lithuanian lands.
+In 1809, a short war with [[Austrian Empire|Austria]] started. Although the Duchy of Warsaw won the [[Battle of Raszyn (1809)|Battle of Raszyn]], Austrian troops entered Warsaw, but Varsovian and French forces then outflanked their enemy and captured [[Kraków]], [[Lwów]] and some of the areas annexed by Austria in the [[Partitions of Poland]]. During the war, the German colonists settled by Prussia during Partitions openly rose up against the Varsovian government.<ref>''Kolonizacja niemiecka w południowo-wschodniej cześci Królestwa Polskiego w latach 1815–1915'' Wiesław Śladkowski Wydawn. Lubelskie, 1969, page 234</ref> After the [[Battle of Wagram]], the ensuing [[Treaty of Schönbrunn]] allowed for a significant expansion of the duchy's territory southwards with the regaining of once-Polish and Lithuanian lands.
 ===Peninsular War===
@@ Line 93: / Line 90: @@
 ===Napoleon's campaign against Russia===
 [[File:Ułani Księstwa Warszawskiego.JPG|thumb|200px|Polish uhlans from the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw, 1807–1815. Painting by [[January Suchodolski]]]]
-As a result of Napoleon's campaign in 1812 against Russia, the Poles expected that the duchy would be upgraded to the status of a kingdom and that during Napoleon's invasion of Russia, they would be joined by the liberated territories of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]], Poland's historic partner in the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. However, Napoleon did not want to make a permanent decision that would tie his hands before his anticipated peace settlement with Russia. Nevertheless, he proclaimed the attack on Russia as a ''second Polish war''.
+As a result of Napoleon's campaign in 1812 against Russia, the Poles expected that the duchy would be upgraded to the status of a kingdom and that during Napoleon's invasion of Russia, they would be joined by the liberated territories of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]], Poland's historic partner in the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. On 28 June, the Sejm formed the [[General Confederation of the Kingdom of Poland]], establishing a system of government similar to the former commonwealth with the hope of reclaiming the partitioned territories. However, Napoleon did not want to make a permanent decision that would tie his hands before his anticipated peace settlement with Russia, and did not recognize the [[Confederation (Poland–Lithuania)|confederation]] of 28 June. Nevertheless, he proclaimed the attack on Russia as a ''second Polish war'' and allowed the [[Lithuanian Provisional Governing Commission]] to fall under Polish influence.
-That peace settlement was not to be, however. Napoleon's ''[[Grande Armée]]'', including a substantial contingent of Polish troops, set out with the purpose of bringing the Russian Empire to its knees, but his military ambitions were frustrated by his failure to supply the army in Russia and Russia's refusal to surrender after the capture of Moscow; few returned from the march back. The failed campaign against Russia proved to be a major turning point in Napoleon's fortunes.
+Any peace settlement or restoration of Poland-Lithuania were not to be, however. Napoleon's ''[[Grande Armée]]'', including a substantial contingent of Polish troops, set out with the purpose of bringing the Russian Empire to its knees, but his military ambitions were frustrated by his failure to supply the army in Russia and Russia's refusal to surrender after the capture of Moscow; few returned from the march back. The failed campaign against Russia proved to be a major turning point in Napoleon's fortunes.
 After Napoleon's defeat in the east, most of the territory of the Duchy of Warsaw was occupied by Russia in January 1813 during their advance on France and its allies. The rest of the duchy was restored to Prussia. Although several isolated fortresses held out for more than a year, the existence of the Varsovian state in anything but the name came to an end. [[Alexander I of Russia]] created a Provisional Highest Council of the Duchy of Warsaw to govern the area through his generals.
@@ Line 104: / Line 101: @@
 Russia sought all territories of the Duchy of Warsaw. It kept all its gains from the three previous partitions, together with Białystok and the surrounding territory that it had obtained in 1807. Its demands for the whole Duchy of Warsaw were denied by other European powers.
-Prussia regained some of the territory it had lost to the Duchy of Warsaw in 1807: a portion of what it had conquered in the Second Partition. The [[Chełmno Land|Kulmerland]] and [[Gdańsk]] (Danzig) became part of the [[Province of West Prussia]]; the remaining territories (i.e., [[Greater Poland]]/Poznań), which covered an area of approximately {{convert|29000|km2|abbr=on}}, were reconstituted into the [[Grand Duchy of Posen]]. The Grand Duchy and its populace had some nominal autonomy (although it was ''de facto'' subordinate to Prussia) but following the [[Greater Poland Uprising (1848)|1848 Greater Poland Uprising]] was fully integrated into Prussia as the [[Province of Posen]].
+Prussia regained some of the territory it had lost to the Duchy of Warsaw in 1807: a portion of what it had conquered in the Second Partition. The [[Chełmno Land|Kulmerland]] and [[Gdańsk]] (Danzig) became part of the [[Province of West Prussia]]; the remaining territories (i.e., [[Greater Poland]]/Poznań), which covered an area of approximately {{cvt|29000|km2}}, were reconstituted into the [[Grand Duchy of Posen]]. The Grand Duchy and its populace had some nominal autonomy (although it was ''de facto'' subordinate to Prussia) but following the [[Greater Poland Uprising (1848)|1848 Greater Poland Uprising]] was fully integrated into Prussia as the [[Province of Posen]].
-The city of Kraków and some surrounding territory, previously part of the Duchy of Warsaw, were established as the semi-independent [[Free City of Cracow]]{{sic}}, under the "protection" of its three powerful neighbors. The city's territory measured some {{convert|1164|km2|abbr=on}}, and had a population of about 88,000 people. The city was eventually annexed by Austria in 1846, becoming the [[Grand Duchy of Kraków]].
+The city of Kraków and some surrounding territory, previously part of the Duchy of Warsaw, were established as the semi-independent [[Free City of Cracow]]{{sic}}, under the "protection" of its three powerful neighbors. The city's territory measured some {{cvt|1164|km2}}, and had a population of about 88,000 people. The city was eventually annexed by Austria in 1846, becoming the [[Grand Duchy of Kraków]].
-Finally, the bulk of the former Duchy of Warsaw, measuring some {{convert|128,000|km2|abbr=on}}, was re-established as what is commonly referred to as the "[[Congress Poland|Congress Kingdom]]" of Poland, in a [[personal union]] with the [[Russian Empire]]. This broadly corresponded to the Prussian and Austrian portions of the Third Partition (apart from the area around Białystok) plus around half of Prussia's Second Partition conquests and a small part of Austria's First Partition gains. ''De facto'' a Russian [[puppet state]], it maintained its separate status only until 1831 when it was effectively annexed to the Russian Empire. Its constituent territories became the [[Vistula Land]] in 1867.
+Finally, the bulk of the former Duchy of Warsaw, measuring some {{cvt|128000|km2}}, was re-established as what is commonly referred to as the "[[Congress Poland|Congress Kingdom]]" of Poland, in a [[personal union]] with the [[Russian Empire]]. This broadly corresponded to the Prussian and Austrian portions of the Third Partition (apart from the area around Białystok) plus around half of Prussia's Second Partition conquests and a small part of Austria's First Partition gains. ''De facto'' a Russian [[puppet state]], it maintained its separate status only until 1831 when it was effectively annexed to the Russian Empire. Its constituent territories became the [[Vistula Land]] in 1867.
 == Government and politics ==
 ===Constitution===
+[[File:AGAD Duchy of Warsaw Constitution cover and seals.png|thumb|The Constitution of the Duchy of Warsaw cover and seals, 1807]]
-The [[Constitution of the Duchy of Warsaw]] could be considered liberal for its time. It provided for a bicameral Sejm consisting of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. A Council of Ministers functioned as the executive body of the duchy. Serfdom was partially abolished, as the serfs were granted personal freedom without gaining any economic liberties or privileges. All classes were to be equal before the law, although the nobility was still greatly favoured as members of the Sejm. While Roman Catholicism was the state religion, [[religious tolerance]] was also guaranteed by the constitution.
+The [[Constitution of the Duchy of Warsaw]] could be considered liberal for its time. It provided for a bicameral Sejm consisting of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. A Council of Ministers functioned as the executive body of the duchy. Serfdom was partially abolished, as the serfs were granted personal freedom without gaining any economic liberties or privileges. All classes were to be equal before the law, although the nobility was still greatly favoured as members of the Sejm. While Roman Catholicism was the state religion, and [[religious tolerance]] was also guaranteed by the constitution.
 ===Administrative divisions===
@@ Line 122: / Line 120: @@
 [[File:Duchy of Warsaw 1807-1809.PNG|240px|thumb|right|Map of the Duchy of Warsaw, 1807–1809]]
 In January 1807:
-*[[Warsaw Department]] ({{lang-pl|Departament warszawski}})
+*[[Warsaw Department]] ({{langx|pl|Departament warszawski}})
-*[[Poznań Department]] ({{lang-pl|Departament poznański}})
+*[[Poznań Department]] ({{langx|pl|Departament poznański}})
-*[[Kalisz Department]] ({{lang-pl|Departament kaliski}})
+*[[Kalisz Department]] ({{langx|pl|Departament kaliski}})
-*[[Bydgoszcz Department]] ({{lang-pl|Departament bydgoski}})
+*[[Bydgoszcz Department]] ({{langx|pl|Departament bydgoski}})
-*[[Płock Department]] ({{lang-pl|Departament płocki}})
+*[[Płock Department]] ({{langx|pl|Departament płocki}})
-*[[Łomża Department]] ({{lang-pl|Departament łomżyński}}) – for the first few months known as Białystok Department ({{lang-pl|Departament białostocki}}){{Citation needed|date=June 2011}}
+*[[Łomża Department]] ({{langx|pl|Departament łomżyński}}) – for the first few months known as Białystok Department ({{langx|pl|Departament białostocki}}){{Citation needed|date=June 2011}}
 The above 6 departments were divided into 60 [[powiat]]s.
 [[File:Duchy of Warsaw 1809-1815.PNG|240px|thumb|right|Map of the Duchy of Warsaw, 1809–1815]]
 Added in 1809:
-*[[Kraków Department]] ({{lang-pl|Departament krakowski}})
+*[[Kraków Department]] ({{langx|pl|Departament krakowski}})
-*[[Lublin Department]] ({{lang-pl|Departament lubelski}})
+*[[Lublin Department]] ({{langx|pl|Departament lubelski}})
-*[[Radom Department]] ({{lang-pl|Departament radomski}})
+*[[Radom Department]] ({{langx|pl|Departament radomski}})
-*[[Siedlce Department]] ({{lang-pl|Departament siedlecki}})
+*[[Siedlce Department]] ({{langx|pl|Departament siedlecki}})
 [[File:Nap1807.JPG|thumb|Napoleon conferring [[Constitution of the Duchy of Warsaw|the Constitution]] in 1807]]
@@ Line 145: / Line 141: @@
 The duchy's armed forces were completely under French control via its war minister, Prince [[Józef Poniatowski]], who was also a [[Marshal of France]]. In fact, the duchy was heavily militarized, bordered as it was by [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], the [[Austrian Empire]], and [[Russian Empire|Russia]], and it was to be a significant source for troops in various campaigns of Napoleon.
-The duchy's army was of considerable size when compared to the duchy's number of inhabitants. Initially consisting of 30,000 of regular soldiers (made up of both [[Polish cavalry|cavalry]] and infantry),<ref name="MagocsiSedlar1974-48">{{cite book|author1=Paul Robert Magocsi|author2=Jean W. Sedlar|author3=Robert A. Kann |author4=Charles Jelavich |author5=Joseph Rothschild|title=A History of East Central Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TVMmGKsbWJ4C&pg=PA48|access-date=11 May 2012|year=1974|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0-295-95358-8|page=48}}</ref> its numbers were to rise to over 60,000 in 1810, and by the time of [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia|Napoleon's campaign in Russia]] in 1812, its army totaled almost 120,000 troops out of a total population of just 4.3 million people - a similar number of troops in total available to Napoleon at Austerlitz, from a country of more than 25 million people.
+The duchy's army was of considerable size when compared to the duchy's number of inhabitants. Initially consisting of 30,000 of regular soldiers (made up of both [[Polish cavalry|cavalry]] and infantry),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wandycz |first=Piotr S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9dUHCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 |title=The Lands of Partitioned Poland, 1795–1918 |date=1 February 1975 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-80361-6 |pages=48 |language=en }}</ref> its numbers were to rise to over 60,000 in 1810, and by the time of [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia|Napoleon's campaign in Russia]] in 1812, its army totaled almost 120,000 troops out of a total population of just 4.3&nbsp;million people – a similar number of troops in total available to Napoleon at Austerlitz, from a country of more than 25 million people.
 ===Economy===
-The heavy drain on its resources by forced military recruitment, combined with a drop in exports of grain, caused significant problems for the duchy's economy. To make matters worse, in 1808 the French Empire imposed on the duchy an agreement at [[Bayonne]] to buy from France the debts owed to it by Prussia.<ref name="MagocsiSedlar1974-49">{{cite book|author1=Paul Robert Magocsi|author2=Jean W. Sedlar|author3=Robert A. Kann |author4=Charles Jelavich |author5=Joseph Rothschild|title=A History of East Central Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TVMmGKsbWJ4C&pg=PA49|access-date=11 May 2012|year=1974|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0-295-95358-8|page=49}}</ref> The [[debt]], amounting to more than 43 million [[franc]]s in [[gold]], was bought at a discounted rate of 21 million francs.<ref name="MagocsiSedlar1974-49"/>
+The heavy drain on its resources by forced military recruitment, combined with a drop in exports of grain, caused significant problems for the duchy's economy. To make matters worse, in 1808 the French Empire imposed on the duchy an agreement at [[Bayonne]] to buy from France the debts owed to it by Prussia.<ref name="MagocsiSedlar1974-49">{{cite book |author1=Paul Robert Magocsi |author2=Jean W. Sedlar |author3=Robert A. Kann |author4=Charles Jelavich |author5=Joseph Rothschild |title=A History of East Central Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TVMmGKsbWJ4C&pg=PA49 |access-date=11 May 2012 |year=1974 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-95358-8 |page=49 }}</ref> The [[debt]], amounting to more than 43 million [[franc]]s in gold, was bought at a discounted rate of 21 million francs.<ref name="MagocsiSedlar1974-49"/>
 Although the duchy made its payments in installments to France over a four-year period, Prussia was unable to pay it (due to a very large indemnity it owed to France), causing the Polish economy to suffer heavily. Indeed, to this day the phrase "sum of Bayonne" is a synonym in [[Polish language|Polish]] for a huge amount of money.<ref name="MagocsiSedlar1974-49"/> All these problems resulted in both inflation and over-taxation.
-To counter the threat of [[bankruptcy]], the authorities intensified the development and modernization of [[agriculture]]. Also, a [[protectionism|protectionist]] policy was introduced to protect [[Industrial sector|industry]].
+To counter the threat of bankruptcy, the authorities intensified the development and modernization of agriculture. Also, a [[protectionism|protectionist]] policy was introduced to protect [[Industrial sector|industry]].
 ==Geography and demographics==
-According to the [[Treaties of Tilsit]], the area of the duchy covered roughly the areas of the 2nd and 3rd [[Partitions of Poland|Prussian partitions]], with the exception of [[Gdańsk|Danzig (Gdańsk)]], which became the [[Free City of Danzig (Napoleonic)|Free City of Danzig]] under joint French and Saxon "protection", and of the district around [[Białystok]], which became part of Russia. The Prussian territory was made up of territory from the former Prussian provinces of [[New East Prussia]], [[Southern Prussia]], [[New Silesia]], and [[West Prussia]]. In addition, the new state was given the area along the [[Noteć]] river and the [[Chełmno Land|Land of Chełmno]].
+According to the [[Treaties of Tilsit]], the area of the duchy covered roughly the areas of the 2nd and 3rd [[Prussian partition]]s, with the exception of [[Gdańsk|Danzig (Gdańsk)]], which became the [[Free City of Danzig (Napoleonic)|Free City of Danzig]] under joint French and Saxon "protection", and of the district around [[Białystok]], which became part of Russia. The Prussian territory was made up of territory from the former Prussian provinces of [[New East Prussia]], [[Southern Prussia]], [[New Silesia]], and [[West Prussia]]. In addition, the new state was given the area along the [[Noteć]] river and the [[Chełmno Land|Land of Chełmno]].
-Altogether, the duchy had an initial area of around {{convert|104,000|km2|abbr=on}}, with a population of approximately 2,600,000. The bulk of its inhabitants were [[Polish people|Poles]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=ВАРШАВСЬКЕ КНЯЗІВСТВО [Електронний ресурс] |url=http://resource.history.org.ua/cgi-bin/eiu/history.exe?&I21DBN=EIU&P21DBN=EIU&S21STN=1&S21REF=10&S21FMT=eiu_all&C21COM=S&S21CNR=20&S21P01=0&S21P02=0&S21P03=TRN=&S21COLORTERMS=0&S21STR=Varshavske_kniazivstvo |website=ІНСТИТУТ ІСТОРІЇ УКРАЇНИ. НАЦІОНАЛЬНА АКАДЕМІЯ НАУК УКРАЇНИ}}</ref>
+Altogether, the duchy had an initial area of around {{convert|104000|km2}}, with a population of approximately 2,600,000. The bulk of its inhabitants were [[Polish people|Poles]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=ВАРШАВСЬКЕ КНЯЗІВСТВО [Електронний ресурс] |url=http://resource.history.org.ua/cgi-bin/eiu/history.exe?&I21DBN=EIU&P21DBN=EIU&S21STN=1&S21REF=10&S21FMT=eiu_all&C21COM=S&S21CNR=20&S21P01=0&S21P02=0&S21P03=TRN=&S21COLORTERMS=0&S21STR=Varshavske_kniazivstvo |website=ІНСТИТУТ ІСТОРІЇ УКРАЇНИ. НАЦІОНАЛЬНА АКАДЕМІЯ НАУК УКРАЇНИ }}</ref>
-Following the annexation in 1809 of Austrian [[West Galicia]] and the district of [[Zamość]] ({{ill|Zamoscer Kreis|de}}), the duchy's area increased significantly, to around {{convert|155,000|km2|abbr=on}}, and the population also substantially increased, to roughly 4,300,000.
+In 1809 the Duchy annexed [[West Galicia]], the area of the 1795 [[Austrian partition]], and the district of [[Zamość]] ({{ill|Zamoscer Kreis|de}}): The duchy's area increased significantly, to around {{cvt|155000|km2}}, and the population also substantially increased, to roughly 4,300,000.
-According to the 1810 census, the duchy had a population of 4,334,000, of whom a clear majority were ethnic Poles, Jews constituted 7% of the inhabitants (perhaps an underestimation), Germans - 6%, Lithuanians and Ruthenians - 4%.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Czubaty|first1=Jarosław|title=The Duchy of Warsaw, 1807-1815: A Napoleonic Outpost in Central Europe|date=2016|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|page=109}}</ref>
+According to the 1810 census, the duchy had a population of 4,334,000, of whom a clear majority were ethnic Poles. Jews constituted 7% of the inhabitants (perhaps an underestimation), Germans – 6%, Lithuanians and Ruthenians – 4%.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Czubaty |first1=Jarosław |title=The Duchy of Warsaw, 1807–1815: A Napoleonic Outpost in Central Europe |date=2016 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |page=109 }}</ref>
 == Legacy ==
@@ Line 167: / Line 163: @@
 Superficially, the Duchy of Warsaw was just one of the various states set up during Napoleon's dominance over Eastern and Central Europe, lasting only a few years and passing with his fall. However, its establishment a little over a decade after the Second and Third Partitions, that had appeared to wipe Poland off the map, meant that Poles had their hopes rekindled of a resurrected Polish state. Even with Napoleon's defeat, a Polish state continued in some form until the increasingly autocratic Russian state eliminated Poland once again as a separate entity. Altogether, this meant that an identifiable Polish state was in existence for at least a quarter of a century.
-At the 200th anniversary of the creation of this iteration of the Polish state, numerous commemorative events dedicated to that event were held in the Polish capital of Warsaw. In addition, the Polish Ministry of Defense asked for the honor of holding a joint parade of Polish and French soldiers to which President [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] agreed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rp.pl/|title=Rp.pl: Najważniejsze wiadomości gospodarcze, prawne i polityczne z Polski i ze świata. Aktualne wiadomości z dnia - rp.pl|website=www.rp.pl}}</ref>
+At the 200th anniversary of the creation of this iteration of the Polish state, numerous commemorative events dedicated to that event were held in the Polish capital of Warsaw. In addition, the Polish Ministry of Defense asked for the honor of holding a joint parade of Polish and French soldiers to which President [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] agreed.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rp.pl/ |title=Rp.pl: Najważniejsze wiadomości gospodarcze, prawne i polityczne z Polski i ze świata. Aktualne wiadomości z dnia – rp.pl |website=www.rp.pl |access-date=2020-08-26 |archive-date=2020-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200826025551/https://www.rp.pl/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
 ==See also==
@@ Line 175: / Line 171: @@
 * [[1st Polish Light Cavalry Regiment of the Imperial Guard]]
 * [[Army of the Duchy of Warsaw]]
-* [[Greater Poland Uprising (1806)]]
+* [[Greater Poland uprising (1806)]]
 * [[Congress Poland]]
 * [[List of French possessions and colonies]]
@@ Line 183: / Line 179: @@
 ==Further reading==
-* Martyna Deszczyńska. "'As Poor as Church Mice': Bishops, Finances, Posts, and Civil Duties in the Duchy of Warsaw, 1807-13," ''Central Europe'' (2011) 9#1 pp 18–31.
+* Martyna Deszczyńska. "'As Poor as Church Mice': Bishops, Finances, Posts, and Civil Duties in the Duchy of Warsaw, 1807–13," ''Central Europe'' (2011) 9#1 pp 18–31.
 * E. Fedosova (December 1998), ''[http://www.napoleon-series.org/ins/scholarship98/c_polish.html Polish Projects of Napoleon Bonaparte]'', ''Journal of the International Napoleonic Society'' '''1'''(2)
 * Alexander Grab, ''Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe'' (2003) pp 176–87
-* {{cite book|author=Otto Pivka|title=Napoleon's Polish Troops|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ETYsTuIaKkQC&pg=PA8|year=2012|publisher=Osprey Publishing|pages=8–10|isbn=9781780965499}}
+* {{cite book |author=Otto Pivka |title=Napoleon's Polish Troops |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ETYsTuIaKkQC&pg=PA8 |year=2012 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |pages=8–10 |isbn=9781780965499}}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
 ==External links==
@@ Line 198: / Line 194: @@
 {{Client states of the Great French War}}
 {{Authority control}}
-{{coord|52.2333|N|21.0167|E|source:wikidata|display=title}}
+{{Wikidatacoord|Q152115|display=title|name=Pałac Prezydencki}}
 {{DEFAULTSORT:Warsaw, Duchy of}}
@@ Line 204: / Line 200: @@
 [[Category:States and territories established in 1807]]
 [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1815]]
-[[Category:History of Warsaw|Duchy of Warsaw]]
+[[Category:Political history of Warsaw|Duchy of Warsaw]]
 [[Category:1807 establishments in Poland]]
 [[Category:1815 disestablishments in Poland]]

Authority control databases
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National	United States Poland Israel