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Urban density is a concept used in urban planning, urban studies, and related fields to describe the intensity of people, jobs, housing units, total floor area of buildings, or some other measure of human occupation, activity, and development across a defined unit of area. In general terms, urban density describes the degree of concentration or compactness of people or development in a city.^[1] As such it is to be distinguished from other measures of population density. Urban density is considered an important factor in understanding how cities function. Research related to urban density occurs across diverse areas, including economics, health, innovation, psychology and geography as well as sustainability.

A 2019 meta-analysis of 180 studies on a vast number of economic outcomes of urban density concluded that urban density had net positive effects. However, there may be some regressive distributional effects.^[2]

Sustainability

It is commonly asserted that higher-density cities are more sustainable than low-density cities. This is because they reduce urban sprawl, minimize land use, and make services and infrastructure more efficient and accessible to residents.^[3] Much urban planning theory - particularly in North America, the UK, Australia, and New Zealand - has been developed premised on raising urban densities, such as New Urbanism, transit-oriented development, and smart growth. This assertion, however, remains a contested or challenged one.^[4]

The link between urban density and aspects of sustainability remains a contested area of planning theory.^[5] Jan Gehl, prominent Urban Designer and expert on sustainable urbanism, argues that low-density, dispersed cities are unsustainable as they are automobile dependent. NASA, for example, has established a direct correlation between urban density and air pollution.^[6]

Others, such as Randal O'Toole of the libertarian Cato Institute, point to how raising densities results in more expensive real estate, greater road congestion, and more localized air pollution.^{[citation needed]} At a broader level, there is evidence to indicate a strong negative correlation between the total energy consumption of a city and its overall urban density, i.e. the lower the density, the more energy consumed.^[7] The location and urban setting where densification processes occur therefore need to be considered for sustainable densification.^[8]

Measurement

Urban density is a very specific measurement of the population of an urbanized area, excluding non-urban land-uses. Non-urban uses include regional open space, agriculture and water-bodies.

There are a variety of other ways of measuring the density of urban areas:

Population density - the number of human persons per unit area
- Median density - a density metric which measures the density at which the average person lives. It is determined by ranking the census tracts by population density, and taking the density at which fifty percent of the population lives at a higher density and fifty percent lives at a lower density.^[9]
- Population-weighted density - a density metric which measures the density at which the average person lives. It is determined by calculating the standard density of each census tract, assigning each a weight equal to its share of the total population, and then adding the segments.^[10]
Residential density - the number of dwelling units in any given area
Floor area ratio - the total floor area of buildings divided by land area of the lot upon which the buildings are built
Employment density - the number of jobs in any given area
Gross density - any density figure for a given area of land that includes uses not necessarily directly relevant to the figure (usually roads and other transport infrastructure)
Net density - a density figure for a given area of land that excludes land not directly related to the figure.

Impact

A 2019 meta-analysis of 180 studies on a vast number of economic outcomes of urban density concluded that urban density had net positive effects. However, there may be some regressive distributional effects.^[2]

A 2020 study concluded that urban density "boosts productivity and innovation, improves access to goods and services, reduces typical travel distances, encourages energy efficient construction and transport, and allows broader sharing of scarce urban amenities. However, density is also synonymous with crowding and makes living and moving in cities more costly."^[11]

References

^ Hess, Paul (2014). "Density, Urban". Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 1554–1557. ISBN 978-94-007-0753-5.
^ ^a ^b Ahlfeldt, Gabriel M.; Pietrostefani, Elisabetta (2019). "The economic effects of density: A synthesis". Journal of Urban Economics. 111: 93–107. doi:10.1016/j.jue.2019.04.006. hdl:10419/173020. S2CID 157491186.
^ Lehmann, Steffen (2019). "Understanding the Benefits of Urban Density". Urban Regeneration: A Manifesto for transforming UK Cities in the Age of Climate Change. Springer International Publishing. pp. 79–107. ISBN 978-3-030-04711-5.
^ Williams, Katie, Elizabeth Burton, and Mike Jenks. "Achieving the compact city through intensification: An acceptable option." The compact city: A sustainable urban form (1996): 83-96.
^ Jones, Christopher (2014). "Spatial Distribution of U.S. Household Carbon Footprints Reveals Suburbanization Undermines Greenhouse Gas Benefits of Urban Population Density". Environmental Science and Technology. 48 (2): 895–902. Bibcode:2014EnST...48..895J. doi:10.1021/es4034364. PMID 24328208.
^ Hansen, Kathryn (August 19, 2013). "NASA scientists relate urban population to air pollution". NASA's Earth Science News Team. Retrieved 2019-07-09.
^ Newman, Peter; Jeffrey R. Kenworthy (1999). Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence. Island Press. ISBN 978-1-55963-660-5.
^ Eggimann, Sven; Wagner, Michael; Ho, yoo Na; Züger, Mirjam; Schneider, Ute; Orehounig, Kristina (2021). "Geospatial simulation of urban neighbourhood densification potentials". Sustainable Cities and Society. 72 (103068): 103068. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2021.103068. hdl:20.500.11850/491075.
^ Rowlands, D. W. (27 November 2017). "The way we calculate population density is wrong. Here's what we should do instead". Greater Greater Washington. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
^ Ottensmann, John R. (1 Feb 2018). "On Population-Weighted Density". SSRN. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3119965. S2CID 202919206. Retrieved 27 April 2020. Population-weighted density is the mean of the densities of subareas of a larger area weighted by the populations of those subareas. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Duranton, Gilles; Puga, Diego (2020). "The Economics of Urban Density". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 34 (3): 3–26. doi:10.1257/jep.34.3.3. ISSN 0895-3309.

External links

[1] Hess, Paul (2014). "Density, Urban". Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 1554–1557. ISBN 978-94-007-0753-5.

[:0-2] Ahlfeldt, Gabriel M.; Pietrostefani, Elisabetta (2019). "The economic effects of density: A synthesis". Journal of Urban Economics. 111: 93–107. doi:10.1016/j.jue.2019.04.006. hdl:10419/173020. S2CID 157491186.

[3] Lehmann, Steffen (2019). "Understanding the Benefits of Urban Density". Urban Regeneration: A Manifesto for transforming UK Cities in the Age of Climate Change. Springer International Publishing. pp. 79–107. ISBN 978-3-030-04711-5.

[4] Williams, Katie, Elizabeth Burton, and Mike Jenks. "Achieving the compact city through intensification: An acceptable option." The compact city: A sustainable urban form (1996): 83-96.

[5] Jones, Christopher (2014). "Spatial Distribution of U.S. Household Carbon Footprints Reveals Suburbanization Undermines Greenhouse Gas Benefits of Urban Population Density". Environmental Science and Technology. 48 (2): 895–902. Bibcode:2014EnST...48..895J. doi:10.1021/es4034364. PMID 24328208.

[6] Hansen, Kathryn (August 19, 2013). "NASA scientists relate urban population to air pollution". NASA's Earth Science News Team. Retrieved 2019-07-09.

[7] Newman, Peter; Jeffrey R. Kenworthy (1999). Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence. Island Press. ISBN 978-1-55963-660-5.

[8] Eggimann, Sven; Wagner, Michael; Ho, yoo Na; Züger, Mirjam; Schneider, Ute; Orehounig, Kristina (2021). "Geospatial simulation of urban neighbourhood densification potentials". Sustainable Cities and Society. 72 (103068): 103068. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2021.103068. hdl:20.500.11850/491075.

[9] Rowlands, D. W. (27 November 2017). "The way we calculate population density is wrong. Here's what we should do instead". Greater Greater Washington. Retrieved 27 April 2020.

[10] Ottensmann, John R. (1 Feb 2018). "On Population-Weighted Density". SSRN. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3119965. S2CID 202919206. Retrieved 27 April 2020. Population-weighted density is the mean of the densities of subareas of a larger area weighted by the populations of those subareas. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[11] Duranton, Gilles; Puga, Diego (2020). "The Economics of Urban Density". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 34 (3): 3–26. doi:10.1257/jep.34.3.3. ISSN 0895-3309.

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+{{Short description|Number of people inhabiting a given urbanized area}}
-'''Urban density''' is a term used in [[urban planning]] and [[urban design]] to refer to the number of people inhabiting a given [[urbanized area]]. As such it is to be distinguished from other measures of [[population density]]. Urban density is considered an important factor in understanding how cities function. Research related to urban density occurs across diverse areas, including economics, health, innovation, psychology and geography as well as [[sustainability]].
+{{World city population tables}}
+'''Urban density''' is a concept used in [[urban planning]], [[urban studies]], and related fields to describe the intensity of people, jobs, housing units, total floor area of buildings, or some other measure of human occupation, activity, and development across a defined unit of area. In general terms, urban density describes the degree of concentration or compactness of people or development in a city.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hess |first1=Paul |title=Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research |date=2014 |publisher=Springer |location=Dordrecht |isbn=978-94-007-0753-5 |pages=1554–1557 |url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_698 |language=en |chapter=Density, Urban}}</ref> As such it is to be distinguished from other measures of [[population density]]. Urban density is considered an important factor in understanding how cities function. Research related to urban density occurs across diverse areas, including economics, health, innovation, psychology and geography as well as [[sustainability]].
-A 2019 meta-analysis of 180 studies on a vast number of economic outcomes of urban density concluded that urban density had net positive effects but had some regressive distributional effects, which is to say, a negative impact on lower-income residents.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094119019300282|title=The economic effects of density: A synthesis|last=|first=|date=2019|website=Journal of Urban Economics|doi=10.1016/j.jue.2019.04.006|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2019-05-04}}</ref>
+A 2019 meta-analysis of 180 studies on a vast number of economic outcomes of urban density concluded that urban density had net positive effects. However, there may be some regressive distributional effects.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=The economic effects of density: A synthesis|date=2019|journal=Journal of Urban Economics|volume=111|pages=93–107|doi=10.1016/j.jue.2019.04.006|last1=Ahlfeldt|first1=Gabriel M.|last2=Pietrostefani|first2=Elisabetta|s2cid=157491186|url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/83628/|hdl=10419/173020|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
 == Sustainability ==
 [[File:Revised petrol use urban density.jpg|thumb|A graph showing the relationship between urban density and petrol use.]]
-It is commonly asserted that higher density cities are more sustainable than low density cities. Much urban [[Urban planning|planning theory]], particularly in North America, the UK,  Australia and New Zealand has been developed premised on raising urban densities, such as [[New Urbanism]], [[transit-oriented development]], and [[smart growth]]. This assertion however, remains a challenged one.<ref>Williams, Katie, Elizabeth Burton, and Mike Jenks. "Achieving the compact city through intensification: An acceptable option." The compact city: A sustainable urban form (1996): 83-96.</ref>
+It is commonly asserted that higher-density cities are more sustainable than low-density cities. This is because they reduce urban sprawl, minimize land use, and make services and infrastructure more efficient and accessible to residents.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lehmann |first1=Steffen |title=Urban Regeneration: A Manifesto for transforming UK Cities in the Age of Climate Change |date=2019 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-04711-5 |pages=79–107 |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-04711-5_3 |language=en |chapter=Understanding the Benefits of Urban Density}}</ref> Much urban [[Urban planning|planning theory]] - particularly in North America, the UK,  Australia, and New Zealand - has been developed premised on raising urban densities, such as [[New Urbanism]], [[transit-oriented development]], and [[smart growth]]. This assertion, however, remains a contested or challenged one.<ref>Williams, Katie, Elizabeth Burton, and Mike Jenks. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=MliRAgAAQBAJ&dq=%22Achieving+the+compact+city+through+intensification:+An+acceptable+option%22&pg=PA71 Achieving the compact city through intensification: An acceptable option]." The compact city: A sustainable urban form (1996): 83-96.</ref>
-The link between urban density and aspects of [[sustainability]] remains a contested area of planning theory.<ref>{{Cite journal|title =Spatial Distribution of U.S. Household Carbon Footprints Reveals Suburbanization Undermines Greenhouse Gas Benefits of Urban Population Density|last = Jones|first = Christopher|year=2014 |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=895–902 |journal = Environmental Science and Technology |doi = 10.1021/es4034364 |pmid = 24328208}}</ref> [[Jan Gehl]], prominent Urban Designer and expert on [[sustainable urbanism]], argues that low-density, dispersed cities are unsustainable as they are [[Automobile dependency|automobile dependent]]. NASA, for example, has established a direct correlation between urban density and air pollution.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/nasa-scientists-relate-urban-population-to-air-pollution/|title=NASA scientists relate urban population to air pollution|last=|first=|date=2013|website=NASA
+The link between urban density and aspects of [[sustainability]] remains a contested area of planning theory.<ref>{{Cite journal|title =Spatial Distribution of U.S. Household Carbon Footprints Reveals Suburbanization Undermines Greenhouse Gas Benefits of Urban Population Density|last = Jones|first = Christopher|year=2014 |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=895–902 |journal = Environmental Science and Technology |doi = 10.1021/es4034364 |pmid = 24328208|bibcode = 2014EnST...48..895J|url = https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7js4722d}}</ref> [[Jan Gehl]], prominent Urban Designer and expert on [[sustainable urbanism]], argues that low-density, dispersed cities are unsustainable as they are [[Automobile dependency|automobile dependent]]. NASA, for example, has established a direct correlation between urban density and air pollution.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/nasa-scientists-relate-urban-population-to-air-pollution/|title=NASA scientists relate urban population to air pollution|website=NASA's Earth Science News Team|first =Kathryn |last=Hansen|access-date=2019-07-09|date=August 19, 2013}}</ref>
-s Earth Science News Team|doi=10.1016/j.jul.2019.08.006|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2019-07-09}}</ref> Others, such as Randy O'Toole of the [[Libertarianism|Libertarian]] [[Cato Institute]], point to how  raising densities results in more expensive real estate, greater road congestion and more localized air pollution. Others counter that traffic congestion is a result not of population density but of parking capacity.<ref>{{cite web |title=More density does not equal more [car] traffic |author=Jacobsen, Shaun |date={{date|2014-01-14|iso}} |quote=...tall buildings don’t create traffic. Cars create traffic. If we want less [automobile] traffic on the streets, we need to build less capacity for them, including parking. |url=http://transitized.com/2014/01/14/density-equal-car-traffic/ |publisher=Transitized}}</ref> At a broader level, there is evidence to indicate a strong negative correlation between the total energy consumption of a city and its overall urban density, i.e. the lower the density, the more energy consumed.<ref>
+Others, such as Randal O'Toole of the [[Libertarianism|libertarian]] [[Cato Institute]], point to how raising densities results in more expensive real estate, greater road congestion, and more localized air pollution.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} At a broader level, there is evidence to indicate a strong negative correlation between the total energy consumption of a city and its overall urban density, i.e. the lower the density, the more energy consumed.<ref>{{cite book|last= Newman|first= Peter |author2=Jeffrey R. Kenworthy |title= Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence|year= 1999|publisher= Island Press|isbn= 978-1-55963-660-5}}</ref> The location and urban setting where densification processes occur therefore need to be considered for sustainable densification.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Eggimann|first1=Sven|last2=Wagner|first2=Michael|last3=Ho|first3=yoo Na|last4=Züger|first4=Mirjam|last5=Schneider|first5=Ute|last6=Orehounig|first6=Kristina|title=Geospatial simulation of urban neighbourhood densification potentials|journal=Sustainable Cities and Society|date=2021|volume=72|issue=103068|page=103068 |doi=10.1016/j.scs.2021.103068|doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.11850/491075|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
-{{cite book
-|last= Newman
-|first= Peter
-|author2=Jeffrey R. Kenworthy
- |title= Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence
-|year= 1999
-|publisher= Island Press
-|isbn= 978-1-55963-660-5
-}}</ref>
 == Measurement ==
@@ Line 24: / Line 18: @@
 There are a variety of other ways of measuring the density of urban areas:
+* [[Population density]] - the number of human persons per unit area
-* [[Floor area ratio]] - the total floor area of buildings divided by land area of the lot upon which the buildings are built
+** Median density - a density metric which measures the density at which the average person lives. It is determined by ranking the census tracts by population density, and taking the density at which fifty percent of the population lives at a higher density and fifty percent lives at a lower density.<ref>
+{{ Cite web  | last = Rowlands | first = D. W. | date = 27 November 2017 | title = The way we calculate population density is wrong. Here's what we should do instead | url = https://ggwash.org/view/65370/median-versus-average-population-density | website = Greater Greater Washington | access-date = 27 April 2020 }} </ref>
+** Population-weighted density - a density metric which measures the density at which the average person lives.  It is determined by calculating the standard density of each census tract, assigning each a weight equal to its share of the total population, and then adding the segments.<ref> {{cite journal | url = https://ssrn.com/abstract=3119965  | doi = 10.2139/ssrn.3119965 | title = On Population-Weighted Density | last = Ottensmann | first = John R. | date = 1 Feb 2018
+ | website =  | publisher = [[SSRN]] | s2cid = 202919206 | access-date = 27 April 2020 | quote = Population-weighted density is the mean of the densities of subareas of a larger area weighted by the populations of those subareas.}} </ref>
 * Residential density - the number of dwelling units in any given area
+* [[Floor area ratio]] - the total floor area of buildings divided by land area of the lot upon which the buildings are built
-* [[Population density]] - the number of human persons in any given area
 * Employment density - the number of jobs in any given area
 * Gross density - any density figure for a given area of land that includes uses not necessarily directly relevant to the figure (usually roads and other transport infrastructure)
 * Net density - a density figure for a given area of land that excludes land not directly related to the figure.
-* Weighted density - a density metric which measures the density at which the average citizen lives.  It is determined by calculating the standard density of each census tract, assigning each a weight equal to its share of the total population, and then adding the segments.
+== Impact ==
+A 2019 meta-analysis of 180 studies on a vast number of economic outcomes of urban density concluded that urban density had net positive effects. However, there may be some regressive distributional effects.<ref name=":0" />
+A 2020 study concluded that urban density "boosts productivity and innovation, improves access to goods and services, reduces typical travel distances, encourages energy efficient construction and transport, and allows broader sharing of scarce urban amenities. However, density is also synonymous with crowding and makes living and moving in cities more costly."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Duranton|first1=Gilles|last2=Puga|first2=Diego|date=2020|title=The Economics of Urban Density|journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives|language=en|volume=34|issue=3|pages=3–26|doi=10.1257/jep.34.3.3|issn=0895-3309|doi-access=free}}</ref>
 == See also ==
 * [[Compact city]]
 * [[List of cities proper by population density]]
+* [[List of countries and dependencies by population density]]
 * [[Smart growth]]
 * [[Transportation planning]]
 * [[Urban sprawl]]
+* [[Urban vitality]]
 * [[Verticalization]]