Alashiya: Difference between revisions

Content deleted Content added

Inline

Revision as of 19:13, 30 October 2024

Alashiya (Akkadian: 𒀀𒆷𒅆𒅀 Alašiya [a-la-ši-ia]; Ugaritic: 𐎀𐎍𐎘𐎊 ẢLṮY; Linear B: 𐀀𐀨𐀯𐀍 Alasios [a-ra-si-jo]; Hieratic "'irs3"), also spelled Alasiya, also known as the Kingdom of Alashiya,^[1] was a state which existed in the Middle and Late Bronze Ages, and was situated somewhere in the Eastern Mediterranean. It was a major source of goods, especially copper, for ancient Egypt and other states in the Ancient Near East. It is referred to in a number of the surviving texts and is now thought to be the ancient name of Cyprus, or an area of Cyprus. This was confirmed by the scientific analysis performed in Tel Aviv University of the clay tablets which were sent from Alashiya to other rulers.^[2]

Texts

The name of the state, rendered as Alashiya, is found on texts written in Egyptian, Hittite, Akkadian, Mycenean (Linear B) and Ugaritic. The name may be the origin of the later Biblical term Elishah.^[3]^[4]

Some of the Amarna letters are from the king or the ministers of Alashiya. They concern mostly the amount of copper that has been sent from Alashiya and requests for silver or ivory in return. One letter refers to 500 talents of copper (probably about 12.5 tons) and makes excuses as to why so little copper has been sent. The Pharaoh is also referred to by the King of Alashiya as his "brother", indicating that the king regarded himself as an equal, probably because of the economic power of his kingdom. Papyrus Anastasi IV, written several centuries later, also refers to copper (as well as cows) sent from Alashiya to Egypt.^[5]

In other correspondence, the King of Ugarit pleads for military assistance from the King of Alashiya. Another document from Ugarit records the banishment of two princes to "the land of Alashiya". One further text found at Ugarit may contain a further clue to the location of the capital city of Alashiya, as it could imply that the city was located on a mountain. However, this word has more usually been translated as shore.^[6] The first recorded name of a Cypriot king is Kushmeshusha, as appears on letters sent to Ugarit in the 13th century BC.^[7]

The extant ending of the Story of Wenamun records how Wenamun, a priest of Egypt, had been blown off course on the sea journey from Byblos to Egypt and ended up on Alashiya. Wenamun reports that he was almost killed by an angry mob, but was rescued by Hatbi, the "princess of the town".

Around 1400 BC, the Hittite king Arnuwanda I chastised his vassal Madduwatta for raiding Alashiya, asserting that it was Hittite territory. Madduwatta replied that he had been unaware of the Hittite claim:^[8]

The father of his Majesty [had never informed] me, [nor] had his Majesty ever informed [me] (thus): ʻThe land of Alasiya is mine— recognize it as such!ʼ^[9]

Although Madduwatta's statement can be interpreted as prevarication, no surviving texts from this period refer to Hittite involvement in Alashiya and the empire's military situation would have made direct control unlikely. Thus, the political reality behind this statement remains unclear.^[10]

Around 1200 BC, the Hittite kings Tudhaliya IV and Suppiluliuma II waged military campaigns in Alashiya and forced its king to sign a treaty of submission.^[10]^[11]

List of Amarna letters from Alashiya

EA 33; Title: An Alliance in the Making
EA 34; Title: The Pharaoh's reproach answered
EA 35; Title: The hand of Nergal
EA 36; Title: More about copper
EA 37; Title: More about silver
EA 38; Title: A brotherly quarrel
EA 39; Title: Duty-Free
EA 40; Title: Duty-Free, Governor to Governor

Identification

Alashiya was known to be a regional source of copper for other East Mediterranean states, which it traded along maritime routes of the era. Alashiya therefore needs to be situated somewhere where there was sizable Bronze Age copper production, on the coast, and in the East Mediterranean. There are additional clues to its location in surviving texts including references to the King of Alashiya having ships and to the kingdom being raided by Lukka people.^[12]

Some scholars have suggested sites and areas of Syria or Turkey, but it is now generally (although not universally) agreed that Alashiya refers to at least part of Cyprus.^[13] Specifically, it was generally argued that the site of Enkomi was the capital of the kingdom of Alashiya, which covered the entire island of Cyprus.^[14]

The identification of Cyprus with Alashiya was confirmed by the 2003 publication by Goren et al. of an article in the American Journal of Archaeology detailing the petrographic and chemical analysis of a number of the Amarna and Ugaritic letters sent from Alashiya. These examinations of the provenance of the clay used to create the tablets indicate that Syria could not be the location of Alashiya, while clay on Cyprus is a good match.

However, this analysis showed that the clays did not originate anywhere near the site of Enkomi and that suitable clays are close to the sites of Kalavasos and Alassa (itself a possible cognate of Alashiya). These sites, especially Kalavasos, were also important Late Bronze Age sites and are located close to sources of copper.

Moreover, Armstrong^[15] argues that there is considerable evidence for regional variation and that there is no evidence for a centralized, island-wide political authority on Cyprus during the Late Bronze Age.

It is therefore currently unclear whether the kingdom of Alashiya comprised the whole of Cyprus, with the capital city moving location (probably starting with Enkomi), or was always sited at Kalavasos, or whether Alashiya comprised only one region of Cyprus.^[16]

References

^ Knapp, A. Bernard. (1985). "J Article Alashiya, Caphtor/Keftiu, and Eastern Mediterranean Trade: Recent Studies in Cypriote Archaeology and History". Journal of Field Archaeology. 12 (2): 231–250. doi:10.2307/530294. JSTOR 530294.
^ Goren et al. 2003
^ The expansion of the Greek world, eighth to sixth centuries B.C., John Boardman, Volume 3 Cambridge Ancient History, Cambridge University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-521-23447-6, ISBN 978-0-521-23447-4
^ "Now, this Elishah is often identified with Alashiya in the scholarly literature, an ancient name often associated with Cyprus or a part of the island." Gard Granerød (26 March 2010). Abraham and Melchizedek: Scribal Activity of Second Temple Times in Genesis 14 and Psalm 110. Walter de Gruyter. p. 116. ISBN 978-3-11-022346-0.
^ Knapp 1996
^ Goren 2003
^ Eric H. Cline (22 September 2015). 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-7449-1.
^ Beckman, Gary; Bryce, Trevor; Cline, Eric (2012). The Ahhiyawa Texts. Brill. pp. 69, 99. ISBN 978-1589832688.
^ Beckman, Gary; Bryce, Trevor; Cline, Eric (2012). The Ahhiyawa Texts. Brill. p. 95. ISBN 978-1589832688.
^ ^a ^b Beckman, Gary; Bryce, Trevor; Cline, Eric (2012). The Ahhiyawa Texts. Brill. p. 99. ISBN 978-1589832688.
^ Beal, Richard (2011). "Hittite Anatolia: A Political History". In Steadman, Sharon; McMahon, Gregory (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. Oxford University Press. p. 594. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0026.
^ Armstrong 2003
^ Wachsmann 1986
^ Knapp 1997
^ Armstrong, 2003
^ Goren et al. 2003; Armstrong 2003

Sources

Armstrong, K. M. 2003. Settlement Hierarchy and The Location of Alashiya on Cyprus. MA dissertation preprint, University of Cincinnati.
Buttrick, G. A. and C. M. Laymon. 1971. The Interpreter's One Volume Commentary on the Bible, pp. 13–14. ISBN 0-687-19299-4.
Goren, Y., Bunimovitz, S., Finkelstein, I. and Na'aman, N. 1993. The Location of Alashiya, Petrographic analysis of the tablets. American Journal of Archaeology 107:233-255
Knapp, A. Bernard. (1985). "J Article Alashiya, Caphtor/Keftiu, and Eastern Mediterranean Trade: Recent Studies in Cypriote Archaeology and History". Journal of Field Archaeology. 12 (2).
Knapp, A. B. ed. 1996. Near Eastern and Aegean Texts from the Third to the First Millennia BC. (Translations of all 122 Bronze Age and early Iron Age texts referring to "Alashiya"). ISBN 0-9651704-2-X
Knapp, A. B. 1997. The Archaeology of Late Bronze Age Cypriot Society. ISBN 0-85261-573-6
Schwemer, D. 2008. The Storm-Gods of the Ancient Near East: Summary, Synthesis, Recent Studies (part II). Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2008.
Wachsmann, S. 1986. Is Cyprus Ancient Alashiya? New Evidence from an Egyptian Tablet. The Biblical Archaeologist 49(1):37-40

External links

[1] Knapp, A. Bernard. (1985). "J Article Alashiya, Caphtor/Keftiu, and Eastern Mediterranean Trade: Recent Studies in Cypriote Archaeology and History". Journal of Field Archaeology. 12 (2): 231–250. doi:10.2307/530294. JSTOR 530294.

[2] Goren et al. 2003

[3] The expansion of the Greek world, eighth to sixth centuries B.C., John Boardman, Volume 3 Cambridge Ancient History, Cambridge University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-521-23447-6, ISBN 978-0-521-23447-4

[Granerød2010-4] "Now, this Elishah is often identified with Alashiya in the scholarly literature, an ancient name often associated with Cyprus or a part of the island." Gard Granerød (26 March 2010). Abraham and Melchizedek: Scribal Activity of Second Temple Times in Genesis 14 and Psalm 110. Walter de Gruyter. p. 116. ISBN 978-3-11-022346-0.

[5] Knapp 1996

[6] Goren 2003

[Cline2015-7] Eric H. Cline (22 September 2015). 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-7449-1.

[8] Beckman, Gary; Bryce, Trevor; Cline, Eric (2012). The Ahhiyawa Texts. Brill. pp. 69, 99. ISBN 978-1589832688.

[9] Beckman, Gary; Bryce, Trevor; Cline, Eric (2012). The Ahhiyawa Texts. Brill. p. 95. ISBN 978-1589832688.

[978-1589832688_p99-10] Beckman, Gary; Bryce, Trevor; Cline, Eric (2012). The Ahhiyawa Texts. Brill. p. 99. ISBN 978-1589832688.

[Beal-2011-Steadman-McMahon-11] Beal, Richard (2011). "Hittite Anatolia: A Political History". In Steadman, Sharon; McMahon, Gregory (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. Oxford University Press. p. 594. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0026.

[12] Armstrong 2003

[13] Wachsmann 1986

[14] Knapp 1997

[15] Armstrong, 2003

[16] Goren et al. 2003; Armstrong 2003

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{Short description|Former country}}
-[[Image:14 century BC Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East.png|thumb|right|300px|Map of the [[Ancient Near East]] during the Amarna period]]
+[[File:Ancient_Near_East_1400BC.svg|thumb|right|300px|Map of the [[Ancient Near East]] around 1400 BC]]
-'''Alashiya''', also spelled '''Alasiya''', also known as the '''Kingdom of Alashiya''',<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Knapp |first1=A. Bernard. |title=J Article Alashiya, Caphtor/Keftiu, and Eastern Mediterranean Trade: Recent Studies in Cypriote Archaeology and History |journal=Journal of Field Archaeology |date=1985 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=231–250 |language=en}}</ref>  was a [[Sovereign state|state]] which existed in the Middle and Late [[Bronze Age]]s, and was situated somewhere in the Eastern [[Mediterranean]]. It was a major source of goods, especially [[copper]], for [[ancient Egypt]] and other states in the [[Ancient Near East]]. It is referred to in a number of the surviving texts and is now thought to be the ancient name of [[Cyprus]], or an area of Cyprus. This was confirmed by the [[Archaeological science|scientific analysis]] performed in the [[Tel Aviv University]] of the [[clay tablet]]s which were sent from Alashiya to other rulers.<ref>Goren et al. 2003</ref>
+'''Alashiya''' ({{langx|akk|𒀀𒆷𒅆𒅀}} ''Alašiya'' [a-la-ši-ia]; {{langx|uga|𐎀𐎍𐎘𐎊}} ''ẢLṮY''; [[Linear B]]: 𐀀𐀨𐀯𐀍 ''Alasios'' [a-ra-si-jo]; [[Hieratic]] "'irs3"), also spelled '''Alasiya''', also known as the '''Kingdom of Alashiya''',<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Knapp |first1=A. Bernard. |title=J Article Alashiya, Caphtor/Keftiu, and Eastern Mediterranean Trade: Recent Studies in Cypriote Archaeology and History |journal=Journal of Field Archaeology |date=1985 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=231–250 |doi=10.2307/530294 |jstor=530294}}</ref>  was a [[Sovereign state|state]] which existed in the Middle and Late [[Bronze Age]]s, and was situated somewhere in the [[Eastern Mediterranean]]. It was a major source of goods, especially [[copper]], for [[ancient Egypt]] and other states in the [[Ancient Near East]]. It is referred to in a number of the surviving texts and is now thought to be the ancient name of [[Cyprus]], or an area of Cyprus. This was confirmed by the [[Archaeological science|scientific analysis]] performed in [[Tel Aviv University]] of the [[clay tablet]]s which were sent from Alashiya to other rulers.<ref>Goren et al. 2003</ref>
 {{History of Cyprus}}
 ==Texts==
+[[File:One of the Amarna letters. Correspondence between a king of Alashiya and Amenhotep III of Egypt. Circa 1380 BCE. From Tell el-Amarna, Egypt. Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin.jpg|thumb|One of the Amarna letters. Correspondence between a king of Alashiya and Amenhotep III of Egypt. Circa 1380 BCE. From Tell el-Amarna, Egypt. Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin]]
-The name of the state transliterated as "Alashiya" is found on texts written in [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]], [[Hittite language|Hittite]], [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], [[Mycenaean language|Mycenean]] ([[Linear B]]) and [[Ugaritic]]. It corresponds to the Biblical [[Elishah]]. Some of the [[Amarna letters]] are from the king or the ministers of Alashiya. They concern mostly the amount of copper that has been sent from Alashiya and requests for [[silver]] or [[ivory]] in return. One letter refers to 500 talents of copper (probably about 12.5 tons) and makes excuses as to why so little copper has been sent. [[Pharaoh]] is also referred to by the King of Alashiya as his "brother", indicating that the king regarded himself as an equal, probably because of the economic power of his kingdom. [[Papyrus Anastasi IV]], written several centuries later, also refers to copper (as well as cows) sent from Alashiya to Egypt.<ref>Knapp 1996</ref>
+[[File:Amarna letter. "Message from the king of Alashiya, your brother" to the Pharaoh of Egypt, possibly Akhenaten. C. 1350 BCE. From Tell e-Amarna, Egypt. British Museum.jpg|thumb|Amarna letter. "Message from the king of Alashiya, your brother" to the Pharaoh of Egypt, possibly Akhenaten. Circa 1350 BCE. From Tell el-Amarna, Egypt. British Museum]]
+The name of the state, rendered as ''Alashiya'', is found on texts written in [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]], [[Hittite language|Hittite]], [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], [[Mycenaean language|Mycenean]] ([[Linear B]]) and [[Ugaritic]]. The name may be the origin of the later Biblical term [[Elishah]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=0qAoqP4g1fEC&dq=%22Elisha+Alashiya%22&pg=PA3 The expansion of the Greek world, eighth to sixth centuries B.C.], John Boardman, Volume 3 Cambridge Ancient History, Cambridge University Press, 1982, {{ISBN|0-521-23447-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-23447-4}}</ref><ref name="Granerød2010">"Now, this Elishah is often identified with Alashiya in the scholarly literature, an ancient name often associated with Cyprus or a part of the island." {{cite book|author=Gard Granerød|title=Abraham and Melchizedek: Scribal Activity of Second Temple Times in Genesis 14 and Psalm 110|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m5mlvNPexSEC&pg=PA116|date=26 March 2010|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-022346-0|page=116}}</ref>
-Any place identified as Alashiya must therefore have had sizable copper production during the Late Bronze Age. There are a number of other clues in the texts. The Amarna letters contain references to a ship belonging to the King of Alashiya and the men of [[Lukka|Lukki]] (probably part of the [[Sea Peoples]], similar to [[pirates]]) seizing villages in Alashiya.<ref>Armstrong 2003</ref>
-<!--
-Note: the above statement is highly ambiguous. Did the ship belong to the King of Alashiya and the men of Lukki as stated? If so then this means the king was sacking his own villages. Please reword this as it conveys the wrong meaning.-->
+Some of the [[Amarna letters]] are from the king or the ministers of Alashiya. They concern mostly the amount of copper that has been sent from Alashiya and requests for [[silver]] or [[ivory]] in return. One letter refers to 500 talents of copper (probably about 12.5 tons) and makes excuses as to why so little copper has been sent. The [[Pharaoh]] is also referred to by the King of Alashiya as his "brother", indicating that the king regarded himself as an equal, probably because of the economic power of his kingdom. [[Papyrus Anastasi IV]], written several centuries later, also refers to copper (as well as cows) sent from Alashiya to Egypt.<ref>Knapp 1996</ref>
-In other correspondence, the King of [[Ugarit]] pleads for help from the King of Alashiya to protect Ugarit from the Sea Peoples. Another document from Ugarit records the banishment of two princes to "the land of Alashiya". One further text found at Ugarit may contain a further clue to the location of the capital city of Alashiya, as it could imply that the city was located on a mountain. However, this word has more usually been translated as shore.<ref>Goren 2003</ref> The first recorded name of a Cypriote king is "Kushmeshusha" as appears on letters sent to Ugarit in the 13th c. BCE.<ref name="Cline2015">{{cite book|author=Eric H. Cline|title=1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_M1bCgAAQBAJ|date=22 September 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-7449-1}}</ref>
+In other correspondence, the King of [[Ugarit]] pleads for military assistance from the King of Alashiya. Another document from Ugarit records the banishment of two princes to "the land of Alashiya". One further text found at Ugarit may contain a further clue to the location of the capital city of Alashiya, as it could imply that the city was located on a mountain. However, this word has more usually been translated as shore.<ref>Goren 2003</ref> The first recorded name of a Cypriot king is ''Kushmeshusha'', as appears on letters sent to Ugarit in the 13th century BC.<ref name="Cline2015">{{cite book|author=Eric H. Cline|title=1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_M1bCgAAQBAJ|date=22 September 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-7449-1}}</ref>
 The extant ending of the [[Story of Wenamun]] records how Wenamun, a priest of Egypt, had been blown off course on the sea journey from [[Byblos]] to Egypt and ended up on Alashiya. Wenamun reports that he was almost killed by an angry mob, but was rescued by Hatbi, the "princess of the town".
+Around 1400 BC, the Hittite king [[Arnuwanda I]] chastised his vassal [[Madduwatta]] for raiding Alashiya, asserting that it was Hittite territory. Madduwatta replied that he had been unaware of the Hittite claim:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beckman|first1=Gary|last2=Bryce|first2=Trevor|last3=Cline|first3=Eric|year=2012 |title=The Ahhiyawa Texts|publisher=Brill|pages=69, 99|isbn=978-1589832688}}</ref>
-Some of the last texts referring to Alashiya are from the [[Hittite Empire]] (based in modern [[Turkey]]) and boast of quelling Alashiya by force. However, with all such military reports it is difficult to assess the true outcome.
+{{Blockquote
+|text=The father of his Majesty [had never informed] me, [nor] had his Majesty ever informed [me] (thus): ʻThe land of Alasiya is mine— recognize it as such!ʼ<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beckman |first1=Gary|last2=Bryce|first2=Trevor|last3=Cline|first3=Eric|year=2012 |title=The Ahhiyawa Texts|publisher=Brill|page=95|isbn=978-1589832688}}</ref>}}
+Although Madduwatta's statement can be interpreted as prevarication, no surviving texts from this period refer to Hittite involvement in Alashiya and the empire's military situation would have made direct control unlikely. Thus, the political reality behind this statement remains unclear.<ref name="978-1589832688 p99">{{cite book |last1=Beckman |first1=Gary|last2=Bryce|first2=Trevor|last3=Cline|first3=Eric|year=2012 |title=The Ahhiyawa Texts|publisher=Brill|page=99|isbn=978-1589832688}}</ref>
+Around 1200 BC, the Hittite kings [[Tudhaliya IV]] and [[Suppiluliuma II]] waged military campaigns in Alashiya and forced its king to sign a treaty of submission.<ref name="978-1589832688 p99"/><ref name=Beal-2011-Steadman-McMahon>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Beal |first=Richard |year=2011 |editor-last1= Steadman |editor-first1=Sharon | editor-last2=McMahon | editor-first2= Gregory |encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia |title=Hittite Anatolia: A Political History |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0026|page=594}}</ref>
 ===List of Amarna letters from Alashiya===
@@ Line 28: / Line 37: @@
 ==Identification ==
-Alashiya therefore needs to be situated somewhere where there was sizable Bronze Age copper production, on the coast, and in the East Mediterranean.
+Alashiya was known to be a regional source of copper for other East Mediterranean states, which it traded along maritime routes of the era. Alashiya therefore needs to be situated somewhere where there was sizable Bronze Age copper production, on the coast, and in the East Mediterranean. There are additional clues to its location in surviving texts including references to the King of Alashiya having ships and to the kingdom being raided by [[Lukka]] people.<ref>Armstrong 2003</ref>
-Some scholars have suggested sites and areas of [[Syria]] or [[Turkey]], but it is now generally (although not universally) agreed that Alashiya refers to at least part of Cyprus.<ref>Wachsmann 1986</ref> Specifically, it was generally argued that the site of [[Enkomi]] was the capital of the kingdom of Alashiya, which covered the entire island of Cyprus.<ref>Knapp 1997</ref>
+Some scholars have suggested sites and areas of [[Syria]] or [[Turkey]], but it is now generally (although not universally) agreed that Alashiya refers to at least part of Cyprus.<ref>Wachsmann 1986</ref> Specifically, it was generally argued that the site of [[Enkomi (archaeological site)|Enkomi]] was the capital of the kingdom of Alashiya, which covered the entire island of Cyprus.<ref>Knapp 1997</ref>
 The identification of Cyprus with Alashiya was confirmed by the 2003 publication by Goren et al. of an article in the'' [[American Journal of Archaeology]] ''detailing the [[petrographic]] and chemical analysis of a number of the Amarna and Ugaritic letters sent from Alashiya. These examinations of the provenance of the clay used to create the tablets indicate that Syria could not be the location of Alashiya, while clay on Cyprus is a good match.
@@ Line 56: / Line 65: @@
 *[https://web.archive.org/web/20041216142400/http://www.ashmol.ox.ac.uk/ash/amulets/cypruscopper/AncCyp-Cu-07.html Ancient Cyprus]
 *[https://web.archive.org/web/20041208191326/http://home.nycap.rr.com/foxmob/lba_cyprus.htm Cyprus in the Late Bronze Age]
-*[http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/alasiya.htm Letters from the king of Alasiya]
 *[https://web.archive.org/web/20070606044223/http://www.courses.psu.edu/cams/cams400w_aek11/amarnal.html The Amarna Letters]
 [[Category:Alashiya| ]]
-[[Category:Amarna Period]]
 [[Category:Amarna letters locations]]
 [[Category:Bronze Age Cyprus]]