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{{short description|Indian social reformer and freedom fighter}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}}
{{Infobox Hindu leader
| name = Dr.Padmanabhan Palpu
| image = Padmanabhan_Palpu.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1863|11|02|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Travancore|Kingdom of Travancore]]<br />(present day [[Thiruvananthapuram district|Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kerala]], India)
| death_date = {{death date and age|1950|01|25|1863|11|02|df=yes}}
| known_for = Kerala reformation movement and medical services
| philosophy = Social equality
| honors =
| relatives =
}}
'''Padmanabhan Palpu''' (2 November 1863 – 25 January 1950) was a physician from the Kingdom of [[Travancore]] who served as a chief medical officer of [[Mysore State]].


He led social activism for the [[Ezhava|Ezhava community]] in Kerala and a led a movement for social equality. In 1903, he founded the [[Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam]] (Society for the Propagation of the teachings of Sree Narayana Guru), whose first president was [[Narayana Guru]], who sought an end to the caste system and preached his concept of "one caste, one religion, one god." His son [[Nataraja Guru]] became a successor of Narayana Guru. Palpu has been described as the "political father" of the [[Ezhava]]s.
'''Padmanabhan Palpu''', born on [[November 2]], [[1863]] in [[Trivandrum]] part of Indian princely state of [[Travancore]], present-day [[Kerala]], from a wealthy [[Ezhava]] family. Dr. Palpu was a contemporary and follower of [[Narayana Guru]]. He was a prominent Indian literary, physician, and philanthropist during the Indian Independence Movement. He was father of [[Nataraja Guru]], who was the direct disciple of [[Narayana Guru]]. A [[London]] trained physician who later abandoned his profession to affect social and spiritual reform within his community.
Sajil Sreedhar wrote a novel titled Athmasourabham based on the life of Dr.Palppu which was published in Yoganadam magazine owned by SNDP Yogam.


{{Reformation in Kerala}}
⚫
==Early life==
He remains ever an example of the persecution that the backward communities suffered in Kerala in those days. In 1884 Dr. Palpu appeared for the pre-qualification entrance examinations conducted by the [[Travancore]] State Government and was ranked fourth. However, he was denied a seat to study medicine due to his lower caste which was a form of discriminations prevalent during this time in [[Kerala]]. Dr. Palpu Later gained admission at the famed [[Madras Medical College]]. He faced more obstacles when he returned to [[Travancore]] when the Government denied him a career in medicine for the same reason. A determined young Dr. Palpu went to [[Mysore]], a neighboring state, and started his practice there at a princely sum of Rs. 100 a month. At the time the Government of [[Travancore]] was offering a salary of Rs5.


==Early life and education==
==Formation of SNDP==
Palpu was born in [[Pettah, Thiruvananthapuram|Petta, Thiruvananthapuram]], then in the [[Kingdom of Travancore]], India. His family consisted of wealthy and well-educated members who came from the Ezhava caste.<ref name="Donner">{{cite book |title=Being Middle-class in India: A Way of Life |editor-first=Henrike |editor-last=Donner |first=Caroline |last=Wilson |chapter=The social transformation of the medical profession in urban Kerala : Doctors, social mobility and the middle classes |publisher=Routledge |location=Abingdon, Oxon |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-415-67167-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_e8FT54FjIC&pg=PT143 |pages=143–144}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Communism in Kerala: a study in political adaptation |first=Thomas Johnson |last=Nossiter |publisher=University of California Press |year=1982 |chapter=Kerala's identity: unity and diversity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CSQUxVjjWQC |isbn=978-0-520-04667-2 |authorlink=Thomas Nossiter |pages=25–27}}</ref> The Ezhavas were traditionally occupied as weavers, farmers, toddy tappers. In addition, many had involvements in agriculture and [[ayurvedic medicine]],<ref name="Gadgil" /> and they were also occupied as shopkeepers, and businessmen.<ref name="jeffrey"/>


Palpu, who had learned English from a Eurasian tutor from the age of 12, attended [[Maharaja's College, Thiruvananthapuram|Maharaja's College]] in Thiruvananthapuram and matriculated there in 1883.<ref name="Sadasivan 2000 p. 483">{{cite book | last=Sadasivan | first=S.N. | title=A Social History of India | publisher=APH Publishing Corporation | year=2000 | isbn=978-81-7648-170-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Be3PCvzf-BYC&pg=PA483 | access-date=15 May 2023 | page=483}}</ref> He then wrote the examination for admission to [[medical studies]]. He was denied the admission though he ranked second.<ref name="Mathew 1989 p. 53">{{cite book | last=Mathew | first=G. | title=Communal Road to a Secular Kerala | publisher=Concept Publishing Company | year=1989 | isbn=978-81-7022-282-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1TuPeXFP0WgC&pg=PA53 | access-date=15 May 2023 | page=53}}</ref><ref name="Drèze Sen 1997 p. 307">{{cite book | last1=Drèze | first1=J. | last2=Sen | first2=A. | title=Indian Development: Selected Regional Perspectives | publisher=Clarendon Press | series=WIDER Studies in Development Economics | year=1997 | isbn=978-0-19-829204-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E82zY2iOuQ8C&pg=PA307 | access-date=15 May 2023 | page=307}}</ref> It was common knowledge that his caste-related birth determined the decision, even though the official reason given was that he was beyond the age limit.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/spectrum/palpu-a-doctor-activist-who-fought-the-plague-and-the-caste-system-876229.html | title=Palpu: A doctor, activist who fought the plague and the caste system | date=21 August 2020 }}</ref><ref name="Sinclair-Brull 2013 p. 45">{{cite book | last=Sinclair-Brull | first=W. | title=Female Ascetics: Hierarchy and Purity in Indian Religious Movements | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Religion & society in South Asia series | year=2013 | isbn=978-1-136-78945-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2s9cAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA45 | access-date=15 May 2023 | page=45}}</ref> Like his older brother, he seems to have been able to use his family's association with Christian missionaries to avoid the usual rule in the kingdom that Ezhavas were forbidden from school attendance. He was subsequently refused admission to Travancore Medical College due to his caste. From 1885, he attended [[Madras Medical College]], which was outside the kingdom, having raised money to do so through subscriptions and taking on debt.<ref name="Sadasivan 2000 p. 483"/> His financial situation was dire by the end of the first year, when he received an honour certificate, but he was able to complete the course with the aid of donations from various high-placed people. These donations were carefully scripted to prevent him from later taking up a position within the government, as Ezhavas were forbidden from such employment<ref name="jeffrey">{{cite journal |first=Robin |last=Jeffrey |authorlink=Robin Jeffrey |title=The Social Origins of a Caste Association, 1875–1905: The Founding of the S.N.D.P. Yogam |journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=39–59 |date=1974 |doi=10.1080/00856407408730687}}</ref> and many forward caste doctors would in any event refuse to work with backward caste colleagues.<ref name="Donner"/> He went to England to further his medical training at London and [[Cambridge]]. Back in India and having been awarded his [[Licentiate in Medicine and Surgery]] in 1889, he found that his caste status prevented him from obtaining employment in the Travancore Health Service, which meant that he had to relocate to [[Mysore]] to get work.<ref name="Sinclair-Brull 2013 p. 45"/>
Dr. Palpu sought the advice of the famed Indian saint [[Swami Vivekananda]] to unite and work towards the emancipation of the [[Ezhava]] caste. It was the advice given by [[Swami Vivekananda]] to associate with some spiritual person in his effort to fight for the rights of the [[Ezhava]]s that drew him to Sri Narayana Guru. The Swami asked Dr. Palpu to “Spiritualize and Industrialize the Masses”. Swami told him that the garb of spirituality was essential for any organization to be successful in India.
In 1903 Dr. Palpu founded the [[Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana]] Yogam, known as SNDP. SNDP later became thus beacon for many social movements in [[Kerala]]. Little did he realize then that this organisation would later become the cornerstone of major social and religious reformation that would envelope the entire state. Although an [[Ezhava]] himself, Dr. Palpu was not limited to working within the bounds of his own caste.


==Mysore state service==
Much of his earlier written works were press reports in local dailies and was in [[English]]. He later published a compendium of his journals and essays in ‘Treatment of Thiyas in Travancore’. The Malayalam translation of this book would become one of the earliest written records on the miserable condition of the masses of feudal [[Kerala]].


Palpu became the chief medical officer of Mysore State. His salary was more than the salary of Travancore Diwan.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} Later he was selected to the British [[General Medical Council]] for virology.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} After his retirement, he was offered the post of [[Divan|Diwan]] in [[Baroda]], but refused the offer.<ref name="Gadgil">{{cite book |title=Ecological Journeys |first=Madhav |last=Gadgil |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2005 |isbn=9788178241128 |pages=82–83 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8XJ2HHZcM6oC&pg=PA82}}</ref><ref name="Ramusack">{{cite book |title=The Indian Princes and their States |first=Barbara N. |last=Ramusack |authorlink=Barbara Ramusack |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=9781139449083 |page=214 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kz1-mtazYqEC&pg=PA214}}</ref> He was able to work for the British there as a public health doctor.<ref name="Donner"/>
==Ezhava Memorial and other Initiatives==


==Social activism==
''Ezhava Memorial'' was landmark in the struggle of the backward classes for gaining their legitimate rights from the Government that was representative of the mad social customs that prevailed in the state at that time. During that period, ''Malayali Memorial'' which was submitted to the [[Maharaja]] of [[Travancore]] in 1891 marked the beginning of the united social effort in the state to press the demands of jobs for locals. This mass petition in which Dr. Palpu was the third signatory complained about the ‘Divans’ (government officers) who came from outside the state, and appropriated a greater part of the jobs for their own people. The memorandum spoke about the pitiable condition of [[Ezhava]]s of the State who were denied even the lowest government Though jobs for their counterparts could occupy even higher jobs in the [[Malabar]] State due to the absence of any discrimination there. The government in its reply dated 1891 April 21st stated that since the [[Ezhava]]s were generally uneducated, it was better for them to pursue their present occupations like cultivation, coir making, and toddy tapping than trying to get education.


Becoming aware of the importance of education as a method of socio-economic advancement and also as means to improve health and hygiene,<ref name="Donner" /> Palpu was the third signatory to the "Malayali Memorial", a petition organised and submitted to the Maharaja of Travancore on January 1, 1891, that primarily sought to address the concerns of those members of the [[Nair]] community, who were in government jobs but felt that the best of those jobs were dominated by non-[[Malayali]] [[Brahmins]]. The petition was amended to include a statement on the injustices faced by Ezhavas and was published in the ''Madras Times'' in July. Whilst the Memorial had no success, according to [[Robin Jeffrey]] it did indicate to Palpu a method by which he could continue to campaign for the improved position of Ezhavas in society.<ref name="jeffrey"/> Caroline Wilson notes that he also petitioned the [[Houses of Parliament]] while in England.<ref name="Donner"/>
As Dr. Palpu was irritated by this humiliating reply from the authorities, he frequently visited the state to organize the backward people to protest against the callousness of the rulers. He realized that organized protest was the only way to put an end to the inhuman discretion that the government practiced against the majority of its own people. He soon formed the ''Greater Ezhava Association'', and more than 300 hundred people attended its first meeting held at [[Thiruvananthapuram]]. The meeting decided to submit a mass petition to the government signed by ten thousand [[Ezhava]]s demanding the abolition of the discrimination against them. Dr. Palpu himself took the initiative to get the signatures, and on 1896 September 3rd the petition, the historically famous '''Ezhava Memorial''', signed by 13176 people was submitted to the Government In the memorandum Dr. Palpu enumerated as an example the humiliations that the members of his own family had to suffer from Government


Palpu was among those who attempted to use data from the [[census of India prior to independence|1891 census]] to highlight inequalities in Travancore society<ref>{{cite book |title=Different Types of History |editor-first=Bharati |editor-last=Ray |chapter=Subjects of New Lives |first=Udaya |last=Kumar |publisher=Pearson Education India |year=2009 |isbn=978-8-13171-818-6 |page=312 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9x5FX2RROZgC&pg=PA312}}</ref> and he again made demands in 1895, when he petitioned the [[Diwan (title)|Diwan]] of Travancore, [[S. Shungrasoobyer]], with a statement explaining the ways in which the Ezhavas suffered discrimination. He noted that if members of the community wanted education or government jobs then their only recourse was to convert from Hinduism to Christianity. Shungrasoobyer was slow in responding but in February 1896, when Palpu had taken leave from his job in [[Bangalore]], Mysore, to press the matter in Thiruvananthapuram, he told Palpu that the government would open as many of its schools as possible to Ezhavas and that it would consider applications from qualified Ezhavas for posts in all departments other than Revenue.<ref name="jeffrey"/> Anthropologist Ritty Lukose describes him as the "political father" of the Ezhavas.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lukose |first=Ritty A. |title=Everyday Life in South Asia |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2010 |isbn=9780253354730 |editor1-last=Mines |editor1-first=Diane P. |edition=2nd |pages=209–210 |chapter=Recasting the Secular: Religion and Education in Kerala, India |editor2-last=Lamb |editor2-first=Sarah |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=828fOvb61wIC&pg=PA209}}</ref>
His next move was to bring to the attention of the [[British]] Parliament the injustices done by the [[Travancore]] Government to the [[Ezhava]]s, and the difficulties that they experienced in the social life in the state. Dr. Palpu sent Barrister G.P.Pillai with a letter secured from Sister Niveditha, the disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda]], to [[England]] to get some Member of the [[British Parliament]] to represent the case of the Ezhavas. Dr. Palpu shared the major part of the expenditure. In addition to this, when he went to [[England]] for higher studies, he got Deadbeat Navroji who was a member of the [[British]] Parliament to raise a question regarding the condition of [[Ezhava]]s in the [[Parliament]]. With his help a memorandum was submitted to the State Secretary for [[India]]. All these measures taken by the doctor began to have results at home when the British Government began to enquire about the condition of the [[Ezhava]]s in the State.


In practice, when some Ezhava graduates applied for government jobs soon after Shungrasoobyer's announcement, they were told that there were no vacancies. Thus, later in 1896, Palpu again took leave from his job to campaign in Travancore.<ref name="jeffrey"/> He organised a petition that attracted the signatures of 13,176 Ezhavas. This letter was presented to the Maharajah of Travancore and demanded their right to admission in schools run by the [[British Raj|colonial government]] and access to employment in public service.<ref name="Donner" /><ref name="Ray329">{{cite book |title=Different Types of History |editor-first=Bharati |editor-last=Ray |chapter=Subjects of New Lives |first=Udaya |last=Kumar |publisher=Pearson Education India |year=2009 |isbn=9788131718186 |page=329 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9x5FX2RROZgC&pg=PA329}}</ref> The bar from education in government schools was noted as being inequitable given their claim that the Ezhavas paid more taxes than any other community in the kingdom. The petition was published in the ''Madras Mail'' in September of that year.<ref name="jeffrey"/> This use of petitions as a vehicle to achieve a coalescence of communal consciousness and cause change was one of the first examples of such in the kingdom, where the ritually superior Brahmin groups held the majority of posts available in the administration of the state.<ref name="Ramusack" />


⚫
==Personal life==


Palpu had a son, commonly known as [[Nataraja Guru]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Modern Kerala: Studies in Social and Agrarian Relations |first=K. K. N. |last=Kurup |authorlink=K. K. N. Kurup |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=1988 |isbn=9788170990949 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iJvx0KWpf-UC |page=99}}</ref>
==Retirement==

Dr. Palpu also started the [[Malabar Economic Union]]. A large portion of the proceeds of this venture was spent of welfare and philanthropy. Dr. Palpu died on [[January 25]], [[1950]]. A day before India became a Republic. He has influenced the works and lives of several noted personalities in [[Kerala]] like [[Kumaran Asan]], [[T.K. Madhavan]].
==Legacy==

[[Dr. Palpu College of Arts and Science]] in [[Pangode]] is named after him. Palpu influenced the political philosophy of [[C. Kesavan]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Different Types of History |editor-first=Bharati |editor-last=Ray |chapter=Subjects of New Lives |first=Udaya |last=Kumar |publisher=Pearson Education India |year=2009 |isbn=9788131718186 |page=326 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9x5FX2RROZgC&pg=PA326}}</ref>


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
* Biography http://www.geocities.com/guruforum/drpalpu.htm
* www.eazhavas.com


{{Authority control}}
⚫
{{DEFAULTSORT:Palpu, Padmanabhan}}


⚫
{{DEFAULTSORT:Palpu, Padmanabhan}}
[[Category:1863 births]]
[[Category:1863 births]]
[[Category:1950 deaths]]
[[Category:1950 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian male writers]]
[[Category:Malayali people]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian medical doctors]]
[[Category:Narayana Guru]]
[[Category:People from Thiruvananthapuram district]]
[[Category:Madras Medical College alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian medical doctors]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian writers]]
[[Category:Writers from Kerala]]
[[Category:Indian bacteriologists]]
[[Category:Scientists from Kerala]]
[[Category:Medical doctors from British India]]
[[Category:People from the Kingdom of Travancore]]

Latest revision as of 14:19, 31 October 2024

Dr.Padmanabhan Palpu
Personal life
Born(1863-11-02)2 November 1863
Kingdom of Travancore
(present day Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India)
Died25 January 1950(1950-01-25) (aged 86)
Known forKerala reformation movement and medical services
Religious life
PhilosophySocial equality

Padmanabhan Palpu (2 November 1863 – 25 January 1950) was a physician from the Kingdom of Travancore who served as a chief medical officer of Mysore State.

He led social activism for the Ezhava community in Kerala and a led a movement for social equality. In 1903, he founded the Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (Society for the Propagation of the teachings of Sree Narayana Guru), whose first president was Narayana Guru, who sought an end to the caste system and preached his concept of "one caste, one religion, one god." His son Nataraja Guru became a successor of Narayana Guru. Palpu has been described as the "political father" of the Ezhavas. Sajil Sreedhar wrote a novel titled Athmasourabham based on the life of Dr.Palppu which was published in Yoganadam magazine owned by SNDP Yogam.

This article is part of a series on
Reformation in Kerala
Narayana Guru, the most prominent face of the movement
Background
Notable people
Others

Early life and education

[edit]

Palpu was born in Petta, Thiruvananthapuram, then in the Kingdom of Travancore, India. His family consisted of wealthy and well-educated members who came from the Ezhava caste.[1][2] The Ezhavas were traditionally occupied as weavers, farmers, toddy tappers. In addition, many had involvements in agriculture and ayurvedic medicine,[3] and they were also occupied as shopkeepers, and businessmen.[4]

Palpu, who had learned English from a Eurasian tutor from the age of 12, attended Maharaja's College in Thiruvananthapuram and matriculated there in 1883.[5] He then wrote the examination for admission to medical studies. He was denied the admission though he ranked second.[6][7] It was common knowledge that his caste-related birth determined the decision, even though the official reason given was that he was beyond the age limit.[8][9] Like his older brother, he seems to have been able to use his family's association with Christian missionaries to avoid the usual rule in the kingdom that Ezhavas were forbidden from school attendance. He was subsequently refused admission to Travancore Medical College due to his caste. From 1885, he attended Madras Medical College, which was outside the kingdom, having raised money to do so through subscriptions and taking on debt.[5] His financial situation was dire by the end of the first year, when he received an honour certificate, but he was able to complete the course with the aid of donations from various high-placed people. These donations were carefully scripted to prevent him from later taking up a position within the government, as Ezhavas were forbidden from such employment[4] and many forward caste doctors would in any event refuse to work with backward caste colleagues.[1] He went to England to further his medical training at London and Cambridge. Back in India and having been awarded his Licentiate in Medicine and Surgery in 1889, he found that his caste status prevented him from obtaining employment in the Travancore Health Service, which meant that he had to relocate to Mysore to get work.[9]

Mysore state service

[edit]

Palpu became the chief medical officer of Mysore State. His salary was more than the salary of Travancore Diwan.[citation needed] Later he was selected to the British General Medical Council for virology.[citation needed] After his retirement, he was offered the post of Diwan in Baroda, but refused the offer.[3][10] He was able to work for the British there as a public health doctor.[1]

Social activism

[edit]

Becoming aware of the importance of education as a method of socio-economic advancement and also as means to improve health and hygiene,[1] Palpu was the third signatory to the "Malayali Memorial", a petition organised and submitted to the Maharaja of Travancore on January 1, 1891, that primarily sought to address the concerns of those members of the Nair community, who were in government jobs but felt that the best of those jobs were dominated by non-Malayali Brahmins. The petition was amended to include a statement on the injustices faced by Ezhavas and was published in the Madras Times in July. Whilst the Memorial had no success, according to Robin Jeffrey it did indicate to Palpu a method by which he could continue to campaign for the improved position of Ezhavas in society.[4] Caroline Wilson notes that he also petitioned the Houses of Parliament while in England.[1]

Palpu was among those who attempted to use data from the 1891 census to highlight inequalities in Travancore society[11] and he again made demands in 1895, when he petitioned the Diwan of Travancore, S. Shungrasoobyer, with a statement explaining the ways in which the Ezhavas suffered discrimination. He noted that if members of the community wanted education or government jobs then their only recourse was to convert from Hinduism to Christianity. Shungrasoobyer was slow in responding but in February 1896, when Palpu had taken leave from his job in Bangalore, Mysore, to press the matter in Thiruvananthapuram, he told Palpu that the government would open as many of its schools as possible to Ezhavas and that it would consider applications from qualified Ezhavas for posts in all departments other than Revenue.[4] Anthropologist Ritty Lukose describes him as the "political father" of the Ezhavas.[12]

In practice, when some Ezhava graduates applied for government jobs soon after Shungrasoobyer's announcement, they were told that there were no vacancies. Thus, later in 1896, Palpu again took leave from his job to campaign in Travancore.[4] He organised a petition that attracted the signatures of 13,176 Ezhavas. This letter was presented to the Maharajah of Travancore and demanded their right to admission in schools run by the colonial government and access to employment in public service.[1][13] The bar from education in government schools was noted as being inequitable given their claim that the Ezhavas paid more taxes than any other community in the kingdom. The petition was published in the Madras Mail in September of that year.[4] This use of petitions as a vehicle to achieve a coalescence of communal consciousness and cause change was one of the first examples of such in the kingdom, where the ritually superior Brahmin groups held the majority of posts available in the administration of the state.[10]

Personal life

[edit]

Palpu had a son, commonly known as Nataraja Guru.[14]

Legacy

[edit]

Dr. Palpu College of Arts and Science in Pangode is named after him. Palpu influenced the political philosophy of C. Kesavan.[15]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f Wilson, Caroline (2011). "The social transformation of the medical profession in urban Kerala : Doctors, social mobility and the middle classes". In Donner, Henrike (ed.). Being Middle-class in India: A Way of Life. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. pp. 143–144. ISBN 978-0-415-67167-5.
  2. ^ Nossiter, Thomas Johnson (1982). "Kerala's identity: unity and diversity". Communism in Kerala: a study in political adaptation. University of California Press. pp. 25–27. ISBN 978-0-520-04667-2.
  3. ^ a b Gadgil, Madhav (2005). Ecological Journeys. Orient Blackswan. pp. 82–83. ISBN 9788178241128.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Jeffrey, Robin (1974). "The Social Origins of a Caste Association, 1875–1905: The Founding of the S.N.D.P. Yogam". South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies. 4 (1): 39–59. doi:10.1080/00856407408730687.
  5. ^ a b Sadasivan, S.N. (2000). A Social History of India. APH Publishing Corporation. p. 483. ISBN 978-81-7648-170-0. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
  6. ^ Mathew, G. (1989). Communal Road to a Secular Kerala. Concept Publishing Company. p. 53. ISBN 978-81-7022-282-8. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
  7. ^ Drèze, J.; Sen, A. (1997). Indian Development: Selected Regional Perspectives. WIDER Studies in Development Economics. Clarendon Press. p. 307. ISBN 978-0-19-829204-3. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
  8. ^ "Palpu: A doctor, activist who fought the plague and the caste system". 21 August 2020.
  9. ^ a b Sinclair-Brull, W. (2013). Female Ascetics: Hierarchy and Purity in Indian Religious Movements. Religion & society in South Asia series. Taylor & Francis. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-136-78945-8. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
  10. ^ a b Ramusack, Barbara N. (2004). The Indian Princes and their States. Cambridge University Press. p. 214. ISBN 9781139449083.
  11. ^ Kumar, Udaya (2009). "Subjects of New Lives". In Ray, Bharati (ed.). Different Types of History. Pearson Education India. p. 312. ISBN 978-8-13171-818-6.
  12. ^ Lukose, Ritty A. (2010). "Recasting the Secular: Religion and Education in Kerala, India". In Mines, Diane P.; Lamb, Sarah (eds.). Everyday Life in South Asia (2nd ed.). Indiana University Press. pp. 209–210. ISBN 9780253354730.
  13. ^ Kumar, Udaya (2009). "Subjects of New Lives". In Ray, Bharati (ed.). Different Types of History. Pearson Education India. p. 329. ISBN 9788131718186.
  14. ^ Kurup, K. K. N. (1988). Modern Kerala: Studies in Social and Agrarian Relations. Mittal Publications. p. 99. ISBN 9788170990949.
  15. ^ Kumar, Udaya (2009). "Subjects of New Lives". In Ray, Bharati (ed.). Different Types of History. Pearson Education India. p. 326. ISBN 9788131718186.
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