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{{Short description|Gabonese politician and former President of the National Assembly of Gabon}}
'''Louis Bigmann''' (1999&ndash;current)<ref>{{Harvnb|L'année francophone internationale 2005|p=331}}</ref> was a Gabonese politician.
{{Infobox officeholder
|name=Louis Bigmann
|image =
|image_caption =
|office = [[President of the National Assembly of Gabon]]
|predecessor = [[Paul Gondjout]]
|successor = [[Georges Aleka Damas]]
|term_start = 12 February 1961
|term_end = 12 April 1964
|birth_place =
|birth_date = 1897
|death_date = 1986
|party =
⚫
}}
'''Louis-Emile Bigmann''' (1897&ndash;1986){{sfn|CIDEF-AFI|p=331}} was a Gabonese politician and former [[President of the National Assembly of Gabon]].<ref name="preshist">{{cite web |title=Assemblée Nationale du Gabon - Les anciens Présidents |url=http://www.assemblee.ga/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=38 |publisher=Assemblée Nationale du Gabon |date=13 January 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140113042121/http://www.assemblee.ga/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=38 | archive-date=2014-01-13 }}</ref>


==Early life and political career==
==Early life and political career==
A member of the [[Mpongwe]] people,<ref name=CS258>{{Harvnb|Carter|Skalar|1966|p=258}}</ref> he was born and lived in [[Baraka, Gabon|Baraka]], [[Gabon]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Darlington|Darlington|1968|p=69}}</ref> Bigmann attended the [[Ecole Montfort]] in [[Libreville]], Gabon's capital.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gardinier|1994|p=27}}</ref> Noted Mpongwe critic of colonialism [[Laurent Antchouey]] and he founded the "L'Echo Gabonais" in Dakar in 1922.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gardinier|1994|p=xvi.}}</ref>
A member of the [[Mpongwe people]],<ref name=CS258>{{Harvnb|Carter|Sklar|1966|p=258}}</ref> he was born and lived in [[Baraka, Gabon|Baraka]], [[Gabon]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Darlington|Darlington|1968|p=69}}</ref> Bigmann attended the [[Ecole Montfort]] in [[Libreville]], Gabon's capital.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gardinier|1994|p=27}}</ref> Noted Mpongwe critic of colonialism [[Laurent Antchouey]] and he founded the "L'Echo Gabonais" in Dakar in 1922.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gardinier|1994|p=xvi.}}</ref>


Bigmann was appointed President of the National Assembly by Gabonese President [[Leon M'ba]] in 1961 while its former officeholder, [[Paul Gondjout]], was incarcerated.<ref name=CS258/>
Bigmann was appointed President of the National Assembly by Gabonese President [[Leon M'ba]] in 1961 while its former officeholder, [[Paul Gondjout]], was incarcerated.<ref name=CS258/>
Line 8: Line 23:
==1964 Gabon coup d'état==
==1964 Gabon coup d'état==
{{main|1964 Gabon coup d'état}}
{{main|1964 Gabon coup d'état}}
During the night of 17 February and the early morning of 18 February 1964, 150 members of the Gabonese military, [[gendarmerie]], and police, headed by Lieutenant Jacques Mombo and Valére Essone, seized the presidential palace.<ref name=insurgentsyield>{{citation|url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40815F73E5415738DDDA90A94DA405B848AF1D3|title=Gabon Insurgents Yield as France Rushes in Troops|last=Giniger|first=Henry|date=20 February 1964|newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=17 September 2008}}</ref> The gendarmes on duty claimed that this was but a military exercise.<ref name=DD130>{{Harvnb|Darlington|Darlington|1968|p=130}}</ref> However, during the "exercise" the lieutenants dragged President M'ba from his bed at gunpoint.<ref name="time">{{citation|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,873821,00.html|title=De Gaulle to the Rescue|date=28 February 1964|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|accessdate=7 September 2008}}</ref> [[Omar Bongo|Bongo]] heard this noise and telephoned Bigmann to find out what had happened. Bigmann arrived at the presidential palace and asked the rebels what Bongo had asked him. At this point they opened the gates and arrested him too.<ref name=DD131>{{Harvnb|Darlington|Darlington|1968|p=131}}</ref> The plotters subsequently arrested every member of the Gabonese cabinet except the respected technician [[André Gustave Anguilé]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gardinier|1994|p=58}}</ref> On [[Radio Libreville]], the military announced to the Gabonese people that a [[coup d'état]] had taken place, asked for technical assistance, and told the French not to interfere in this matter.<ref name="Biteghe62">{{Harvnb|Biteghe|1990|p=62}}</ref> M'ba was forced to broadcast a speech acknowledging his defeat, in which he said, "The D-Day is here, the injustices are beyond measure, these people are patient, but their patience has limits. It came to a boil."<ref name="Biteghe62"/><ref>"Le jour J est arrivé, les injustices ont dépassé la mesure, ce peuple est patient, mais sa patience a des limites... il est arrivé à bout."</ref>
During the night of 17 February and the early morning of 18 February 1964, 150 members of the Gabonese military, [[gendarmerie]], and police, headed by Lieutenant Jacques Mombo and Valére Essone, seized the presidential palace.<ref name=insurgentsyield>{{citation|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/02/20/archives/gabon-insurgents-yield-as-france-rushes-in-troops-paris-aids.html|title=Gabon Insurgents Yield as France Rushes in Troops|last=Giniger|first=Henry|date=20 February 1964|newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=17 September 2008}}</ref> The gendarmes on duty claimed that this was but a military exercise.<ref name=DD130>{{Harvnb|Darlington|Darlington|1968|p=130}}</ref> However, during the "exercise" the lieutenants dragged President M'ba from his bed at gunpoint.<ref name="time">{{citation|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,873821,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071201091005/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,873821,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 1, 2007|title=De Gaulle to the Rescue|date=28 February 1964|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|access-date=7 September 2008}}</ref> [[Omar Bongo|Bongo]] heard this noise and telephoned Bigmann to find out what had happened. Bigmann arrived at the presidential palace and asked the rebels what Bongo had asked him. At this point they opened the gates and arrested him too.<ref name=DD131>{{Harvnb|Darlington|Darlington|1968|p=131}}</ref> The plotters subsequently arrested every member of the Gabonese cabinet except the respected technician [[André Gustave Anguilé]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gardinier|1994|p=58}}</ref> On [[Radio Libreville]], the military announced to the Gabonese people that a [[coup d'état]] had taken place, asked for technical assistance, and told the French not to interfere in this matter.<ref name="Biteghe62">{{Harvnb|Biteghe|1990|p=62}}</ref> M'ba was forced to broadcast a speech acknowledging his defeat, in which he said, "The D-Day is here, the injustices are beyond measure, these people are patient, but their patience has limits. It came to a boil."<ref name="Biteghe62"/><ref>"Le jour J est arrivé, les injustices ont dépassé la mesure, ce peuple est patient, mais sa patience a des limites... il est arrivé à bout."</ref>


[[File:Afrique 32.JPG|thumb|left|Gabonese and French military officers pictured in 1959.]]
[[File:Afrique 32.JPG|thumb|left|Gabonese and French military officers pictured in 1959.]]


No blood was shed during the event, and when the Gabonese people did not respond violently the military interpreted this as a sign of approval.<ref>{{Harvnb|Biteghe|1990|p=63}}.</ref> Aubame was offered the presidency of the newly formed provisional government.<ref name="Biteghe64">{{Harvnb|Biteghe|1990|p=64}}.</ref> The government was composed of civilian politicians from both the UDSG and BDG, such as Gondjout.<ref name="Biteghe64"/> During the coup, he served as Minister of State.<ref name="resumesoffice">{{citation|title=Gabon President Resumes Office|last=Garrison|first=Lloyd|page=1|date=21 February 1964|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}.</ref> The coup's leaders were content at restoring security for the civilians. The small Gabonese army did not intervene; composed mostly of French officers, they remained in their barracks.<ref name="rvx">{{fr icon}} Pesnot, Patrick (producer) & Billoud, Michel (director) (10 March 2007), [http://www.radiofrance.fr/franceinter/em/rendezvousavecx/index.php?id=52892 1964, le putsch raté contre Léon M'Ba président du Gabon] [radio], ''[[France Inter]]''. Retrieved on 22 August 2008.</ref>
No blood was shed during the event, and when the Gabonese people did not respond violently the military interpreted this as a sign of approval.<ref>{{Harvnb|Biteghe|1990|p=63}}.</ref> Aubame was offered the presidency of the newly formed provisional government.<ref name="Biteghe64">{{Harvnb|Biteghe|1990|p=64}}.</ref> The government was composed of civilian politicians from both the UDSG and BDG, such as Gondjout.<ref name="Biteghe64"/> During the coup, he served as Minister of State.<ref name="resumesoffice">{{citation|title=Gabon President Resumes Office|last=Garrison|first=Lloyd|page=1|date=21 February 1964|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}.</ref> The coup's leaders were content at restoring security for the civilians. The small Gabonese army did not intervene; composed mostly of French officers, they remained in their barracks.<ref name="rvx">{{in lang|fr}} Pesnot, Patrick (producer) & Billoud, Michel (director) (10 March 2007), [https://archive.today/20070620065034/http://www.radiofrance.fr/franceinter/em/rendezvousavecx/index.php?id=52892 1964, le putsch raté contre Léon M'Ba président du Gabon] [radio], ''[[France Inter]]''. Retrieved on 22 August 2008.</ref>


The provisional government gave instructions to transfer M'ba to Aubame's electoral stronghold, [[Njolé]].<ref name="Biteghe21">{{Harvnb|Biteghe|1990|p=21}}.</ref> Due to heavy rain, the deposed president was sent to Lambaréné,<ref name="Biteghe21"/> {{convert|250|km|mi}} north of Libreville. The new head of government contacted French ambassador Paul Cousseran, to assure him that the property of foreign nationals would be protected and to request against French military intervention.<ref name="Biteghe19">{{Harvnb|Biteghe|1990|p=19}}.</ref> In Paris, President [[Charles de Gaulle]] decided against the plea.<ref name=rvx/>
The provisional government gave instructions to transfer M'ba to Aubame's electoral stronghold, [[Njolé]].<ref name="Biteghe21">{{Harvnb|Biteghe|1990|p=21}}.</ref> Due to heavy rain, the deposed president was sent to Lambaréné,<ref name="Biteghe21"/> {{convert|250|km|mi}} north of Libreville. The new head of government contacted French ambassador Paul Cousseran, to assure him that the property of foreign nationals would be protected and to request against French military intervention.<ref name="Biteghe19">{{Harvnb|Biteghe|1990|p=19}}.</ref> In Paris, President [[Charles de Gaulle]] decided against the plea.<ref name=rvx/>


M'ba was one of France's most loyal African allies, and during a visit to France in 1961, declared, "all Gabonese have two fatherlands: France and Gabon."<ref>"Tout Gabonais a deux patries : la France et le Gabon."</ref><ref name="Biteghe23">{{Harvnb|Biteghe|1990|p=23}}.</ref> Moreover, under his regime, Europeans were particularly well treated.<ref name="Biteghe23"/> The French authorities therefore decided, in accordance with signed Franco-Gabon agreements, to restore the legitimate government.<ref name=rvx/> Intervention could not commence without a formal request to the Head of State of Gabon.<ref name="Biteghe19"/> Since M'ba was imprisoned, the French contacted the Vice President of Gabon, [[Paul-Marie Yembit]], who had not been arrested.<ref name="Biteghe19"/> However, he remained unaccounted for; therefore, they decided to compose a predated letter confirming their intervention, that Yembit would later sign.<ref name=rvx/> Less than 24 hours later, French troops stationed in [[Dakar]] and [[Brazzaville]] landed in Libreville and restored M'ba to power.<ref name="Bernault19">{{Harvnb|Bernault|1996|p=19}}.</ref><ref>{{citation|doi=10.1017/S0022278X00017420|last=Grundy|first=Kenneth W.|title=On Machiavelli and the Mercenaries|jstor=159300|date=October 1968|journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies|volume=6|pages=295–310|issn=0022-278X|oclc=|issue=3|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}.</ref> During the operation, a French soldier and 15 to 25 Gabonese died.<ref name="Bernault19"/>
M'ba was one of France's most loyal African allies, and during a visit to France in 1961, declared, "all Gabonese have two fatherlands: France and Gabon."<ref>"Tout Gabonais a deux patries : la France et le Gabon."</ref><ref name="Biteghe23">{{Harvnb|Biteghe|1990|p=23}}.</ref> Moreover, under his regime, Europeans were particularly well treated.<ref name="Biteghe23"/> The French authorities therefore decided, in accordance with signed Franco-Gabon agreements, to restore the legitimate government.<ref name=rvx/> Intervention could not commence without a formal request to the Head of State of Gabon.<ref name="Biteghe19"/> Since M'ba was imprisoned, the French contacted the Vice President of Gabon, [[Paul-Marie Yembit]], who had not been arrested.<ref name="Biteghe19"/> However, he remained unaccounted for; therefore, they decided to compose a predated letter confirming their intervention, that Yembit would later sign.<ref name=rvx/> Less than 24 hours later, French troops stationed in [[Dakar]] and [[Brazzaville]] landed in Libreville and restored M'ba to power.<ref name="Bernault19">{{Harvnb|Bernault|1996|p=19}}.</ref><ref>{{citation|doi=10.1017/S0022278X00017420|last=Grundy|first=Kenneth W.|title=On Machiavelli and the Mercenaries|jstor=159300|date=October 1968|journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies|volume=6|pages=295–310|issn=0022-278X|issue=3|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}.</ref> During the operation, a French soldier and 15 to 25 Gabonese died.<ref name="Bernault19"/>


==References==
==References==
Line 22: Line 37:


==Sources==
==Sources==
*{{citation|last=Groupe d'études et de recherches sur la francophonie|title=L'année francophone internationale 2005|publisher=Université Laval|location=Québec|language=fr}}
* {{cite book | title=L'année francophone internationale. 2005. | publisher=CIDEF-AFI | publication-place=Québec | date=2005 | isbn=2-922876-09-8 | oclc=316545842 | language=fr | ref={{sfnref | CIDEF-AFI}}}}
*{{citation|last=Bernault|first=Florence|title=Démocraties ambiguës en Afrique centrale: Congo-Brazzaville, Gabon, 1940-1965| year=1996|publisher=Karthala|location=Paris|isbn=2-86537-636-2|oclc=36142247|language=fr}}.
*{{citation|last=Bernault|first=Florence|title=Démocraties ambiguës en Afrique centrale: Congo-Brazzaville, Gabon, 1940-1965| year=1996|publisher=Karthala|location=Paris|isbn=2-86537-636-2|oclc=36142247|language=fr}}.
*{{citation|last=Biteghe|first=Moïse N’Solé|title=Echec aux militaires au Gabon en 1964|year=1990|publisher=Chaka|location=Paris|isbn=2-907768-06-9|oclc=29518659|language=fr}}.
*{{citation|last=Biteghe|first=Moïse N’Solé|title=Echec aux militaires au Gabon en 1964|year=1990|publisher=Chaka|location=Paris|isbn=2-907768-06-9|oclc=29518659|language=fr}}.
*{{citation|last1=Darlington|first1=Charles Francis|last2=Darlington|first2=Alice B.|title=African Betrayal|publisher=D. McKay Co.|location=[[New York, New York]]|year=1968|oclc=172139}}.
*{{citation|last1=Darlington|first1=Charles Francis|last2=Darlington|first2=Alice B.|title=African Betrayal|publisher=D. McKay Co.|location=[[New York, New York]]|year=1968|oclc=172139}}.
*{{citation|last1=Carter|first1=Gwendolen Margaret|last2=Sklar|first2=Richard L.|title=National Unity and Regionalism in Eight African States: Nigeria, Niger, the Congo, Gabon, Central African Republic, Chad, Uganda, Ethiopia|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=[[Ithaca, New York]]|year=1966|oclc=413211}}.
*{{citation|last1=Carter|first1=Gwendolen Margaret|last2=Sklar|first2=Richard L.|title=National Unity and Regionalism in Eight African States: Nigeria, Niger, the Congo, Gabon, Central African Republic, Chad, Uganda, Ethiopia|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=[[Ithaca, New York]]|year=1966|oclc=413211}}.
*{{citation|last=Gardinier|first=David E.|title=Historical Dictionary of Gabon|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=[[Metuchen, New Jersey]]|year=1994|edition=2nd|isbn=0-8108-1435-8|oclc=7462387}}.
*{{citation|last=Gardinier|first=David E.|title=Historical Dictionary of Gabon|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=[[Metuchen, New Jersey]]|year=1994|edition=2nd|isbn=0-8108-1435-8|oclc=7462387|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000gard}}.
*{{citation|last=Keese|first=Alexander|title=L'évolution du leader indigène aux yeux des administrateurs français: Léon M'Ba et le changement des modalités de participation au pouvoir local au Gabon, 1922-1967|year=2004|journal=Afrique & Histoire|volume=2|issue=1|issn=1764-1977|url=http://www.cairn.info/article.php?ID_REVUE=AFHI&ID_NUMPUBLIE=AFHI_002&ID_ARTICLE=AFHI_002_0141|pages=141–170|language=fr}}.
*{{citation|last=Keese|first=Alexander|title=L'évolution du leader indigène aux yeux des administrateurs français: Léon M'Ba et le changement des modalités de participation au pouvoir local au Gabon, 1922-1967|year=2004|journal=Afrique & Histoire|volume=2|issue=1|issn=1764-1977|url=http://www.cairn.info/article.php?ID_REVUE=AFHI&ID_NUMPUBLIE=AFHI_002&ID_ARTICLE=AFHI_002_0141|pages=141–170|doi=10.3917/afhi.002.0141|language=fr}}.


{{1964 Gabon coup d'état}}

{{Persondata <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]]. -->
| NAME = Bigmann, Louis
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Gabonese politician
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1897
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 1986
| PLACE OF DEATH =
⚫
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bigmann, Louis}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bigmann, Louis}}
[[Category:Presidents of the National Assembly of Gabon]]
[[Category:Presidents of the National Assembly of Gabon]]

Latest revision as of 15:13, 1 November 2024

Louis Bigmann
President of the National Assembly of Gabon
In office
12 February 1961 – 12 April 1964
Preceded byPaul Gondjout
Succeeded byGeorges Aleka Damas
Personal details
Born1897
Died1986

Louis-Emile Bigmann (1897–1986)[1] was a Gabonese politician and former President of the National Assembly of Gabon.[2]

Early life and political career

[edit]

A member of the Mpongwe people,[3] he was born and lived in Baraka, Gabon.[4] Bigmann attended the Ecole Montfort in Libreville, Gabon's capital.[5] Noted Mpongwe critic of colonialism Laurent Antchouey and he founded the "L'Echo Gabonais" in Dakar in 1922.[6]

Bigmann was appointed President of the National Assembly by Gabonese President Leon M'ba in 1961 while its former officeholder, Paul Gondjout, was incarcerated.[3]

1964 Gabon coup d'état

[edit]
Main article: 1964 Gabon coup d'état

During the night of 17 February and the early morning of 18 February 1964, 150 members of the Gabonese military, gendarmerie, and police, headed by Lieutenant Jacques Mombo and Valére Essone, seized the presidential palace.[7] The gendarmes on duty claimed that this was but a military exercise.[8] However, during the "exercise" the lieutenants dragged President M'ba from his bed at gunpoint.[9] Bongo heard this noise and telephoned Bigmann to find out what had happened. Bigmann arrived at the presidential palace and asked the rebels what Bongo had asked him. At this point they opened the gates and arrested him too.[10] The plotters subsequently arrested every member of the Gabonese cabinet except the respected technician André Gustave Anguilé.[11] On Radio Libreville, the military announced to the Gabonese people that a coup d'état had taken place, asked for technical assistance, and told the French not to interfere in this matter.[12] M'ba was forced to broadcast a speech acknowledging his defeat, in which he said, "The D-Day is here, the injustices are beyond measure, these people are patient, but their patience has limits. It came to a boil."[12][13]

Gabonese and French military officers pictured in 1959.

No blood was shed during the event, and when the Gabonese people did not respond violently the military interpreted this as a sign of approval.[14] Aubame was offered the presidency of the newly formed provisional government.[15] The government was composed of civilian politicians from both the UDSG and BDG, such as Gondjout.[15] During the coup, he served as Minister of State.[16] The coup's leaders were content at restoring security for the civilians. The small Gabonese army did not intervene; composed mostly of French officers, they remained in their barracks.[17]

The provisional government gave instructions to transfer M'ba to Aubame's electoral stronghold, Njolé.[18] Due to heavy rain, the deposed president was sent to Lambaréné,[18] 250 kilometres (160 mi) north of Libreville. The new head of government contacted French ambassador Paul Cousseran, to assure him that the property of foreign nationals would be protected and to request against French military intervention.[19] In Paris, President Charles de Gaulle decided against the plea.[17]

M'ba was one of France's most loyal African allies, and during a visit to France in 1961, declared, "all Gabonese have two fatherlands: France and Gabon."[20][21] Moreover, under his regime, Europeans were particularly well treated.[21] The French authorities therefore decided, in accordance with signed Franco-Gabon agreements, to restore the legitimate government.[17] Intervention could not commence without a formal request to the Head of State of Gabon.[19] Since M'ba was imprisoned, the French contacted the Vice President of Gabon, Paul-Marie Yembit, who had not been arrested.[19] However, he remained unaccounted for; therefore, they decided to compose a predated letter confirming their intervention, that Yembit would later sign.[17] Less than 24 hours later, French troops stationed in Dakar and Brazzaville landed in Libreville and restored M'ba to power.[22][23] During the operation, a French soldier and 15 to 25 Gabonese died.[22]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ CIDEF-AFI, p. 331.
  2. ^ "Assemblée Nationale du Gabon - Les anciens Présidents". Assemblée Nationale du Gabon. 13 January 2014. Archived from the original on 2014-01-13.
  3. ^ a b Carter & Sklar 1966, p. 258
  4. ^ Darlington & Darlington 1968, p. 69
  5. ^ Gardinier 1994, p. 27
  6. ^ Gardinier 1994, p. xvi.
  7. ^ Giniger, Henry (20 February 1964), "Gabon Insurgents Yield as France Rushes in Troops", The New York Times, retrieved 17 September 2008
  8. ^ Darlington & Darlington 1968, p. 130
  9. ^ "De Gaulle to the Rescue", Time, 28 February 1964, archived from the original on December 1, 2007, retrieved 7 September 2008
  10. ^ Darlington & Darlington 1968, p. 131
  11. ^ Gardinier 1994, p. 58
  12. ^ a b Biteghe 1990, p. 62
  13. ^ "Le jour J est arrivé, les injustices ont dépassé la mesure, ce peuple est patient, mais sa patience a des limites... il est arrivé à bout."
  14. ^ Biteghe 1990, p. 63.
  15. ^ a b Biteghe 1990, p. 64.
  16. ^ Garrison, Lloyd (21 February 1964), "Gabon President Resumes Office", The New York Times, p. 1.
  17. ^ a b c d (in French) Pesnot, Patrick (producer) & Billoud, Michel (director) (10 March 2007), 1964, le putsch raté contre Léon M'Ba président du Gabon [radio], France Inter. Retrieved on 22 August 2008.
  18. ^ a b Biteghe 1990, p. 21.
  19. ^ a b c Biteghe 1990, p. 19.
  20. ^ "Tout Gabonais a deux patries : la France et le Gabon."
  21. ^ a b Biteghe 1990, p. 23.
  22. ^ a b Bernault 1996, p. 19.
  23. ^ Grundy, Kenneth W. (October 1968), "On Machiavelli and the Mercenaries", The Journal of Modern African Studies, 6 (3), Cambridge University Press: 295–310, doi:10.1017/S0022278X00017420, ISSN 0022-278X, JSTOR 159300.

Sources

[edit]
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