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{{Short description|Dutch physicist (1888–1966)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2012}}
{{Infobox scientist
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Frits Zernike
| name = Frits Zernike
| image = Zernike.jpg
| image = Zernike.jpg
| caption = Frits Zernike (1888–1966)
| caption = Zernike in 1953
| birth_name = Frits Zernike
| birth_name = Frederick Zernike
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1888|07|16|df=yes}}
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1888|07|16|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands]]
| birth_place = [[Amsterdam]], Netherlands
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1966|3|10|1888|7|16|df=y}}
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1966|3|10|1888|7|16|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Amersfoort]], Netherlands
| death_place = [[Amersfoort]], Netherlands
| nationality = [[Netherlands]]
| nationality = Dutch
| fields = [[Physics]]
| fields = [[Physics]]
| workplaces = [[Groningen University]]
| workplaces = [[Groningen University]]
| alma_mater = [[University of Amsterdam]]
| alma_mater = [[University of Amsterdam]]
| doctoral_advisor =
| doctoral_advisor =
| academic_advisor =
| academic_advisor =
| doctoral_students =
| doctoral_students =
| notable_students =
| notable_students =
| known_for = [[Ornstein-Zernike equation]]<br />[[Zernike polynomials]]<br />[[Phase contrast microscope|Phase contrast microscopy]]
| known_for = [[Phase-contrast microscopy]]<br />[[Zernike polynomials]]<br />[[Ornstein–Zernike equation]]<br />[[Van Cittert–Zernike theorem]]
⚫
| awards = {{no wrap|[[Rumford Medal]] (1952)<br />[[Nobel Prize in Physics]] (1953)<br>[[Fellow of the Royal Society]]<ref name="frs"/>}}
| influences = [[Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn]]
| spouse = Dora van Bommel van Vloten (1930-1945)
| influenced =
Lena Koperberg-Baanders (since 1954)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1953/zernike/biographical/ | title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1953 }}</ref>
⚫
| awards = {{no wrap|[[Rumford Medal]] (1952)<br />[[Nobel Prize for Physics]] (1953)<br>[[Fellow of the Royal Society]]<ref name="frs"/>}}
}}
}}


'''Frits Zernike''' ({{IPA-nl|frɪts ˈzɛrnikə}}; 16 July 1888 – 10 March 1966) was a Dutch [[physicist]] and winner of the [[Nobel Prize]] for [[physics]] in 1953 for his invention of the [[Phase-contrast microscopy|phase-contrast microscope]].
'''Frits Zernike''' ({{IPA|nl|frɪt ˈsɛrnikə}}; 16 July 1888 – 10 March 1966) was a Dutch physicist and winner of the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in 1953 for his invention of the [[Phase-contrast microscopy|phase-contrast microscope]].


== Early life and education ==
== Early life and education ==
Frits Zernike was born on 16 July 1888 in [[Amsterdam]], Netherlands to Carl Frederick August Zernike and Antje Dieperink. Both parents were teachers of [[mathematics]], and he especially shared his father's passion for physics. He studied [[chemistry]] (his major), mathematics and physics at the [[University of Amsterdam]].
Frederick "Frits" Zernike<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dörfel |first=G. |date=2012-08-15 |title=The early history of thermal noise: The long way to paradigm change |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/andp.201200736 |journal=Annalen der Physik |language=en |volume=524 |issue=8 |pages=117–121 |doi=10.1002/andp.201200736 |bibcode=2012AnP...524..117D |issn=0003-3804}}</ref> was born on 16 July 1888 in [[Amsterdam]], Netherlands to Carl Friedrich August Zernike and Antje Dieperink. Both parents were teachers of mathematics, and he especially shared his father's passion for physics. In 1905 he enrolled at the [[University of Amsterdam]], studying chemistry (his major), mathematics and physics.


== Academic career ==
== Academic career ==
In 1912, he was awarded a prize for his work on [[opalescence]] in gases. In 1913, he became the assistant of [[Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn]] at the astronomical laboratory of [[Groningen University]]. In 1914, Zernike and [[Leonard Salomon Ornstein]] were jointly responsible for the derivation of the [[Ornstein-Zernike equation]] in critical-point theory. In 1915, he obtained a position in [[theoretical physics]] at the same university and in 1920 he was promoted to full professor of [[theoretical physics]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2017}}
In 1912, he was awarded a prize for his work on [[opalescence]] in gases. In 1913, he became assistant to [[Jacobus Kapteyn]] at the astronomical laboratory of [[Groningen University]]. In 1914, Zernike and [[Leonard Ornstein]] were jointly responsible for the derivation of the [[Ornstein–Zernike equation]] in critical-point theory. In 1915, he became [[lector]] in [[theoretical mechanics]] and [[mathematical physics]] at the same university and in 1920 he was promoted to professor of mathematical physics.<ref>[https://www.math.rug.nl/bernoulli/Geschiedenis/Zernike Frits Zernike 1888-1966]</ref>


In 1930, Zernike was conducting research into [[spectral line]]s when he discovered that the so-called ''ghost lines'' that occur to the left and right of each primary line in [[electromagnetic spectrum|spectra]] created by means of a [[diffraction grating]], have their phase shifted from that of the primary line by 90 degrees.{{Citation needed|date=September 2017}} It was at a Physical and Medical Congress in [[Wageningen]] in 1933, that Zernike first described his phase contrast technique in microscopy. He extended his method to test the figure of concave mirrors. His discovery lay at the base of the first phase contrast microscope, built during [[World War II]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2017}}
In 1930, Zernike was conducting research into [[spectral line]]s when he discovered that the so-called ''ghost lines'' that occur to the left and right of each primary line in [[electromagnetic spectrum|spectra]] created by means of a [[diffraction grating]], have their phase shifted from that of the primary line by 90 degrees.{{Citation needed|date=September 2017}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zernicke|first=Frits|date=1935|title=Das Phasenkontrastverfahren bei der mikroskopischen Beobachtung|journal=Zeitschrift für technische Physik|volume=16|pages=454–457}}</ref> It was at a Physical and Medical Congress in [[Wageningen]] in 1933, that Zernike first described his phase contrast technique in microscopy. He extended his method to test the figure of concave mirrors. His discovery lay at the base of the first phase contrast microscope, built during World War II.{{Citation needed|date=September 2017}}


He also made another contribution in the field of optics, it is related to the efficient description of the imaging defects or [[Aberration in optical systems|aberrations of optical imaging systems]] like [[microscope]]s and [[telescope]]s. The representation of [[Aberration in optical systems|aberrations]] was originally based on the theory developed by [[Philipp Ludwig von Seidel|Ludwig Seidel]] in the middle of the nineteenth century. [[Philipp Ludwig von Seidel|Seidel's]] representation was based on [[power series]] expansions and did not allow a clear separation between various types and orders of [[Aberration in optical systems|aberrations]]. [[Zernike polynomials|Zernike's orthogonal circle polynomials]] provided a solution to the long-standing problem of the optimum 'balancing' of the various [[Aberration in optical systems|aberrations]] of an optical instrument. Since the 1960s, [[Zernike polynomials|Zernike's circle polynomials]] are widely used in [[optical design]], optical [[metrology]] and [[image analysis]].
He also made another contribution in the field of optics, relating to the efficient description of the imaging defects or [[optical aberration|aberrations of optical imaging systems]] like [[microscope]]s and [[telescope]]s. The representation of aberrations was originally based on the theory developed by [[Philipp Ludwig von Seidel|Ludwig Seidel]] in the middle of the nineteenth century. [[Philipp Ludwig von Seidel|Seidel's]] representation was based on [[power series]] expansions and did not allow a clear separation between various types and orders of aberrations. [[Zernike's orthogonal circle polynomials]] provided a solution to the long-standing problem of the optimum 'balancing' of the various aberrations of an optical instrument. Since the 1960s, [[Zernike's circle polynomials]] are widely used in [[optical design]], optical [[metrology]] and [[image analysis]].


Zernike's work helped awaken interest in [[coherence theory (optics)|coherence theory]], the study of partially coherent light sources. In 1938 he published a simpler derivation of Van Cittert's 1934 theorem on the coherence of radiation from distant sources, now known as the [[Van Cittert-Zernike theorem]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Van Cittert | first1 = P. H. | doi = 10.1016/S0031-8914(34)90026-4 | title = Die Wahrscheinliche Schwingungsverteilung in Einer von Einer Lichtquelle Direkt Oder Mittels Einer Linse Beleuchteten Ebene | journal = Physica | volume = 1 | pages = 201–210 | year = 1934 | pmid = | pmc = |bibcode = 1934Phy.....1..201V }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Zernike | first1 = F. | title = The concept of degree of coherence and its application to optical problems | doi = 10.1016/S0031-8914(38)80203-2 | journal = Physica | volume = 5 | issue = 8 | pages = 785–795 | year = 1938 | pmid = | pmc = |bibcode = 1938Phy.....5..785Z }}</ref>
Zernike's work helped awaken interest in [[coherence theory (optics)|coherence theory]], the study of partially coherent light sources. In 1938 he published a simpler derivation of Van Cittert's 1934 theorem on the coherence of radiation from distant sources, now known as the [[Van Cittert–Zernike theorem]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Van Cittert | first1 = P. H. | doi = 10.1016/S0031-8914(34)90026-4 | title = Die Wahrscheinliche Schwingungsverteilung in Einer von Einer Lichtquelle Direkt Oder Mittels Einer Linse Beleuchteten Ebene | journal = Physica | volume = 1 | pages = 201–210 | year = 1934 | issue = 1–6 |bibcode = 1934Phy.....1..201V }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Zernike | first1 = F. | title = The concept of degree of coherence and its application to optical problems | doi = 10.1016/S0031-8914(38)80203-2 | journal = Physica | volume = 5 | issue = 8 | pages = 785–795 | year = 1938 |bibcode = 1938Phy.....5..785Z }}</ref>


== Death ==
== Death ==
He died in the hospital at [[Amersfoort]], Netherlands in 1966 after suffering illness the last years of his life.<ref>{{cite book | last=Van Berkel | first=Klaas | authorlink1 = Klaas van Berkel |author2=Van Helden, A.|author3=Palm, L.| title=A History of Science in The Netherlands. Survey, Themes and Reference | chapter=Frits Zernike 1888–1966 | location=Leiden | publisher=Brill | year=1999 | pages=609–611 | isbn=90-04-10006-7 | url=http://www.historyofscience.nl/author.cfm?RecordId=1979}}</ref> His granddaughter is journalist [[Kate Zernike]].<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/25/fashion/weddings/kate-zernike-and-jonathan-schwartz.html New York Times Weddings: Kate Zernike and Jonathan Schwartz"] September 25, 2005</ref>
He died in hospital in [[Amersfoort]] in 1966 after suffering illness the last years of his life.<ref>{{cite book | last=Van Berkel | first=Klaas | author-link1 = Klaas van Berkel |author2=Van Helden, A.|author3=Palm, L.| title=A History of Science in The Netherlands. Survey, Themes and Reference | chapter=Frits Zernike 1888–1966 | location=Leiden | publisher=Brill | year=1999 | pages=609–611 | isbn=90-04-10006-7 | url=http://www.historyofscience.nl/author.cfm?RecordId=1979}}</ref> His granddaughter is journalist [[Kate Zernike]].<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/25/fashion/weddings/kate-zernike-and-jonathan-schwartz.html New York Times Weddings: Kate Zernike and Jonathan Schwartz"] September 25, 2005</ref>


== Honors and awards ==
== Honours and awards ==
In 1946, Zernike became member of the [[Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]].<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/biografie/pmknaw/?pagetype=authorDetail&aId=PE00004022 |title=Frederik (Frits) Zernike (1888 - 1966) |publisher=Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences |date= |accessdate=17 July 2015}}</ref>
In 1946, Zernike became member of the [[Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/biografie/pmknaw/?pagetype=authorDetail&aId=PE00004022 |title=Frederik (Frits) Zernike (1888–1966) |publisher=Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences |access-date=17 July 2015}}</ref>


In 1953, Zernike won the [[Nobel Prize for Physics]], for his invention of the [[phase-contrast microscope]], an instrument that permits the study of internal [[cell (biology)|cell]] structure without the need to [[staining (biology)|stain]] and thus kill the cells.<ref name="frs">{{Cite journal | last1 = Tolansky | first1 = S. | doi = 10.1098/rsbm.1967.0021 | title = Frits Zernike 1888-1966 | journal = [[Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society]] | volume = 13 | pages = 392–402| year = 1967 | pmid = | pmc = }}</ref>
In 1953, Zernike won the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]], for his invention of the [[phase-contrast microscope]], an instrument that permits the study of internal [[cell (biology)|cell]] structure without the need to [[staining|stain]] and thus kill the cells.<ref name="frs">{{Cite journal | last1 = Tolansky | first1 = S. | doi = 10.1098/rsbm.1967.0021 | title = Frits Zernike 1888-1966 | journal = [[Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society]] | volume = 13 | pages = 392–402| year = 1967 | s2cid = 123209453 }}</ref>


In 1954, Zernike became an Honorary Member of The Optical Society (OSA).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.osa.org/en-us/awards_and_grants/honorary_members/|title=OSA Honorary Members|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref> Zernike was elected a Foreign Member of the [[Royal Society]] (ForMemRS).<ref name="frs"/>
In 1954, Zernike became an Honorary Member of The Optical Society (OSA).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.osa.org/en-us/awards_and_grants/honorary_members/|title=OSA Honorary Members}}</ref> Zernike was elected a Foreign Member of the [[Royal Society]] (ForMemRS).<ref name="frs"/>


The university complex to the north of the city of [[Groningen (city)|Groningen]] is named after him (Zernike park), as is the crater [[Zernike (crater)|Zernike]] on the [[Moon]].
The university complex ([[University of Groningen#Campus|Zernike Campus]]) to the north of the city of [[Groningen]] is named after him, as is the crater [[Zernike (crater)|Zernike]] on the Moon and the minor planet [[List of minor planets: 11001–12000#779|11779 Zernike]].


Zernike's great-nephew [[Gerardus 't Hooft]] won the Nobel Prize in [[physics]] in 1999.<ref>{{cite web | author=Robert Goldwyn | title=Gerardus 't Hooft Science Video Interview | url=http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/35}}</ref>
Zernike's great-nephew [[Gerard 't Hooft]] won the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in 1999.<ref>{{cite web | author=Robert Goldwyn | title=Gerardus 't Hooft Science Video Interview | url=http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/35}}</ref>


The Oz Enterprise, a [[Linux distribution]], was named after [[Leonard Salomon Ornstein]] and Frederik Zernike.
The Oz Enterprise, a [[Linux distribution]], was named after [[Leonard Ornstein]] and Frederik Zernike.


==See also==
==See also==
* [[Leonard Salomon Ornstein]]
* [[Leonard Ornstein]]
* [[Coherence theory (optics)|Coherence theory]]
* [[Coherence theory (optics)|Coherence theory]]
* [[Fourier optics]]
* [[Live cell imaging]]
* [[Optical aberration]]
* [[Phase-contrast X-ray imaging]]
* [[Physical optics]]
* [[Physical optics]]
* [[Phase contrast microscope]]
* [[Van Cittert–Zernike theorem]]
* [[Zernike polynomials]]


==References==
==References==
Line 65: Line 66:


==External links==
==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.nobel-winners.com/Physics/frits_zernike.html Frits Zernike Photo]
* [http://www.nobel-winners.com/Physics/frits_zernike.html Frits Zernike Photo]
* {{Nobelprize}} including his Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1953 ''How I discovered phase contrast''
* [http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1953/zernike-bio.html Frits Zernike Biography]
⚫
* [http://www.nijboerzernike.nl Extended Nijboer–Zernike theory]
* [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1953/zernike-lecture.pdf "How I discovered phase contrast"] Nobel Prize speech
⚫
* [http://www.nijboerzernike.nl Extended Nijboer-Zernike theory]
* Museum Boerhaave [https://web.archive.org/web/20080307154851/http://www.museumboerhaave.nl/ONDERWIJS/VOORTGEZET/2defase/ANW/pdf/nobelprijswinnaars.pdf Negen Nederlandse Nobelprijswinnaars]
* Museum Boerhaave [https://web.archive.org/web/20080307154851/http://www.museumboerhaave.nl/ONDERWIJS/VOORTGEZET/2defase/ANW/pdf/nobelprijswinnaars.pdf Negen Nederlandse Nobelprijswinnaars]
* H. Brinkman, [http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/Projecten/BWN/lemmata/bwn1/zernike ''Zernike, Frits (1888–1966)''], in Biografisch Woordenboek van Nederland.
* H. Brinkman, [http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/Projecten/BWN/lemmata/bwn1/zernike ''Zernike, Frits (1888–1966)''], in Biografisch Woordenboek van Nederland.
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{{Nobel Prize in Physics Laureates 1951-1975}}
{{Nobel Prize in Physics Laureates 1951-1975}}
{{Nobel Prize laureates from The Netherlands|state=collapsed}}
{{Nobel Prize laureates from The Netherlands|state=collapsed}}
{{1953 Nobel Prize winners}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Authority control}}


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[[Category:1888 births]]
[[Category:1888 births]]
[[Category:1966 deaths]]
[[Category:1966 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century physicists]]
[[Category:20th-century Dutch inventors]]
[[Category:Dutch inventors]]
[[Category:Dutch Nobel laureates]]
[[Category:Dutch Nobel laureates]]
[[Category:Dutch physicists]]
[[Category:20th-century Dutch physicists]]
[[Category:Foreign Members of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Foreign members of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]]
[[Category:Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]]
[[Category:Microscopists]]
[[Category:Microscopists]]
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[[Category:Scientists from Amsterdam]]
[[Category:Scientists from Amsterdam]]
[[Category:University of Amsterdam alumni]]
[[Category:University of Amsterdam alumni]]
[[Category:University of Groningen faculty]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Groningen]]

Latest revision as of 18:45, 1 November 2024

Frits Zernike
Zernike in 1953
Born
Frederick Zernike

(1888-07-16)16 July 1888
Amsterdam, Netherlands
Died10 March 1966(1966-03-10) (aged 77)
Amersfoort, Netherlands
NationalityDutch
Alma materUniversity of Amsterdam
Known forPhase-contrast microscopy
Zernike polynomials
Ornstein–Zernike equation
Van Cittert–Zernike theorem
SpouseDora van Bommel van Vloten (1930-1945) Lena Koperberg-Baanders (since 1954)[2]
AwardsRumford Medal (1952)
Nobel Prize in Physics (1953)
Fellow of the Royal Society[1]
Scientific career
FieldsPhysics
InstitutionsGroningen University

Frits Zernike (Dutch pronunciation: [frɪt ˈsɛrnikə]; 16 July 1888 – 10 March 1966) was a Dutch physicist and winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1953 for his invention of the phase-contrast microscope.

Early life and education

[edit]

Frederick "Frits" Zernike[3] was born on 16 July 1888 in Amsterdam, Netherlands to Carl Friedrich August Zernike and Antje Dieperink. Both parents were teachers of mathematics, and he especially shared his father's passion for physics. In 1905 he enrolled at the University of Amsterdam, studying chemistry (his major), mathematics and physics.

Academic career

[edit]

In 1912, he was awarded a prize for his work on opalescence in gases. In 1913, he became assistant to Jacobus Kapteyn at the astronomical laboratory of Groningen University. In 1914, Zernike and Leonard Ornstein were jointly responsible for the derivation of the Ornstein–Zernike equation in critical-point theory. In 1915, he became lector in theoretical mechanics and mathematical physics at the same university and in 1920 he was promoted to professor of mathematical physics.[4]

In 1930, Zernike was conducting research into spectral lines when he discovered that the so-called ghost lines that occur to the left and right of each primary line in spectra created by means of a diffraction grating, have their phase shifted from that of the primary line by 90 degrees.[citation needed][5] It was at a Physical and Medical Congress in Wageningen in 1933, that Zernike first described his phase contrast technique in microscopy. He extended his method to test the figure of concave mirrors. His discovery lay at the base of the first phase contrast microscope, built during World War II.[citation needed]

He also made another contribution in the field of optics, relating to the efficient description of the imaging defects or aberrations of optical imaging systems like microscopes and telescopes. The representation of aberrations was originally based on the theory developed by Ludwig Seidel in the middle of the nineteenth century. Seidel's representation was based on power series expansions and did not allow a clear separation between various types and orders of aberrations. Zernike's orthogonal circle polynomials provided a solution to the long-standing problem of the optimum 'balancing' of the various aberrations of an optical instrument. Since the 1960s, Zernike's circle polynomials are widely used in optical design, optical metrology and image analysis.

Zernike's work helped awaken interest in coherence theory, the study of partially coherent light sources. In 1938 he published a simpler derivation of Van Cittert's 1934 theorem on the coherence of radiation from distant sources, now known as the Van Cittert–Zernike theorem.[6][7]

Death

[edit]

He died in hospital in Amersfoort in 1966 after suffering illness the last years of his life.[8] His granddaughter is journalist Kate Zernike.[9]

Honours and awards

[edit]

In 1946, Zernike became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.[10]

In 1953, Zernike won the Nobel Prize in Physics, for his invention of the phase-contrast microscope, an instrument that permits the study of internal cell structure without the need to stain and thus kill the cells.[1]

In 1954, Zernike became an Honorary Member of The Optical Society (OSA).[11] Zernike was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS).[1]

The university complex (Zernike Campus) to the north of the city of Groningen is named after him, as is the crater Zernike on the Moon and the minor planet 11779 Zernike.

Zernike's great-nephew Gerard 't Hooft won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1999.[12]

The Oz Enterprise, a Linux distribution, was named after Leonard Ornstein and Frederik Zernike.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c Tolansky, S. (1967). "Frits Zernike 1888-1966". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 13: 392–402. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1967.0021. S2CID 123209453.
  2. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1953".
  3. ^ Dörfel, G. (2012-08-15). "The early history of thermal noise: The long way to paradigm change". Annalen der Physik. 524 (8): 117–121. Bibcode:2012AnP...524..117D. doi:10.1002/andp.201200736. ISSN 0003-3804.
  4. ^ Frits Zernike 1888-1966
  5. ^ Zernicke, Frits (1935). "Das Phasenkontrastverfahren bei der mikroskopischen Beobachtung". Zeitschrift für technische Physik. 16: 454–457.
  6. ^ Van Cittert, P. H. (1934). "Die Wahrscheinliche Schwingungsverteilung in Einer von Einer Lichtquelle Direkt Oder Mittels Einer Linse Beleuchteten Ebene". Physica. 1 (1–6): 201–210. Bibcode:1934Phy.....1..201V. doi:10.1016/S0031-8914(34)90026-4.
  7. ^ Zernike, F. (1938). "The concept of degree of coherence and its application to optical problems". Physica. 5 (8): 785–795. Bibcode:1938Phy.....5..785Z. doi:10.1016/S0031-8914(38)80203-2.
  8. ^ Van Berkel, Klaas; Van Helden, A.; Palm, L. (1999). "Frits Zernike 1888–1966". A History of Science in The Netherlands. Survey, Themes and Reference. Leiden: Brill. pp. 609–611. ISBN 90-04-10006-7.
  9. ^ New York Times Weddings: Kate Zernike and Jonathan Schwartz" September 25, 2005
  10. ^ "Frederik (Frits) Zernike (1888–1966)". Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 17 July 2015.
  11. ^ "OSA Honorary Members".
  12. ^ Robert Goldwyn. "Gerardus 't Hooft Science Video Interview".
[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to Frits Zernike.
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