Political views of American academics: Difference between revisions
Fyddlestix (talk | contribs) m →Research: ce |
Citation bot (talk | contribs) Altered doi-broken-date. | Use this bot. Report bugs. | #UCB_CommandLine |
||
(622 intermediate revisions by 93 users not shown) | |||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{Short description|none}} |
|||
{{globalize|date=October 2016}} |
|||
The '''political views of American academics''' began to receive attention in the 1930s, and investigation into faculty political views expanded rapidly after the rise of [[McCarthyism]]. Demographic surveys of faculty that began in the 1950s and continue to the present have found higher percentages of [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberals]] than of [[Conservatism in the United States|conservatives]], particularly among those who work in the humanities and social sciences. Researchers and pundits disagree about survey methodology and about the interpretations of the findings. |
|||
{{pov|date=January 2017}} |
|||
==History== |
|||
'''Liberal bias in academia''' refers to the perception that [[academia]] has had a [[liberal bias]], and that college and university professors are disproportionately liberal compared to the general population. The extent and causes of this perceived bias have been the subject of intensive debate in both academic literature and the popular press. |
|||
===Pre- and post-WWII=== |
|||
[[File:Max Yergan.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Max Yergan]] was one of the first professors fired for political views.]] |
|||
Carol Smith<ref name=":0">Smith, Carol. (2011). "[https://www.aaup.org/article/dress-rehearsal-mccarthyism?PF=1 The dress rehearsal for McCarthyism]." ''Academe'' 94(4): 48–51.</ref> and Stephen Leberstein<ref name="Leber92">Stephen Leberstein, "Purging the Profs: The Rapp Coudert Committee in New York, 1940–1942," in Michael E. Brown et al. (eds.), ''New Studies in the Politics and Culture of US Communism.'' New York: Monthly Review Press, 1993; p. 92.</ref> have documented investigations of professors' political views at the [[City College of New York]] (CCNY) during the 1930s and 1940s. Citing the tactics of private hearings, requiring respondents to name others, and denying rights of legal representation, Smith calls the investigations a "dress rehearsal for McCarthyism".<ref name=":0" /> Smith described the case of [[Max Yergan]], who was the first African American professor hired at the CCNY. After complaints that he expressed liberal and progressive views in his classes on Negro History and Culture, Yergan was terminated in 1936.<ref name=":0" /> In 1938, the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]] created the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]]; one of the committee's first actions was to attempt to investigate the political views of faculty in the [[City University of New York|New York public colleges]].<ref name=":0" /> |
|||
In 1940, [[Bertrand Russell]] was denied employment as a philosophy professor at CCNY because of his political beliefs.<ref name=":0" /> That same year, the [[New York State Legislature]] created the [[Rapp-Coudert Committee|Rapp-Coutert Committee]], which held hearings in 1940–41 during which faculty accused of holding [[Communism|communist]] political beliefs were interrogated.<ref name="Leber92" /> More than 50 faculty and staff at CCNY resigned or were terminated as a result of the hearings.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Leber92" /> One professor, [[Morris Schappes]], served a year in prison on [[perjury]] charges for refusing to name colleagues who may have been affiliated with the [[Communist Party USA|Communist party]].<ref name=":0" /> Smith believes that the investigations caused the largest political purge on one campus in the history of the US. |
|||
==Research== |
|||
Prior to the late 1960's, speculation of the existence of liberal bias in higher education was based entirely on anecdotal reports and observations. Starting in 1969, a series of surveys and questionnaires were conducted throughout Canada and the US, which supported the previously untested speculations of the prevalence of progressive-styles of teaching amongst the majority of professors..<ref name="Lammers">{{Citation|last1=Inbar|first1=Yoel|last2=Lammers|first2=Joris|title=Political Diversity in Social and Personality Psychology|journal=[[Perspectives on Psychological Science]]|publisher=[[SAGE Publications]]|volume=7|issue=5|year=September 5, 2012|doi=10.1177/1745691612448792|url=http://yoelinbar.net/papers/political_diversity.pdf|accessdate=January 20, 2017}}</ref> A Carnegie survey in 1984 found that professors with liberal political views represented a slightly larger percentage of faculty than their conservative counterparts, constituting 39% of faculty as compared to 34% for conservatives. |
|||
In 1942, the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI), began investigating the political views of [[W. E. B. Du Bois|W.E.B. DuBois]], an African American sociologist who taught at [[Clark Atlanta University|Atlanta University]].<ref name="Keen" /> The investigation centered on DuBois's 1940 autobiography, ''[[Dusk of Dawn]].'' Although the investigation was dismissed, Atlanta University fired DuBois in 1943. Public outcry led the university to reinstate DuBois, but he retired in 1944. In 1949, the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] summoned faculty members from the [[University of Washington]], and three [[Academic tenure|tenured]] faculty members were fired.<ref name="Schrecker" /> |
|||
A 1999 survey conducted by Stanley Rothman, S. Robert Lichter, and Neil Nevitte found that professors with liberal socio-political views outnumbered their conservative counterparts by a ratio of 5 to 1 in the United States, with the former constituting 72% of the faculty body and the later representing 15%.<ref name="Forum" /> The study was criticized by political scientists Barry Ames, David C. Barker, Chris W. Bonneau, and Christopher J. Carman, who argued that it was "plagued by theoretical and methodological problems that render their conclusions unsustainable by the available evidence."<ref>https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1012734</ref> Rothman, Licther and Nevitte's study was later revealed to have contained a coding error, which exaggerated the percentage of professors holding liberal views by 12%.<ref>Gross, Neil. ''Why Are Professors Liberal and Why Do Conservatives Care?'' Harvard University Press, 2013.</ref>{{rp|55}} |
|||
Public concern about the political opinions of college teachers intensified after [[World War II]] ended in 1945.<ref name="LazarsfeldThielens1958" /> Sociologists who were investigated by the FBI for their political beliefs during this period include [[Ernest Burgess]], [[William Fielding Ogburn]], [[Robert Staughton Lynd]], [[Helen Lynd]], [[E. Franklin Frazier]], [[Pitirim Sorokin|Pitirim A. Sorokin]], [[Talcott Parsons]], [[Herbert Blumer]], [[Samuel A. Stouffer|Samuel Stouffer]], [[C. Wright Mills]], and [[Edwin Sutherland|Edwin H. Sutherland]].<ref name="Keen" /> |
|||
An opinion poll concluded that conservatives within the general public outnumbered liberals by a ratio of 2 to 1 in 1999, with the former constituting 37% of respondents and the latter a mere 17%.<ref name="Forum" /><ref name="Lammers" /> Surveys conducted by the [[Xavier University]] in Ohio have provided a different explanation of the prevalence of liberal academics in colleges. The survey outlined the so-called 'Self-Selection Hypothesis', which proposed that conservatives were less likely to pursue careers in academia due to a combination of personal preference and belief that they would face more challenges in achieving academic success due in a progressive-dominated field. The study found that conservatives aspired to get into higher-paying jobs, whilst liberals were more likely to be affiliated with community service occupations and were less influenced by monetary gratification.<ref>Phillips, James Cleith. "Appendix To: 'Why Are There so Few Conservatives and Libertarians in Legal Academia? An Empirical Exploration of Three Hypotheses'" SSRN Electronic Journal SSRN Journal: 84-96. Web. 1 May 2016. <http://www.xavier.edu/xjop/documents/Hudson.pdf>.</ref> |
|||
===McCarthyism and loyalty oaths=== |
|||
==Implications== |
|||
{{main|McCarthyism}} |
|||
The prevalence of progressive professors in institutions of higher education, some argue, has created an environment that prioritizes political correctness above truthfulness. A report by the California Association of Scholars, put together in 2012 for the [[UCLA]], argues that the lack of balance between liberal and conservative viewpoints has contributed to a culture that espouses socio-cultural and political apologists, whilst marginalizing those with center-right viewpoints.<ref>Ellis, John M., Charles L. Geshekter, Peter W. Wood, and Stephen H. Balch. The Corrupting Effect of Political Activism in the University of California. Rep. Los Angeles: California Association of Scholars, 2012. Print.{https://www.nas.org/images/documents/A_Crisis_of_Competence.pdf}</ref> |
|||
[[File:Joseph McCarthy.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Joseph McCarthy]]'s hearings led to faculty members being pressured to resign.]] |
|||
Although government employees and entertainment figures were most often investigated for alleged communist sympathies during the "[[Red Scare#Second Red Scare|Second Red Scare]]" of the 1950s, many university faculty were accused as well.<ref name="Schrecker">{{cite web|url=http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/uchistory/archives_exhibits/loyaltyoath/symposium/schrecker.html|title=Political Tests for Professors: Academic Freedom during the McCarthy Years|first=Ellen|last=Schrecker|date=October 7, 1999|publisher=University of California at Berkeley|access-date=June 6, 2018}}</ref> In their 1955 study of 2,451 social scientists who taught at American colleges and universities, Lazarsfeld and Thielens noted that the period of 1945–55 was especially marked by suspicion and attacks on colleges for the political views of their faculty. These authors label this period "the difficult years."<ref name="LazarsfeldThielens1958" />{{Rp|35}} |
|||
In 1950, the [[Regents of the University of California|University of California Board of Regents]] and its administration began to require faculty to sign a two-part political [[loyalty oath]]: one part required faculty to declare they were not Communists, and did not believe in the tenets of Communism;<ref name=":2">Radin, Max. (1950). ''Bulletin of the American Association of University Professors (1915–1955),'' 36(2): 237–245. {{JSTOR|40220718}}</ref> the other part was an oath of loyalty to the state of California and the US Constitution in accordance with the [[Levering Act]].<ref name="Schrecker" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal | doi=10.1007/BF01097643| title=Lessons from the controversy over the loyalty oath at the University of California| journal=Minerva| volume=30| issue=3| pages=337–365| year=1992| last1=Innis| first1=Nancy K.| s2cid=144433911}}</ref> In early March, 1950, the faculty, who numbered 900, unanimously refused to sign even though the Regents threatened non-signers with termination.<ref name=":2" /> Faculty who refused to sign the loyalty oath were terminated, although most of the terminations were later overturned by a California state court.<ref name=":1" /> In 1951, members of the [[American Legion#1930s to 1950s|American Legion]] began accusing various university faculty of being communists.<ref name="Sarah Lawrence">{{cite web|url=https://www.sarahlawrence.edu/archives/exhibits/mccarthyism/|title=Sarah Lawrence Under Fire: The Attacks on Academic Freedom During the McCarthy Era|publisher=Sarah Lawrence College Archives|access-date=June 6, 2018}}</ref> University administrations responded by banning [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] student groups and communist speakers.<ref name="Schrecker" /> [[Joseph McCarthy]]'s Senate committee investigated 18 faculty members at [[Sarah Lawrence College]], some of whom were pressured to resign.<ref name="Sarah Lawrence" /> |
|||
According to historian [[Ellen Schrecker]], "it is very clear that an academic blacklist was in operation during the McCarthy era."<ref name="Schrecker" /> An estimated 100 university faculty were terminated during the McCarthy era due to suspicions about their political beliefs.<ref>Aby, Stephen H. (2009). "[https://books.google.com/books?id=srDWCQAAQBAJ&dq=%22Discretion+over+valor:+The+AAUP+during+the+McCarthy+Years%22&pg=PA121 Discretion over valor: The AAUP during the McCarthy Years]." ''American Educational History Journal'' 36(1): 121–132.</ref>{{Rp|122}} In 1970, [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]] sent an open letter to US college students, advising them to reject leftist politics,<ref name="Hoover">{{cite web|url=https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/virtuallibrary/documents/jul10/58.pdf|title=An Open Letter to College Students|first=J. Edgar|last=Hoover|publisher=Nixon Library|date=September 21, 1970|access-date=June 6, 2018|archive-date=December 21, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221135530/https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/virtuallibrary/documents/jul10/58.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> and throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the FBI conducted a secret counterintelligence program in libraries.<ref name="Keen">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IiAxDwAAQBAJ|title=Stalking Sociologists: J. Edgar Hoover's FBI Surveillance of American Sociology|last=Keen|first=Mike Forrest|date=2017|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781351488228}}</ref>{{rp|viii–ix}} |
|||
==Surveys== |
|||
===Ford Foundation=== |
|||
In 1955, [[Robert Maynard Hutchins]] led an effort within the [[Ford Foundation]] to document and analyze the effects of [[McCarthyism]] on [[academic freedom]].<ref name=Gross1>{{cite book|last=Gross|first=Neil|title=Why Are Professors Liberal and Why Do Conservatives Care?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5-VLm9EcghoC|publisher=Harvard University Press|date=2013|isbn=9780674059092}}</ref>{{rp|25–27}} He commissioned sociologist [[Paul Lazarsfeld]] to conduct a study of university faculty in the United States, and the results were published by Lazarsfeld and Wagner Thielens in a book, ''The Academic Mind''. As part of a survey of faculty views about academic freedom during the "Second Red Scare", they asked 2,451 professors of social science a large number of questions, and found that about two thirds of these faculty members had been visited by the FBI and had been asked questions about the political beliefs of their colleagues, students, and themselves.<ref name="Keen"/>{{rp|xvii}} They also included a few questions about political party affiliations and recent voting patterns, and reported that there were more [[History of the United States Democratic Party#Presidency of Harry S. Truman (1945–1953)|Democrats]] than [[History of the United States Republican Party#Dwight D. Eisenhower and Richard Nixon: 1952–1974|Republicans]], 47% to 16%.<ref name="LazarsfeldThielens1958">{{cite book|author1=Paul Félix Lazarsfeld|author2=Wagner Thielens|author3=Columbia University. Bureau of Applied Social Research|title=The academic mind: social scientists in a time of crisis|url=https://archive.org/details/academicmindsoci0000laza|url-access=registration|year=1958|publisher=Free Press}}</ref> According to sociologist [[Neil Gross]], the study was significant because it was the first effort to poll university faculty specifically about their political views.<ref name=Gross1/>{{rp|25–27}} |
|||
===Carnegie Commission on Higher Education=== |
|||
The Lazarsfeld and Thielens study had examined a sample of 2,451 social science faculty members.<ref name="LazarsfeldThielens1958" /> A second study, conducted in 1969 on behalf of the [[Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching|Carnegie Commission on Higher Education]], was the first to be performed with a large survey sample, extensive questions about political views, and what Neil Gross characterized as highly rigorous analytic methods.<ref name=Gross1/>{{rp|28–30}} The study was conducted in 1969 by political scientist [[Everett Carll Ladd]] and sociologist [[Seymour Martin Lipset]], who surveyed 60,000 academics in multiple fields of study at 303 institutions about their political views.<ref name=Gross1/>{{rp|28–30}} Publishing their results in the 1975 book ''The Divided Academy'', Ladd and Lipset found that about 46% of professors described themselves as liberal, 27% described themselves as moderates, and 28% described themselves as conservative. They also reported that faculty in the humanities and social sciences tended to be the most liberal, while those in "applied professional schools such as nursing and home economics" and in agriculture were the most conservative. Younger faculty tended to be more liberal than older faculty, and faculty across the political spectrum tended to disapprove of the [[Student activism#United States|student activism]] of the 1960s.<ref name="LaddLipset1975">{{cite book|author1=Everett Carll Jr Ladd|author2=Seymour Martin Lipset|title=The Divided Academy: Professors and Politics|url=https://archive.org/details/dividedacademypr00ladd|url-access=registration|date=1 January 1975|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=978-0-07-010112-8}}</ref><ref name="Zipp">{{cite journal |author1=Zipp, John F. |author2=Fenwick, Rudy |title=Is the Academy a Liberal Hegemony?: The Political Orientations and Educational Values of Pr ofessors |journal=[[Public Opinion Quarterly]] |date=January 2006 |volume=70 |issue=3 |pages=304–326 |doi=10.1093/poq/nfj009|s2cid=145569095 }}</ref><ref name=Gross1/>{{rp|28–30}} |
|||
Smaller follow-up surveys on behalf of the Carnegie Foundation held in 1975, 1984, 1989, and 1997 showed an increased trend among professors toward the left, apart from a small movement to the right in 1984. By the 1997 study, 57% of the professors surveyed identified as liberals, 20% as moderates, and 24% as conservatives.<ref name="Forum"/><ref name="Hamilton">{{cite journal |last1=Hamilton |first1=Richard F. |last2=Hargens |first2=Lowell L. |title=The Politics of the Professors: Self-Identifications, 1969–1984 |journal=[[Social Forces]] |date=March 1993 |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=603–627 |doi=10.2307/2579887|jstor=2579887 }}</ref><ref name=Gross1/>{{rp|31}}<ref name="Zipp"/> |
|||
===Later surveys=== |
|||
As later surveys were published, some scholars pointed to the harmful effects of a political imbalance in the faculty,<ref name="Forum"/><ref name="BBS"/><ref name="Tetlock">{{cite journal |last1=Tetlock|first1=Philip E.|author-link1=Philip E. Tetlock |last2=Mitchell|first2=Gregory |title=Why so Few Conservatives and Should we Care? |journal=[[Society (journal)|Society]] |date=February 2015 |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=28–34 |doi=10.1007/s12115-014-9850-6 |s2cid=144878612|department=Symposium: Liberals and Conservatives in Academia}}</ref><ref name="OSO"/><ref name="JaschikOct2007"/> and one editorial described the effects as "ruining college".<ref name="Sweeney">{{cite news|last1=Sweeney|first1=Chris|title=How Liberal Professors Are Ruining College|url=https://www.bostonmagazine.com/news/2016/12/20/liberal-professors/|access-date=15 May 2018|work=[[Boston Magazine]]|date=December 20, 2016}}</ref> Other scholars said that there were serious methodological problems that led to overestimates of the disparity between liberals and conservatives, and that there were political motivations for such overestimates.<ref name="Zipp"/>{{rp|24}}<ref name="GrossSimmons2014"/>{{rp|20}}<ref name="Jacoby"/><ref name="Ames">{{cite journal|title=Hide the Republicans, the Christians, and the Women: A Response to "Politics and Professional Advancement Among College Faculty."|first1=Barry|last1=Ames|first2=David C.|last2=Barker|first3=Chris W.|last3=Bonneau|first4=Chris J.|last4=Carman|date=12 September 2007|ssrn = 1012734}}</ref> |
|||
====Higher Education Research Institute==== |
|||
Beginning in 1989, the [[Higher Education Research Institute]] (HERI) at the [[University of California, Los Angeles]] has conducted a survey of full-time faculty at American four-year colleges and universities every three years.<ref name="Zipp"/><ref name="Gross1"/>{{rp|31}} The HERI Faculty Survey gathers comprehensive information about the faculty experience, such as position, field, institutional details, and personal opinion and views, including a single question asking respondents to self-identify their political orientation as "far left", "liberal", "moderate/middle of the road", "conservative", or "far right". Between 1989 and 1998, the survey showed negligible change in the number of professors who described themselves as far left or liberal, approximately 45%. {{as of|2014}}, surveying 16,112 professors, the percentage of liberal/far left had increased to 60%.<ref name="HERI1990">{{cite book |author1=Astin, A.W. |author2=Korn, W.S. |author3=Dey, E.L. |title=The American College Teacher: National Norms for 1989–90 HERI Faculty Survey report |date=May 1990 |publisher=[[Higher Education Research Institute]] |page=44 |url=https://www.heri.ucla.edu/PDFs/pubs/FAC/Norms/Monographs/TheAmericanCollegeTeacher1989To1990.pdf |access-date=8 June 2018}}</ref><ref name="HERI1999">{{cite book |author1=Sax, L.J. |author2=Astin, A.W. |author3=Korn, W.S. |author4=Gilmartin, S.K. |title=The American College Teacher: National Norms for 1998–99 HERI Faculty Survey report |date=September 1999 |isbn=978-1878477248 |page=61 |url=https://www.heri.ucla.edu/PDFs/pubs/FAC/Norms/Monographs/TheAmericanCollegeTeacher1998To1999.pdf |access-date=June 8, 2018}}</ref><ref name="HERI2014">{{cite book |author1=Eagan, M. K. |author2=Stolzenberg, E. B. |author3=Berdan Lozano, J. |author4=Aragon, M. C. |author5=Suchard, M. R. |author6=Hurtado, S. |title=Undergraduate Teaching Faculty: The 2013–2014 HERI Faculty Survey |date=November 2014 |publisher=[[Higher Education Research Institute]] |isbn=978-1-878477-33-0 |page=61 |url=https://www.heri.ucla.edu/monographs/HERI-FAC2014-monograph.pdf |access-date=June 7, 2018}}</ref><ref name="Ingraham2016">{{cite news |last1=Ingraham |first1=Christopher |title=The dramatic shift among college professors that's hurting students' education |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/01/11/the-dramatic-shift-among-college-professors-thats-hurting-students-education |access-date=June 7, 2018 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=January 11, 2016 |quote=In 1990, according to survey data by the Higher Education Research Institute (HERI) at UCLA, 42 percent of professors identified as "liberal" or "far-left." By 2014, that number had jumped to 60 percent.}}</ref> When asked in 2012 about the significance of the findings on political views, the director of HERI, Sylvia Hurtado, said that the numbers on political views attract a lot of attention, but that this attention may be misplaced because there may be trivial reasons for the shifts.<ref name="Moving Further">{{cite news|url=http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2012/10/24/survey-finds-professors-already-liberal-have-moved-further-left|title=Moving Further to the Left|first=Scott|last=Jaschik|journal=Inside Higher Ed|date=October 24, 2012|access-date=June 9, 2018|quote=Sylvia Hurtado, professor of education at UCLA and director of the Higher Education Research Institute, said that she didn't know what to make of the surge to the left by faculty members. She said that she suspects age may be a factor, as the full-time professoriate is aging, but said that this is just a theory. Hurtado said that these figures always attract a lot of attention, but she thinks that the emphasis may be misplaced because of a series of studies showing no evidence that left-leaning faculty members are somehow shifting the views of their students or enforcing any kind of political requirement.}}</ref> |
|||
====North American Academic Survey Study==== |
|||
Ladd and Lipset, who had conducted the original Carnegie survey, designed a telephone survey in 1999 of approximately 4000 faculty, administrators, and students, called the North American Academic Survey Study (NAASS).<ref name="Academe"/> The survey found the ratio of those identifying themselves as Democrat to those identifying as Republican to be 12 to 1 in the humanities, and 6.5 to 1 in the social sciences.<ref name="Academe">{{cite journal |last1=Klein |first1=Daniel B. |author-link1=Daniel B. Klein |title=Academe's House Divided |journal=[[Academic Questions]] |date=September 2011 |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=365–370 |doi=10.1007/s12129-011-9240-0|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |s2cid=140359816 }}</ref> Stanley Rothman, the project lead after the passing of Ladd and Lipset, published a paper using NAASS data along with Neil Nevitte and [[Samuel Robert Lichter|S. Robert Lichter]] which concluded "complaints of ideologically-based discrimination in academic advancement deserve serious consideration and further study".<ref name="Forum">{{cite journal|last1=Rothman|first1=Stanley|last2=Lichter|first2=S. Robert|last3=Nevitte|first3=Neil|title=Politics and Professional Advancement Among College Faculty|journal=The Forum|volume=3|issue=1|year=2005|doi=10.2202/1540-8884.1067|url=http://www.conservativecriminology.com/uploads/5/6/1/7/56173731/rothman_et_al.pdf|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.1412|s2cid=145340516}}</ref> Rothman along with co-authors Matthew Woessner and April Kelly-Woessner reported their extended findings in a book titled ''The Still Divided Academy''.<ref name="RothmanKelly-Woessner2010"/><ref name="Academe"/><ref name="Post">[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/02/25/AR2011022503169.html "Five myths about liberal academia"], Matthew Woessner, April Kelly-Woessner and Stanley Rothman Friday, February 25, 2011 ''Washington Post''</ref> |
|||
====Politics of the American Professoriate==== |
|||
Neil Gross and Solon Simmons conducted a survey starting in 2006 called the ''Politics of the American Professoriate'' which led to several study papers and books. They designed their survey to improve on past studies which they felt had not included [[community college]] professors, addressed low response rates, or used standardized questions. The survey drew upon a sample size of 1417 full-time professors from 927 institutions.<ref name="GrossSimmons2007"/><ref name="JaschikOct2007"/> |
|||
In 2007, Gross and Simmons concluded in ''The Social and Political Views of American Professors'' that the professors were 44% liberal, 46% moderates, and 9% conservative.<ref name="GrossSimmons2007">{{cite journal |last1=Gross|first1=Neil|author-link1=Neil Gross |last2=Simmons|first2=Solon |title=The Social and Political Views of American Professors |journal=(working Paper) |date=September 24, 2007 |citeseerx=10.1.1.147.6141}}</ref><ref name="GrossSimmons2014">{{cite book|editor1-last=Gross|editor1-first=N.|editor2-last=Simmons|editor2-first=S. |title=Professors and Their Politics|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D1vCAwAAQBAJ |chapter=The Social and Political Views of American College and University Professors |last1=Gross|first1=Neil|author-link1=Neil Gross |last2=Simmons|first2=Solon |year=2014|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|isbn=978-1-4214-1334-1|lccn=2013035780}}</ref>{{rp|25–26}} ''[[Inside Higher Ed]]'' reported that economist [[Lawrence H. Summers]] made his own analysis of the data collected by Gross and Simmons and found a larger gap among faculty teaching "core disciplines for undergraduate education" at selective research universities, but the report also concluded that "there was widespread praise for the way the survey was conducted, with Summers and others predicting that their data may become the definitive source for understanding professors' political views."<ref name="JaschikOct2007">{{cite web |last1=Jaschik |first1=Scott |title=The Liberal (and Moderating) Professoriate |url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2007/10/08/liberal-and-moderating-professoriate |website=[[Inside Higher Ed]] |access-date=June 15, 2018 |date=October 8, 2007}}</ref> |
|||
Gross published a more extensive analysis in his 2013 book ''Why Are Professors Liberal and Why Do Conservatives Care?''<ref name="Gross1"/> and, with Simmons, in their 2014 compilation ''Professors and Their Politics''.<ref name="GrossSimmons2014"/>{{rp|25–26}} They strongly criticized what they saw as conservative political influence on the interpretation of data about faculty political views, arising from activists and [[think tank]]s seeking political reform of American higher education.<ref name="GrossSimmons2014"/>{{rp|20}} Sociologist Joseph Hermanowicz described ''Professors and Their Politics'' as "a welcome addition to sociological literature examining higher education, which, in the case of its intersection with politics, has not received serious attention since Paul Lazarsfeld and Wagner Theilen's classic study of 1958 and Seymour Martin Lipset and Everett Carll Ladd's 1976 work."<ref>{{cite journal|title=Professors and Their Politics. Edited by Neil Gross and Solon Simmons|journal=American Journal of Sociology|date=November 2015|volume=121|issue=3|pages=983–985|first=Joseph C.|last=Hermanowicz|doi=10.1086/682889}}</ref> |
|||
====Regional and disciplinary variations==== |
|||
{{multiple image |
|||
| align = right |
|||
| width = 160 |
|||
| direction = horizontal |
|||
| image1 = Steven Pinker 2007.jpg |
|||
| caption1 = [[Steven Pinker]], a member of the [[Heterodox Academy]], has advocated for more acceptance of political diversity in the social sciences. |
|||
| image2 = Jonathan Haidt 2012 03.jpg |
|||
| caption2 = [[Jonathan Haidt]] has also advocated for greater viewpoint diversity in the social sciences, and co-founded the Academy with [[Nicholas Quinn Rosenkranz]] to further that purpose. |
|||
}} |
|||
Several studies have found that the political views of academics vary considerably between different regions of the United States, and between academic disciplines. In a 2016 opinion column in ''[[The New York Times]]'', for example, political scientist Samuel J. Abrams used HERI data to argue that the ratio of liberal to conservative faculty varied greatly between regions. According to Abrams, the ratio of liberal to conservative professors was highest in [[New England]], where this ratio was 28:1, compared to 6:1 nationally.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/03/opinion/sunday/there-are-conservative-professors-just-not-in-these-states.html|title=Opinion. There Are Conservative Professors. Just Not in These States.|first=Samuel J.|last=Adams|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 1, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Jaschik|first=Scott|date=July 5, 2016|website=[[Inside Higher Ed]]|access-date=May 14, 2018|title=New analysis: New England colleges responsible for left-leaning professoriate|url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2016/07/05/new-analysis-new-england-colleges-responsible-left-leaning-professoriate|language=en}}</ref> Abrams also commented on these findings that "This previously unspecified ideological imbalance on campuses has led to cries of discrimination against right of center professors and scores of reports from both academic and popular press sources which have chronicled the concerns with this "beleaguered" and "oppressed" minority on campus... The data clearly reveal that conservative faculty are not only as satisfied with their career choice – if not more so – as their liberal counterparts, but that these faculty are also as progressive in their teaching methods and maintain almost identical outlooks toward their personal and professional lives."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312229229|title=The Contented Professors: How Conservative Faculty See Themselves within the Academy|first=Samuel|last=Abrams|date=December 2016|access-date=June 13, 2018}}</ref> |
|||
Mitchell Langbert examined variations in political party registration in 2018, describing a higher concentration of [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] in elite liberal arts institutions in the northeast, and found more Democrats among female faculty than male faculty. He also found the greatest ratio of Democrats to [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] in interdisciplinary studies and the humanities, and the lowest ratio in professional studies and science and engineering.<ref name="Langbert">{{cite journal|last1=Langbert |first1=Mitchell |title=Homogeneous: The Political Affiliations of Elite Liberal Arts College Faculty |journal=[[Academic Questions]] |volume=32|issue=2|pages=186–197 |url=https://www.nas.org/articles/homogenous_political_affiliations_of_elite_liberal|access-date=June 13, 2018 |date=June 2018|doi=10.1007/s12129-018-9700-x|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |s2cid=149559397 }}</ref> |
|||
Focusing specifically on social psychology academics, a 2014 study found that "[b]y 2006, however, the ratio of Democrats to Republicans had climbed to more than 11:1."<ref name="BBS">{{cite journal|title=Political diversity will improve social psychological science |first1=José L.|last1=Duarte |first2=Jarret T.|last2=Crawford |first3=Charlotta|last3=Stern |first4=Jonathan|last4=Haidt|author-link4=Jonathan Haidt |first5=Lee|last5=Jussim|author-link5=Lee Jussim |first6=Philip E.|last6=Tetlock|author-link6=Philip E. Tetlock |journal=[[Behavioral and Brain Sciences]] |volume=38 |pages=e130|number=e130 |orig-year=July 18, 2014|year=2015 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X14000430 |pmid=25036715|s2cid=23720461}}</ref> The six authors, all from different universities and members of the [[Heterodox Academy]], also said, by 2012, "that for every politically conservative social psychologist in academia there are about 14 liberal psychologists" according to [[Arthur C. Brooks]]. Academy member<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/rabble-rouser/201511/introducing-heterodox-academy|title=Introducing Heterodox Academy|first=Lee|last=Jussim|magazine=Psychology Today|date=November 24, 2015}}</ref> [[Steven Pinker]] described the study as "one of the most important papers in the recent history of the social sciences".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/sapinker/status/643974422483890176|title=Steven Pinker on Twitter|date=September 15, 2015|access-date=June 12, 2018}}</ref> [[Russell Jacoby]] questioned the focus of the study on the social sciences rather than [[Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics|STEM]] fields saying that the "reason is obvious: Liberals do not outnumber conservatives in many of those disciplines".<ref name="Jacoby">{{cite journal |last=Jacoby |first=Russell |author-link=Russell Jacoby |date=April 1, 2016 |title=Academe Is Overrun by Liberals. So What? |journal=[[The Chronicle of Higher Education]] |url=https://www.chronicle.com/article/Academe-Is-Overrun-by/235898 |department=The Chronicle Review |url-access=subscription }}</ref> |
|||
==Effects== |
|||
===On research=== |
|||
A 2020 study asked participants to read the abstract of 194 psychology papers and judge which political side (if any) the findings seemed to support. The researchers found no relationship between perceived political slant and replicability, impact factor, or the quality of the research design. They did however find modest evidence that research with a greater perceived political slant — whether liberal or conservative — was less replicable.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Bavel|first=Diego Reinero,Jay Van|title=Researchers' Politics Don't Undermine Their Scientific Results|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/researchers-politics-dont-undermine-their-scientific-results/|access-date=2020-11-02|website=Scientific American|language=en}}</ref> |
|||
===On students=== |
|||
Since the modern [[conservatism in the United States|conservative movement in the United States]] began in the mid-20th century, conservative authors have argued that college students are no longer taught [[Soft skills|how to think]], but [[Indoctrination|what to think]], as a result of the domination of far-left faculty.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kronman |first1=Anthony T. |author-link1=Anthony T. Kronman |title=The Assault on American Excellence |date=2019 |publisher=Free Press |isbn=978-1501199486}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Ellis|first=John|date=2020|title=The Breakdown of Higher Education: How It Happened, the Damage It Does, and What Can Be Done|publisher=Encounter|isbn=978-1641770880}}</ref><ref name="Nash">{{cite book |last1=Nash |first1=George H. |author-link1=George H. Nash |title=The Conservative Intellectual Movement in America Since 1945 |date=2014 |orig-year=1976 |publisher=[[Open Road Media]] |isbn=9781497636408}}</ref><ref name="Mariani">{{cite journal |author1=Mariani, Mack D. |author2=Hewitt, Gordon J. |title=Indoctrination U.? Faculty Ideology and Changes |journal=[[PS – Political Science & Politics|PS: Political Science & Politics]] |date=October 2008 |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=773–783 |doi=10.1017/S1049096508081031 |jstor=20452310 |s2cid=145111919 }}</ref> [[William F. Buckley]]'s ''[[God and Man at Yale|God and Man at Yale: The Superstitions of "Academic Freedom"]]'', [[Allan Bloom]]'s ''[[The Closing of the American Mind]]'', [[Dinesh D'Souza]]'s ''[[Illiberal Education]]'', and [[Roger Kimball]]'s ''[[Tenured Radicals]]'' have made such arguments.<ref name="Nash" /><ref name="Gross1" />{{rp|27,221–222}}<ref name="Mariani" /> |
|||
George Yancey argues that there is little evidence that the political orientation of faculty members affects the political attitudes of their students.<ref>Yancey, George. "Recalibrating Academic Bias." Academic Questions 25, no. 2 (2012): 267–78.</ref> A study by Mack D. Mariani and Gordon J. Hewitt published in 2008 examined ideological changes in college students between their first and senior years and found that these changes correlated with that of most Americans between the ages of 18 and 24 during the same time period, and there was no evidence that faculty ideology was "associated with changes in students' ideological orientation" and concluded that students at more liberal schools "were not statistically more likely to move to the left" than students at other institutions. Similarly, Stanley Rothman, April Kelly-Woessner, and Mathew Wossner found in 2010 that students' "aggregate attitudes do not appear to vary much between their first and final years," and wrote that this "raises some questions about charges that campuses politically indoctrinate students."<ref name="RothmanKelly-Woessner2010">{{cite book|author1=Stanley Rothman|author2=April Kelly-Woessner|author3=Matthew Woessner|title=The Still Divided Academy: How Competing Visions of Power, Politics, and Diversity Complicate the Mission of Higher Education|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7PPJdzcf7rAC|year=2010|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-4422-0808-7}}</ref>{{rp|77–78}} Analysis of a survey of students' political attitudes by [[M. Kent Jennings]] and Laura Stoker found that the tendency of college graduates to be more liberal is largely due to "the fact that more liberal students are more likely to go to college in the first place."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gross |first1=Neil |title=The Indoctrination Myth |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/04/opinion/sunday/college-doesnt-make-you-liberal.html |access-date=June 16, 2018 |work=The New York Times |date=March 3, 2012}}</ref> |
|||
According to a 2020 study, there is [[Regression toward the mean|regression to the mean]] effect among individuals who go to college. Both left-wing and right-wing students become more moderate during their time in college.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Woessner|first1=Matthew|last2=Kelly-Woessner|first2=April|date=2020|title=Why College Students Drift Left: The Stability of Political Identity and Relative Malleability of Issue Positions among College Students|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ps-political-science-and-politics/article/why-college-students-drift-left-the-stability-of-political-identity-and-relative-malleability-of-issue-positions-among-college-students/9569B67D693BBE6A2CDC42292A3237B7#.X5EoUIbQOGc.twitter|journal=PS: Political Science & Politics|language=en|volume=53|issue=4|pages=657–664|doi=10.1017/S1049096520000396|s2cid=225399119|issn=1049-0965}}</ref> |
|||
===On faculty=== |
|||
[[File:Lawrence Summers 2012.jpg|thumb|[[Lawrence Summers]] has said: "As someone who is a strong Democrat and is a liberal, and does not think that we have won the argument with the country over the last 40 years, rather to the contrary, it makes me wonder whether if you do not engage in intense dialogue with those whom you disagree with... whether your own arguments will be sharpened and honed to maximum effect."<ref name="JaschikOct2007"/>]] |
|||
Rothman, Kelly-Woessner, and Woessner also found in 2010 that 33% of conservative faculty say they are "very satisfied" with their careers, while 24% of liberal faculty say so. Over 90% of Republican-voting professors said that they would still become professors if they could do it all over again. The authors concluded that, although such numbers are not definitive as to how faculty members feel that they have been treated, they provide some evidence against the idea that conservative faculty members are systematically discriminated against.<ref name="Post"/><ref name="RothmanKelly-Woessner2010"/>{{rp|102}} Woessner and Kelly-Woessner also examined what might have given rise to the differences in the numbers of liberals and conservatives. They looked at the choices made by undergraduate students when planning future careers. They found that there were no differences in intellectual ability between conservative and liberal students, but that liberal students were significantly more likely to choose to pursue PhD degrees and academic careers, whereas conservative students of identical academic accomplishments were more likely to pursue business careers. They concluded that the greater numbers of liberal than conservative professors could be accounted for by self-selection in career paths, rather than by bias in hiring or promotion.<ref name="Post"/><ref name="Marranto">{{cite book|first1=Matthew|last1=Woessner|first2=April|last2=Kelly-Woessner|editor-first1=Robert|editor-last1=Marranto|editor-first2=Richard E.|editor-last2=Redding|editor-first3=Frederick M.|editor-last3=Hess|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MLD0HGrvtxAC|title=The Politically Correct University: Problems, Scope, and Reforms|chapter=Left Pipeline: Why Conservatives Don't Get Doctorates|publisher=The AEI Press|date=2009|isbn=978-0844743172|via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>{{rp|38–55}} |
|||
[[Lawrence Summers]] said at a symposium about ''The Social and Political Views of American Professors'' that he considers it a problem that some academics express an "extreme hostility" to conservative opinions. He observed that faculty who were invited to give [[Tanner Lectures on Human Values]] were almost always liberals, and expressed concern that an imbalance in political representation at universities could impede rigorous examination of issues. He also attributed the small numbers of conservative professors largely to the career choices made by people comparing academic careers with other options.<ref name="JaschikOct2007"/> |
|||
One outcome of these controversies was the founding of the [[Heterodox Academy]] in 2015, a [[Bipartisanship|bipartisan]] organization of professors seeking to increase the acceptance of diverse political viewpoints in academic discourse.<ref name="Lerner">{{cite news|last1=Lerner|first1=Maura|title=Nurturing a new diversity on campus: 'Diversity of thought'|url=http://www.startribune.com/nurturing-a-new-diversity-on-u-campus-diversity-of-thought-to-bridge-political-differences/480416263/|access-date=24 May 2018|work=[[Star Tribune]]|date=April 24, 2018}}</ref> As of February 2018, over 1500 college professors had joined Heterodox Academy.<ref name="Atlantic">{{cite news|last1=Friedersdorf|first1=Conor|title=A New Leader in the Push for Diversity of Thought on Campus|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2018/02/a-new-leader-in-the-push-for-diversity-of-thought-on-campus/552275/|access-date=24 May 2018|work=[[The Atlantic]]|date=February 6, 2018}}</ref> The group publishes a ranking which rates the top 150 universities in the United States based on their commitment to diversity of viewpoint.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bailey|first1=Ronald|department=Hit & Run Blog|title=How Heterodox Is Your University?|url=https://reason.com/blog/2016/10/24/how-heterodox-is-your-university|website=[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]|access-date=24 May 2018|date=October 24, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Richardson|first1=Bradford|title=Harvard among least intellectually diverse universities: Report|url=https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2016/oct/24/harvard-among-least-intellectually-diverse-schools/|access-date=24 May 2018|work=[[The Washington Times]]|date=October 24, 2016}}</ref><ref name="INSIGHT">{{cite web |last1=Healey |first1=Lauren |title=Report Ranks Universities Based on Acceptance of Viewpoint Diversity |url=http://www.insightintodiversity.com/report-ranks-universities-based-on-acceptance-of-viewpoint-diversity |website=INSIGHT Into Diversity |publisher=Potomac Publishing |access-date=June 12, 2018 |date=October 31, 2016 |archive-date=June 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612180102/http://www.insightintodiversity.com/report-ranks-universities-based-on-acceptance-of-viewpoint-diversity/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
|||
Jon Shields and Joshua Dunn surveyed 153 conservative professors for their 2016 study ''[[Passing on the Right|Passing on the Right: Conservative Professors in the Progressive University]]''.<ref name="OSO">{{cite book|author1=Jon A. Shields|author2=Joshua M. Dunn Sr.|title=Passing on the Right: Conservative Professors in the Progressive University|year=2016|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199863051.001.0001|publisher=[[Oxford Scholarship Online]]|language=en|oclc=965380745|isbn=978-0199863051}}</ref> The authors wrote that these professors sometimes have to use "coping strategies that gays and lesbians have used in the military and other inhospitable work environments" in order to preserve their political identity. One tactic used by about one-third of the professors was to "[[passing (sociology)|pass]]" (or pretend) to hold liberal views around their colleagues.<ref name="Sweeney"/> Shields stated his view that the populist right may overstate the bias that does exist and that conservatives can succeed using mechanisms like academic tenure to protect their freedom.<ref name="Green">{{cite news|last1=Green|first1=Emma|title=Do American Universities Discriminate Against Conservatives?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/04/conservatives-discrimination-universities/480372/|access-date=15 May 2018|work=[[The Atlantic]]|date=April 30, 2016}}</ref> |
|||
==See also== |
==See also== |
||
*[[Academic bias]] |
* [[Academic bias]] |
||
*[[ |
* [[Media bias]] |
||
*[[ |
* [[Political issues in higher education in the United States]] |
||
* [[Political correctness#Education|Political correctness in education]] |
|||
*[[Higher_education_in_the_United_States#Political_views|Political views of professors in the United States]] |
|||
==References== |
==References== |
||
{{reflist}} |
{{reflist}} |
||
== Further reading == |
|||
* {{cite book|author-link=Paul Axelrod|last=Axelrod|first=Paul|date=2002|title=Values in Conflict: The University, the Marketplace, and the Trials of Liberal Education|publisher=McGill-Queens University Press|isbn=978-0773524071}} |
|||
* {{cite book|last=Hamilton|first=Neil|author-link=Neil Hamilton (lawyer)|date=2017|title=Zealotry and Academic Freedom: A Legal and Historical Perspective|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0765804181}} |
|||
* {{cite book|last=Holmes|first=David|date=1989|title=Stalking the Academic Communist: Intellectual Freedom and the Firing of Alex Novikoff|url=https://archive.org/details/stalkingacademic00holm|url-access=registration|publisher=University Press of New England|isbn=978-0874514698}} |
|||
* {{cite book|last=Lewis|first=Lionel|date=1988|title=Cold War on Campus: A Study of the Politics of Organizational Control|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0295956527}} |
|||
* {{cite book|last=McCormick|first=Charles|author-link=Charles T. McCormick|date=1989|title=This Nest of Vipers: McCarthyism And Higher Education In The Mundel Affair, 1951–52|url=https://archive.org/details/thisnestofvipers0000mcco|url-access=registration|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0252016141}} |
|||
* {{cite book|last=Price|first=David|date=2004|title=Threatening Anthropology: McCarthyism and the FBI's Surveillance of Activist Anthropologists|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-3338-8|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/threateninganthr01pric}} |
|||
* {{cite book|author-link=Ellen Schrecker|first=Ellen|last=Schrecker|date=1986|title=No Ivory Tower: McCarthyism and the Universities|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0195035575|url=https://archive.org/details/noivorytowermcca00schr}} |
|||
[[Category:Academia in the United States]] |
|||
[[Category:Academic freedom]] |
|||
[[Category:Academic terminology]] |
[[Category:Academic terminology]] |
||
[[Category:Bias]] |
[[Category:Bias]] |
||
[[Category: |
[[Category:Censorship]] |
||
[[Category:Liberalism]] |
|||
[[Category:Progressivism]] |
|||
[[Category:Conservatism]] |
|||
[[Category:Conformity]] |
[[Category:Conformity]] |
||
[[Category:Education controversies in the United States]] |
|||
[[Category:Liberalism in the United States]] |
|||
[[Category:Progressivism in the United States]] |
|||
[[Category:McCarthyism]] |
|||
[[Category:Anti-communism in the United States]] |
Latest revision as of 13:13, 2 November 2024
The political views of American academics began to receive attention in the 1930s, and investigation into faculty political views expanded rapidly after the rise of McCarthyism. Demographic surveys of faculty that began in the 1950s and continue to the present have found higher percentages of liberals than of conservatives, particularly among those who work in the humanities and social sciences. Researchers and pundits disagree about survey methodology and about the interpretations of the findings.
History
[edit]Pre- and post-WWII
[edit]Carol Smith[1] and Stephen Leberstein[2] have documented investigations of professors' political views at the City College of New York (CCNY) during the 1930s and 1940s. Citing the tactics of private hearings, requiring respondents to name others, and denying rights of legal representation, Smith calls the investigations a "dress rehearsal for McCarthyism".[1] Smith described the case of Max Yergan, who was the first African American professor hired at the CCNY. After complaints that he expressed liberal and progressive views in his classes on Negro History and Culture, Yergan was terminated in 1936.[1] In 1938, the U.S. House of Representatives created the House Un-American Activities Committee; one of the committee's first actions was to attempt to investigate the political views of faculty in the New York public colleges.[1]
In 1940, Bertrand Russell was denied employment as a philosophy professor at CCNY because of his political beliefs.[1] That same year, the New York State Legislature created the Rapp-Coutert Committee, which held hearings in 1940–41 during which faculty accused of holding communist political beliefs were interrogated.[2] More than 50 faculty and staff at CCNY resigned or were terminated as a result of the hearings.[1][2] One professor, Morris Schappes, served a year in prison on perjury charges for refusing to name colleagues who may have been affiliated with the Communist party.[1] Smith believes that the investigations caused the largest political purge on one campus in the history of the US.
In 1942, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), began investigating the political views of W.E.B. DuBois, an African American sociologist who taught at Atlanta University.[3] The investigation centered on DuBois's 1940 autobiography, Dusk of Dawn. Although the investigation was dismissed, Atlanta University fired DuBois in 1943. Public outcry led the university to reinstate DuBois, but he retired in 1944. In 1949, the House Un-American Activities Committee summoned faculty members from the University of Washington, and three tenured faculty members were fired.[4]
Public concern about the political opinions of college teachers intensified after World War II ended in 1945.[5] Sociologists who were investigated by the FBI for their political beliefs during this period include Ernest Burgess, William Fielding Ogburn, Robert Staughton Lynd, Helen Lynd, E. Franklin Frazier, Pitirim A. Sorokin, Talcott Parsons, Herbert Blumer, Samuel Stouffer, C. Wright Mills, and Edwin H. Sutherland.[3]
McCarthyism and loyalty oaths
[edit]Although government employees and entertainment figures were most often investigated for alleged communist sympathies during the "Second Red Scare" of the 1950s, many university faculty were accused as well.[4] In their 1955 study of 2,451 social scientists who taught at American colleges and universities, Lazarsfeld and Thielens noted that the period of 1945–55 was especially marked by suspicion and attacks on colleges for the political views of their faculty. These authors label this period "the difficult years."[5]: 35
In 1950, the University of California Board of Regents and its administration began to require faculty to sign a two-part political loyalty oath: one part required faculty to declare they were not Communists, and did not believe in the tenets of Communism;[6] the other part was an oath of loyalty to the state of California and the US Constitution in accordance with the Levering Act.[4][7] In early March, 1950, the faculty, who numbered 900, unanimously refused to sign even though the Regents threatened non-signers with termination.[6] Faculty who refused to sign the loyalty oath were terminated, although most of the terminations were later overturned by a California state court.[7] In 1951, members of the American Legion began accusing various university faculty of being communists.[8] University administrations responded by banning left-wing student groups and communist speakers.[4] Joseph McCarthy's Senate committee investigated 18 faculty members at Sarah Lawrence College, some of whom were pressured to resign.[8]
According to historian Ellen Schrecker, "it is very clear that an academic blacklist was in operation during the McCarthy era."[4] An estimated 100 university faculty were terminated during the McCarthy era due to suspicions about their political beliefs.[9]: 122 In 1970, Federal Bureau of Investigation Director J. Edgar Hoover sent an open letter to US college students, advising them to reject leftist politics,[10] and throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the FBI conducted a secret counterintelligence program in libraries.[3]: viii–ix
Surveys
[edit]Ford Foundation
[edit]In 1955, Robert Maynard Hutchins led an effort within the Ford Foundation to document and analyze the effects of McCarthyism on academic freedom.[11]: 25–27 He commissioned sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld to conduct a study of university faculty in the United States, and the results were published by Lazarsfeld and Wagner Thielens in a book, The Academic Mind. As part of a survey of faculty views about academic freedom during the "Second Red Scare", they asked 2,451 professors of social science a large number of questions, and found that about two thirds of these faculty members had been visited by the FBI and had been asked questions about the political beliefs of their colleagues, students, and themselves.[3]: xvii They also included a few questions about political party affiliations and recent voting patterns, and reported that there were more Democrats than Republicans, 47% to 16%.[5] According to sociologist Neil Gross, the study was significant because it was the first effort to poll university faculty specifically about their political views.[11]: 25–27
Carnegie Commission on Higher Education
[edit]The Lazarsfeld and Thielens study had examined a sample of 2,451 social science faculty members.[5] A second study, conducted in 1969 on behalf of the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, was the first to be performed with a large survey sample, extensive questions about political views, and what Neil Gross characterized as highly rigorous analytic methods.[11]: 28–30 The study was conducted in 1969 by political scientist Everett Carll Ladd and sociologist Seymour Martin Lipset, who surveyed 60,000 academics in multiple fields of study at 303 institutions about their political views.[11]: 28–30 Publishing their results in the 1975 book The Divided Academy, Ladd and Lipset found that about 46% of professors described themselves as liberal, 27% described themselves as moderates, and 28% described themselves as conservative. They also reported that faculty in the humanities and social sciences tended to be the most liberal, while those in "applied professional schools such as nursing and home economics" and in agriculture were the most conservative. Younger faculty tended to be more liberal than older faculty, and faculty across the political spectrum tended to disapprove of the student activism of the 1960s.[12][13][11]: 28–30
Smaller follow-up surveys on behalf of the Carnegie Foundation held in 1975, 1984, 1989, and 1997 showed an increased trend among professors toward the left, apart from a small movement to the right in 1984. By the 1997 study, 57% of the professors surveyed identified as liberals, 20% as moderates, and 24% as conservatives.[14][15][11]: 31 [13]
Later surveys
[edit]As later surveys were published, some scholars pointed to the harmful effects of a political imbalance in the faculty,[14][16][17][18][19] and one editorial described the effects as "ruining college".[20] Other scholars said that there were serious methodological problems that led to overestimates of the disparity between liberals and conservatives, and that there were political motivations for such overestimates.[13]: 24 [21]: 20 [22][23]
Higher Education Research Institute
[edit]Beginning in 1989, the Higher Education Research Institute (HERI) at the University of California, Los Angeles has conducted a survey of full-time faculty at American four-year colleges and universities every three years.[13][11]: 31 The HERI Faculty Survey gathers comprehensive information about the faculty experience, such as position, field, institutional details, and personal opinion and views, including a single question asking respondents to self-identify their political orientation as "far left", "liberal", "moderate/middle of the road", "conservative", or "far right". Between 1989 and 1998, the survey showed negligible change in the number of professors who described themselves as far left or liberal, approximately 45%. As of 2014[update], surveying 16,112 professors, the percentage of liberal/far left had increased to 60%.[24][25][26][27] When asked in 2012 about the significance of the findings on political views, the director of HERI, Sylvia Hurtado, said that the numbers on political views attract a lot of attention, but that this attention may be misplaced because there may be trivial reasons for the shifts.[28]
North American Academic Survey Study
[edit]Ladd and Lipset, who had conducted the original Carnegie survey, designed a telephone survey in 1999 of approximately 4000 faculty, administrators, and students, called the North American Academic Survey Study (NAASS).[29] The survey found the ratio of those identifying themselves as Democrat to those identifying as Republican to be 12 to 1 in the humanities, and 6.5 to 1 in the social sciences.[29] Stanley Rothman, the project lead after the passing of Ladd and Lipset, published a paper using NAASS data along with Neil Nevitte and S. Robert Lichter which concluded "complaints of ideologically-based discrimination in academic advancement deserve serious consideration and further study".[14] Rothman along with co-authors Matthew Woessner and April Kelly-Woessner reported their extended findings in a book titled The Still Divided Academy.[30][29][31]
Politics of the American Professoriate
[edit]Neil Gross and Solon Simmons conducted a survey starting in 2006 called the Politics of the American Professoriate which led to several study papers and books. They designed their survey to improve on past studies which they felt had not included community college professors, addressed low response rates, or used standardized questions. The survey drew upon a sample size of 1417 full-time professors from 927 institutions.[32][19]
In 2007, Gross and Simmons concluded in The Social and Political Views of American Professors that the professors were 44% liberal, 46% moderates, and 9% conservative.[32][21]: 25–26 Inside Higher Ed reported that economist Lawrence H. Summers made his own analysis of the data collected by Gross and Simmons and found a larger gap among faculty teaching "core disciplines for undergraduate education" at selective research universities, but the report also concluded that "there was widespread praise for the way the survey was conducted, with Summers and others predicting that their data may become the definitive source for understanding professors' political views."[19]
Gross published a more extensive analysis in his 2013 book Why Are Professors Liberal and Why Do Conservatives Care?[11] and, with Simmons, in their 2014 compilation Professors and Their Politics.[21]: 25–26 They strongly criticized what they saw as conservative political influence on the interpretation of data about faculty political views, arising from activists and think tanks seeking political reform of American higher education.[21]: 20 Sociologist Joseph Hermanowicz described Professors and Their Politics as "a welcome addition to sociological literature examining higher education, which, in the case of its intersection with politics, has not received serious attention since Paul Lazarsfeld and Wagner Theilen's classic study of 1958 and Seymour Martin Lipset and Everett Carll Ladd's 1976 work."[33]
Regional and disciplinary variations
[edit]Several studies have found that the political views of academics vary considerably between different regions of the United States, and between academic disciplines. In a 2016 opinion column in The New York Times, for example, political scientist Samuel J. Abrams used HERI data to argue that the ratio of liberal to conservative faculty varied greatly between regions. According to Abrams, the ratio of liberal to conservative professors was highest in New England, where this ratio was 28:1, compared to 6:1 nationally.[34][35] Abrams also commented on these findings that "This previously unspecified ideological imbalance on campuses has led to cries of discrimination against right of center professors and scores of reports from both academic and popular press sources which have chronicled the concerns with this "beleaguered" and "oppressed" minority on campus... The data clearly reveal that conservative faculty are not only as satisfied with their career choice – if not more so – as their liberal counterparts, but that these faculty are also as progressive in their teaching methods and maintain almost identical outlooks toward their personal and professional lives."[36]
Mitchell Langbert examined variations in political party registration in 2018, describing a higher concentration of Democrats in elite liberal arts institutions in the northeast, and found more Democrats among female faculty than male faculty. He also found the greatest ratio of Democrats to Republicans in interdisciplinary studies and the humanities, and the lowest ratio in professional studies and science and engineering.[37]
Focusing specifically on social psychology academics, a 2014 study found that "[b]y 2006, however, the ratio of Democrats to Republicans had climbed to more than 11:1."[16] The six authors, all from different universities and members of the Heterodox Academy, also said, by 2012, "that for every politically conservative social psychologist in academia there are about 14 liberal psychologists" according to Arthur C. Brooks. Academy member[38] Steven Pinker described the study as "one of the most important papers in the recent history of the social sciences".[39] Russell Jacoby questioned the focus of the study on the social sciences rather than STEM fields saying that the "reason is obvious: Liberals do not outnumber conservatives in many of those disciplines".[22]
Effects
[edit]On research
[edit]A 2020 study asked participants to read the abstract of 194 psychology papers and judge which political side (if any) the findings seemed to support. The researchers found no relationship between perceived political slant and replicability, impact factor, or the quality of the research design. They did however find modest evidence that research with a greater perceived political slant — whether liberal or conservative — was less replicable.[40]
On students
[edit]Since the modern conservative movement in the United States began in the mid-20th century, conservative authors have argued that college students are no longer taught how to think, but what to think, as a result of the domination of far-left faculty.[41][42][43][44] William F. Buckley's God and Man at Yale: The Superstitions of "Academic Freedom", Allan Bloom's The Closing of the American Mind, Dinesh D'Souza's Illiberal Education, and Roger Kimball's Tenured Radicals have made such arguments.[43][11]: 27, 221–222 [44]
George Yancey argues that there is little evidence that the political orientation of faculty members affects the political attitudes of their students.[45] A study by Mack D. Mariani and Gordon J. Hewitt published in 2008 examined ideological changes in college students between their first and senior years and found that these changes correlated with that of most Americans between the ages of 18 and 24 during the same time period, and there was no evidence that faculty ideology was "associated with changes in students' ideological orientation" and concluded that students at more liberal schools "were not statistically more likely to move to the left" than students at other institutions. Similarly, Stanley Rothman, April Kelly-Woessner, and Mathew Wossner found in 2010 that students' "aggregate attitudes do not appear to vary much between their first and final years," and wrote that this "raises some questions about charges that campuses politically indoctrinate students."[30]: 77–78 Analysis of a survey of students' political attitudes by M. Kent Jennings and Laura Stoker found that the tendency of college graduates to be more liberal is largely due to "the fact that more liberal students are more likely to go to college in the first place."[46]
According to a 2020 study, there is regression to the mean effect among individuals who go to college. Both left-wing and right-wing students become more moderate during their time in college.[47]
On faculty
[edit]Rothman, Kelly-Woessner, and Woessner also found in 2010 that 33% of conservative faculty say they are "very satisfied" with their careers, while 24% of liberal faculty say so. Over 90% of Republican-voting professors said that they would still become professors if they could do it all over again. The authors concluded that, although such numbers are not definitive as to how faculty members feel that they have been treated, they provide some evidence against the idea that conservative faculty members are systematically discriminated against.[31][30]: 102 Woessner and Kelly-Woessner also examined what might have given rise to the differences in the numbers of liberals and conservatives. They looked at the choices made by undergraduate students when planning future careers. They found that there were no differences in intellectual ability between conservative and liberal students, but that liberal students were significantly more likely to choose to pursue PhD degrees and academic careers, whereas conservative students of identical academic accomplishments were more likely to pursue business careers. They concluded that the greater numbers of liberal than conservative professors could be accounted for by self-selection in career paths, rather than by bias in hiring or promotion.[31][48]: 38–55
Lawrence Summers said at a symposium about The Social and Political Views of American Professors that he considers it a problem that some academics express an "extreme hostility" to conservative opinions. He observed that faculty who were invited to give Tanner Lectures on Human Values were almost always liberals, and expressed concern that an imbalance in political representation at universities could impede rigorous examination of issues. He also attributed the small numbers of conservative professors largely to the career choices made by people comparing academic careers with other options.[19]
One outcome of these controversies was the founding of the Heterodox Academy in 2015, a bipartisan organization of professors seeking to increase the acceptance of diverse political viewpoints in academic discourse.[49] As of February 2018, over 1500 college professors had joined Heterodox Academy.[50] The group publishes a ranking which rates the top 150 universities in the United States based on their commitment to diversity of viewpoint.[51][52][53]
Jon Shields and Joshua Dunn surveyed 153 conservative professors for their 2016 study Passing on the Right: Conservative Professors in the Progressive University.[18] The authors wrote that these professors sometimes have to use "coping strategies that gays and lesbians have used in the military and other inhospitable work environments" in order to preserve their political identity. One tactic used by about one-third of the professors was to "pass" (or pretend) to hold liberal views around their colleagues.[20] Shields stated his view that the populist right may overstate the bias that does exist and that conservatives can succeed using mechanisms like academic tenure to protect their freedom.[54]
See also
[edit]- Academic bias
- Media bias
- Political issues in higher education in the United States
- Political correctness in education
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e f g Smith, Carol. (2011). "The dress rehearsal for McCarthyism." Academe 94(4): 48–51.
- ^ a b c Stephen Leberstein, "Purging the Profs: The Rapp Coudert Committee in New York, 1940–1942," in Michael E. Brown et al. (eds.), New Studies in the Politics and Culture of US Communism. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1993; p. 92.
- ^ a b c d Keen, Mike Forrest (2017). Stalking Sociologists: J. Edgar Hoover's FBI Surveillance of American Sociology. Routledge. ISBN 9781351488228.
- ^ a b c d e Schrecker, Ellen (October 7, 1999). "Political Tests for Professors: Academic Freedom during the McCarthy Years". University of California at Berkeley. Retrieved June 6, 2018.
- ^ a b c d Paul Félix Lazarsfeld; Wagner Thielens; Columbia University. Bureau of Applied Social Research (1958). The academic mind: social scientists in a time of crisis. Free Press.
- ^ a b Radin, Max. (1950). Bulletin of the American Association of University Professors (1915–1955), 36(2): 237–245. JSTOR 40220718
- ^ a b Innis, Nancy K. (1992). "Lessons from the controversy over the loyalty oath at the University of California". Minerva. 30 (3): 337–365. doi:10.1007/BF01097643. S2CID 144433911.
- ^ a b "Sarah Lawrence Under Fire: The Attacks on Academic Freedom During the McCarthy Era". Sarah Lawrence College Archives. Retrieved June 6, 2018.
- ^ Aby, Stephen H. (2009). "Discretion over valor: The AAUP during the McCarthy Years." American Educational History Journal 36(1): 121–132.
- ^ Hoover, J. Edgar (September 21, 1970). "An Open Letter to College Students" (PDF). Nixon Library. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 21, 2016. Retrieved June 6, 2018.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Gross, Neil (2013). Why Are Professors Liberal and Why Do Conservatives Care?. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674059092.
- ^ Everett Carll Jr Ladd; Seymour Martin Lipset (1 January 1975). The Divided Academy: Professors and Politics. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-010112-8.
- ^ a b c d Zipp, John F.; Fenwick, Rudy (January 2006). "Is the Academy a Liberal Hegemony?: The Political Orientations and Educational Values of Pr ofessors". Public Opinion Quarterly. 70 (3): 304–326. doi:10.1093/poq/nfj009. S2CID 145569095.
- ^ a b c Rothman, Stanley; Lichter, S. Robert; Nevitte, Neil (2005). "Politics and Professional Advancement Among College Faculty" (PDF). The Forum. 3 (1). CiteSeerX 10.1.1.207.1412. doi:10.2202/1540-8884.1067. S2CID 145340516.
- ^ Hamilton, Richard F.; Hargens, Lowell L. (March 1993). "The Politics of the Professors: Self-Identifications, 1969–1984". Social Forces. 71 (3): 603–627. doi:10.2307/2579887. JSTOR 2579887.
- ^ a b Duarte, José L.; Crawford, Jarret T.; Stern, Charlotta; Haidt, Jonathan; Jussim, Lee; Tetlock, Philip E. (2015) [July 18, 2014]. "Political diversity will improve social psychological science". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 38 (e130): e130. doi:10.1017/S0140525X14000430. PMID 25036715. S2CID 23720461.
- ^ Tetlock, Philip E.; Mitchell, Gregory (February 2015). "Why so Few Conservatives and Should we Care?". Symposium: Liberals and Conservatives in Academia. Society. 52 (1): 28–34. doi:10.1007/s12115-014-9850-6. S2CID 144878612.
- ^ a b Jon A. Shields; Joshua M. Dunn Sr. (2016). Passing on the Right: Conservative Professors in the Progressive University. Oxford Scholarship Online. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199863051.001.0001. ISBN 978-0199863051. OCLC 965380745.
- ^ a b c d e Jaschik, Scott (October 8, 2007). "The Liberal (and Moderating) Professoriate". Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved June 15, 2018.
- ^ a b Sweeney, Chris (December 20, 2016). "How Liberal Professors Are Ruining College". Boston Magazine. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
- ^ a b c d Gross, Neil; Simmons, Solon (2014). "The Social and Political Views of American College and University Professors". In Gross, N.; Simmons, S. (eds.). Professors and Their Politics. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1334-1. LCCN 2013035780.
- ^ a b Jacoby, Russell (April 1, 2016). "Academe Is Overrun by Liberals. So What?". The Chronicle Review. The Chronicle of Higher Education.
- ^ Ames, Barry; Barker, David C.; Bonneau, Chris W.; Carman, Chris J. (12 September 2007). "Hide the Republicans, the Christians, and the Women: A Response to "Politics and Professional Advancement Among College Faculty."". SSRN 1012734.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ Astin, A.W.; Korn, W.S.; Dey, E.L. (May 1990). The American College Teacher: National Norms for 1989–90 HERI Faculty Survey report (PDF). Higher Education Research Institute. p. 44. Retrieved 8 June 2018.
- ^ Sax, L.J.; Astin, A.W.; Korn, W.S.; Gilmartin, S.K. (September 1999). The American College Teacher: National Norms for 1998–99 HERI Faculty Survey report (PDF). p. 61. ISBN 978-1878477248. Retrieved June 8, 2018.
- ^ Eagan, M. K.; Stolzenberg, E. B.; Berdan Lozano, J.; Aragon, M. C.; Suchard, M. R.; Hurtado, S. (November 2014). Undergraduate Teaching Faculty: The 2013–2014 HERI Faculty Survey (PDF). Higher Education Research Institute. p. 61. ISBN 978-1-878477-33-0. Retrieved June 7, 2018.
- ^ Ingraham, Christopher (January 11, 2016). "The dramatic shift among college professors that's hurting students' education". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 7, 2018.
In 1990, according to survey data by the Higher Education Research Institute (HERI) at UCLA, 42 percent of professors identified as "liberal" or "far-left." By 2014, that number had jumped to 60 percent.
- ^ Jaschik, Scott (October 24, 2012). "Moving Further to the Left". Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved June 9, 2018.
Sylvia Hurtado, professor of education at UCLA and director of the Higher Education Research Institute, said that she didn't know what to make of the surge to the left by faculty members. She said that she suspects age may be a factor, as the full-time professoriate is aging, but said that this is just a theory. Hurtado said that these figures always attract a lot of attention, but she thinks that the emphasis may be misplaced because of a series of studies showing no evidence that left-leaning faculty members are somehow shifting the views of their students or enforcing any kind of political requirement.
- ^ a b c Klein, Daniel B. (September 2011). "Academe's House Divided". Academic Questions. 24 (3): 365–370. doi:10.1007/s12129-011-9240-0 (inactive 1 November 2024). S2CID 140359816.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link) - ^ a b c Stanley Rothman; April Kelly-Woessner; Matthew Woessner (2010). The Still Divided Academy: How Competing Visions of Power, Politics, and Diversity Complicate the Mission of Higher Education. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-0808-7.
- ^ a b c "Five myths about liberal academia", Matthew Woessner, April Kelly-Woessner and Stanley Rothman Friday, February 25, 2011 Washington Post
- ^ a b Gross, Neil; Simmons, Solon (September 24, 2007). "The Social and Political Views of American Professors". (working Paper). CiteSeerX 10.1.1.147.6141.
- ^ Hermanowicz, Joseph C. (November 2015). "Professors and Their Politics. Edited by Neil Gross and Solon Simmons". American Journal of Sociology. 121 (3): 983–985. doi:10.1086/682889.
- ^ Adams, Samuel J. (July 1, 2016). "Opinion. There Are Conservative Professors. Just Not in These States". The New York Times.
- ^ Jaschik, Scott (July 5, 2016). "New analysis: New England colleges responsible for left-leaning professoriate". Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved May 14, 2018.
- ^ Abrams, Samuel (December 2016). "The Contented Professors: How Conservative Faculty See Themselves within the Academy". Retrieved June 13, 2018.
- ^ Langbert, Mitchell (June 2018). "Homogeneous: The Political Affiliations of Elite Liberal Arts College Faculty". Academic Questions. 32 (2): 186–197. doi:10.1007/s12129-018-9700-x (inactive 1 November 2024). S2CID 149559397. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link) - ^ Jussim, Lee (November 24, 2015). "Introducing Heterodox Academy". Psychology Today.
- ^ "Steven Pinker on Twitter". September 15, 2015. Retrieved June 12, 2018.
- ^ Bavel, Diego Reinero,Jay Van. "Researchers' Politics Don't Undermine Their Scientific Results". Scientific American. Retrieved 2020-11-02.
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Kronman, Anthony T. (2019). The Assault on American Excellence. Free Press. ISBN 978-1501199486.
- ^ Ellis, John (2020). The Breakdown of Higher Education: How It Happened, the Damage It Does, and What Can Be Done. Encounter. ISBN 978-1641770880.
- ^ a b Nash, George H. (2014) [1976]. The Conservative Intellectual Movement in America Since 1945. Open Road Media. ISBN 9781497636408.
- ^ a b Mariani, Mack D.; Hewitt, Gordon J. (October 2008). "Indoctrination U.? Faculty Ideology and Changes". PS: Political Science & Politics. 41 (4): 773–783. doi:10.1017/S1049096508081031. JSTOR 20452310. S2CID 145111919.
- ^ Yancey, George. "Recalibrating Academic Bias." Academic Questions 25, no. 2 (2012): 267–78.
- ^ Gross, Neil (March 3, 2012). "The Indoctrination Myth". The New York Times. Retrieved June 16, 2018.
- ^ Woessner, Matthew; Kelly-Woessner, April (2020). "Why College Students Drift Left: The Stability of Political Identity and Relative Malleability of Issue Positions among College Students". PS: Political Science & Politics. 53 (4): 657–664. doi:10.1017/S1049096520000396. ISSN 1049-0965. S2CID 225399119.
- ^ Woessner, Matthew; Kelly-Woessner, April (2009). "Left Pipeline: Why Conservatives Don't Get Doctorates". In Marranto, Robert; Redding, Richard E.; Hess, Frederick M. (eds.). The Politically Correct University: Problems, Scope, and Reforms. The AEI Press. ISBN 978-0844743172 – via Google Books.
- ^ Lerner, Maura (April 24, 2018). "Nurturing a new diversity on campus: 'Diversity of thought'". Star Tribune. Retrieved 24 May 2018.
- ^ Friedersdorf, Conor (February 6, 2018). "A New Leader in the Push for Diversity of Thought on Campus". The Atlantic. Retrieved 24 May 2018.
- ^ Bailey, Ronald (October 24, 2016). "How Heterodox Is Your University?". Hit & Run Blog. Reason. Retrieved 24 May 2018.
- ^ Richardson, Bradford (October 24, 2016). "Harvard among least intellectually diverse universities: Report". The Washington Times. Retrieved 24 May 2018.
- ^ Healey, Lauren (October 31, 2016). "Report Ranks Universities Based on Acceptance of Viewpoint Diversity". INSIGHT Into Diversity. Potomac Publishing. Archived from the original on June 12, 2018. Retrieved June 12, 2018.
- ^ Green, Emma (April 30, 2016). "Do American Universities Discriminate Against Conservatives?". The Atlantic. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
Further reading
[edit]- Axelrod, Paul (2002). Values in Conflict: The University, the Marketplace, and the Trials of Liberal Education. McGill-Queens University Press. ISBN 978-0773524071.
- Hamilton, Neil (2017). Zealotry and Academic Freedom: A Legal and Historical Perspective. Routledge. ISBN 978-0765804181.
- Holmes, David (1989). Stalking the Academic Communist: Intellectual Freedom and the Firing of Alex Novikoff. University Press of New England. ISBN 978-0874514698.
- Lewis, Lionel (1988). Cold War on Campus: A Study of the Politics of Organizational Control. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0295956527.
- McCormick, Charles (1989). This Nest of Vipers: McCarthyism And Higher Education In The Mundel Affair, 1951–52. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0252016141.
- Price, David (2004). Threatening Anthropology: McCarthyism and the FBI's Surveillance of Activist Anthropologists. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-3338-8.
- Schrecker, Ellen (1986). No Ivory Tower: McCarthyism and the Universities. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195035575.