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{{Short description|Destruction of Spanish settlements by an indigenous uprising}}
{{Short description|1598 destruction of seven Spanish settlements in South America by a Mapuche–Huilliche uprising}}
{{Campaignbox Arauco War}}
{{Campaignbox Arauco War}}
[[Image:Pedro De Valdivia Siedlungen in Chile 1540 bis 1553.jpg|thumb|upright|Settlements of the [[Conquistadores]] before the Destruction of the Seven Cities]]
[[Image:Pedro De Valdivia Siedlungen in Chile 1540 bis 1553.jpg|thumb|upright|Settlements of the [[Conquistadores]] before the Destruction of the Seven Cities]]
[[file:Anganamón.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Anganamón]] a key Mapuche leader in the Destruction of the Seven Cities. Image from the book ''Relación del viaje de Fray Diego de Ocaña por el Nuevo Mundo (1599-1605)''.]]
[[File:Anganamón.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Anganamón]] a key Mapuche leader in the Destruction of the Seven Cities. Image from the book ''Relación del viaje de Fray Diego de Ocaña por el Nuevo Mundo (1599-1605)''.]]
[[File:Engraving of La Imperial by Alonso de Ovalle.png|thumb|A 1646 illustration of La Imperial, one of the Spanish colonial cities destroyed by the Mapuches.]]
The '''Destruction of the Seven Cities''' ({{lang-es|Destrucción de las siete ciudades}}) is a term used in Chilean [[historiography]] to refer to the destruction or abandonment of seven major Spanish outposts in [[zona Sur|southern Chile]] around 1600 caused by the [[Mapuche]] and [[Huilliche people|Huilliche]] uprising of 1598. The Destruction of the Seven Cities is in traditional historiography the defining event that marks the end of the [[Conquest of Chile|Conquest]] period and the beginning of the proper [[Colonial Chile|colonial period]].
The '''Destruction of the Seven Cities''' ({{langx|es|Destrucción de las siete ciudades}}) is a term used in Chilean [[historiography]] to refer to the destruction or abandonment of seven major Spanish outposts in [[zona Sur|southern Chile]] around 1600, caused by the [[Mapuche]] and [[Huilliche people|Huilliche]] uprising of 1598. The Destruction of the Seven Cities, in traditional historiography, marks the end of the [[Conquest of Chile|Conquest]] period and the beginning of the proper [[Colonial Chile|colonial period]].


The Destruction of the Seven Cities had a long-lasting impact for the [[Mapuche history|history of Mapuche]] and the [[history of Chile]]. Colonial Spanish–Mapuche relations became shaped by these events which meant among other things the development of a Spanish–Mapuche [[frontier]].
The Destruction of the Seven Cities had a long-lasting impact on the [[Mapuche history|history of the Mapuche]] and the [[history of Chile]], determining the shape of future Colonial Spanish–Mapuche relations, e.g. by causing the development of a [[La Frontera (Chile)|Spanish–Mapuche frontier]].


==Course of events==
==Course of events==
Decades prior to the events some [[conquistador]]s and settlers recognised the fragility of Spanish rule in southern Chile. In 1576 Melchior Calderón wrote to the [[King of Spain]] arguing for diminishing the number of cities in southern Chile by merging them, he proposed to merge [[Concepción, Chile|Concepción]], [[Angol]], and [[Tucapel]] into one and [[Carahue|La Imperial]] and [[Villarrica, Chile|Villarrica]] into another one.<ref name=Gua78-41
Decades prior to these events, some [[conquistador]]s and settlers recognised the fragility of Spanish rule in southern Chile. In 1576, Melchior Calderón wrote to the [[king of Spain]] arguing for diminishing the number of cities in southern Chile by merging them, he proposed to merge [[Concepción, Chile|Concepción]], [[Angol]], and [[Tucapel]] into one and [[Carahue|La Imperial]] and [[Villarrica, Chile|Villarrica]] into another one.<ref name=Gua78-41
>Guarda 1978, p. 41</ref>
>Guarda 1978, p. 41</ref>


The revolt was triggered by the news of the [[Battle of Curalaba]] on 23 December 1598, where the vice [[toqui]] [[Pelantaru]] and his lieutenants, [[Anganamón]] and Guaiquimilla, with three hundred men ambushed and killed the Spanish governor [[Martín García Óñez de Loyola]] and nearly all his companions.<ref>Barros Arana 2000, p. 178</ref><ref name=BengoaAntiguo320-321>Bengoa 2003, pp. 320–321.</ref>
The revolt was triggered by the news of the [[Battle of Curalaba]] on 23 December 1598, where the vice [[toqui]] [[Pelantaru]] and his lieutenants, [[Anganamón]] and Guaiquimilla, with three hundred men ambushed and killed the Spanish governor [[Martín García Óñez de Loyola]] and nearly all his companions.<ref>Barros Arana 2000, p. 178</ref><ref name=BengoaAntiguo320-321>Bengoa 2003, pp. 320–321.</ref>


Over the next few years, the Mapuche were able to destroy or force the abandonment of many cities and minor settlements including all the seven Spanish cities in Mapuche territory south of the [[Biobío River]]: [[Santa Cruz de Coya]] (1599), [[Valdivia, Chile|Santa María la Blanca de Valdivia]] (1599, reoccupied in 1602 and abandoned again in 1604), [[Angol|San Andrés de Los Infantes]] (1599), [[Carahue|La Imperial]] (1600), [[Villarrica, Chile|Santa María Magdalena de Villa Rica]] (1602), [[Osorno, Chile|San Mateo de Osorno]] (1603), and [[Arauco, Chile|San Felipe de Araucan]] (1604).<ref name=Villaloboes109>Villalobos ''et al.'' 1974, p. 109.</ref>
Over the next few years, the Mapuche were able to destroy or force the abandonment of many cities and minor settlements including all seven of the Spanish cities in Mapuche territory south of the [[Biobío River]]: [[Santa Cruz de Coya]] (1599), [[Valdivia, Chile|Santa María la Blanca de Valdivia]] (1599, reoccupied in 1602 and abandoned again in 1604), [[Angol|San Andrés de Los Infantes]] (1599), [[Carahue|La Imperial]] (1600), [[Villarrica, Chile|Santa María Magdalena de Villa Rica]] (1602), [[Osorno, Chile|San Mateo de Osorno]] (1603), and [[Arauco, Chile|San Felipe de Araucan]] (1604).<ref name=Villaloboes109>Villalobos ''et al.'' 1974, p. 109.</ref>


==Death toll and fate of captives==
==Death toll and fate of captives==
Contemporary chronicler [[Alonso González de Nájera]] writes that Mapuches killed more than 3,000 Spanish and took over 500 women as captives. Many children and Spanish clergy were also captured.<ref name=Luz2013>{{Cite journal|title=Las cautivas de las Siete Ciudades: El cautiverio de mujeres hispanocriollas durante la Guerra de Arauco, en la perspectiva de cuatro cronistas (s. XVII)|journal=Intus-Legere Historia|last=Guzmán|first=Carmen Luz|volume=7|pages=77–97|issue=1|doi=10.15691/07176864.2014.094|year=2013|doi-broken-date=31 July 2022|language=es|trans-title=The captives of the Seven Cities: The captivity of hispanic-creole women during the Arauco's War, from the insight of four chroniclers (17th century)}}</ref> Skilled artisans, renegade Spanish, and women were generally spared by the Mapuches.<ref name=Luz2013/> In the case of the women it was, in the words of González de Nájera, "to exploit them" (Spanish: ''aprovecharse de ellas'').
Contemporary chronicler [[Alonso González de Nájera]] writes that Mapuches killed more than 3,000 Spanish and took over 500 women as captives. Many children and Spanish clergy were also captured.<ref name=Luz2013>{{Cite journal|title=Las cautivas de las Siete Ciudades: El cautiverio de mujeres hispanocriollas durante la Guerra de Arauco, en la perspectiva de cuatro cronistas (s. XVII)|journal=Intus-Legere Historia|last=Guzmán|first=Carmen Luz|volume=7|pages=77–97|issue=1|doi=10.15691/07176864.2014.094|year=2013|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024|language=es|trans-title=The captives of the Seven Cities: The captivity of hispanic-creole women during the Arauco's War, from the insight of four chroniclers (17th century)}}</ref> Skilled artisans, renegade Spanish, and women were generally spared by the Mapuches.<ref name=Luz2013/> In the case of the women it was, in the words of González de Nájera, "to take advantage of them" (Spanish: ''aprovecharse de ellas'').


While some Spanish women were recovered in Spanish raids, other were set free only in agreements following the [[Parliament of Quillín (1641)|Parliament of Quillín]] in 1641.<ref name=Luz2013/> Some Spanish women became accustomed to Mapuche life and stayed voluntarily among the Mapuche.<ref name=Luz2013/> The Spanish understood this phenomenon as a result either of women's [[character structure|weak character]] or their genuine shame over having been abused.<ref name=Luz2013/> Women in captivity gave birth to a large number of [[mestizo]]s, who were rejected by the Spanish but accepted among the Mapuches.<ref name=Luz2013/> These women's children may have had a significant demographic impact in the Mapuche society, which was long ravaged by war and epidemics.<ref name=Luz2013/>
While some Spanish women were recovered in Spanish raids, others were set free only in agreements following the [[Parliament of Quillín (1641)|Parliament of Quillín]] in 1641.<ref name=Luz2013/> Some Spanish women became accustomed to Mapuche life and stayed voluntarily among the Mapuche.<ref name=Luz2013/> The Spanish understood this phenomenon as a result either of women's [[character structure|weak character]] or their shame at having been abused.<ref name=Luz2013/> Women in captivity gave birth to a large number of [[mestizo]]s, who were rejected by the Spanish, but accepted among the Mapuches.<ref name=Luz2013/> These women's children may have had a significant demographic impact on Mapuche society, which had been ravaged by war and epidemic disease.<ref name=Luz2013/>


The capture of women during the Destruction of the Seven Cities initiated a tradition of abductions of Spanish women in the 17th century by Mapuches.<ref name=Luz2013/>
The capture of women during the Destruction of the Seven Cities initiated a tradition of abductions of Spanish women in the 17th century by Mapuches.<ref name=Luz2013/>
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==Aftermath==
==Aftermath==
===Central Chile becomes the Spanish heartland===
===Central Chile becomes the Spanish heartland===
The collapse of the Spanish cities in the south following the [[battle of Curalaba]] (1598) meant for the Spaniards the loss of both the main gold districts and the largest sources of indigenous labour.<ref name=salazarpinto>Salazar & Pinto 2002, p. 15.</ref> After those dramatic years the colony of Chile became concentrated in [[Zona Central, Chile|Central Chile]] which became increasingly populated, explored and economically exploited.<ref name=villalobosHacienda>Villalobos ''et al''. 1974, pp. 160-165.</ref> Much land in Central Chile was cleared with fire during this period.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rozas |first1=Vicente |last2=Le-Quesne |first2=Carlos|last3=Rojas-Badilla |first3=Moisés |last4=González |first4=Mauro E. |last5=González-Reyes |first5=Álvaro |date=2018 |title=Coupled human-climate signals on the fire history of upper Cachapoal Valley, Mediterranean Andes of Chile, since 1201 CE |journal=[[Global and Planetary Change]] |volume=167 |pages=137–147 |doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2018.05.013 |bibcode=2018GPC...167..137R |s2cid=133777432 }}</ref> On the contrary open fields in southern Chile were overgrown as indigenous populations declined due to diseases introduced by the Spanish and intermittent warfare.<ref name=Oteropop25>Otero 2006, p. 25.</ref> The loss of the cities meant Spanish settlements in Chile became increasingly rural<ref>Lorenzo 1986, p. 158.</ref> with the [[hacienda]] gaining importance in economic and social matters.<ref>Lorenzo 1986, p. 159.</ref>
The collapse of the Spanish cities in the south following the [[battle of Curalaba]] (1598) meant, for the Spaniards, the loss of their main sources of gold and indigenous labor.<ref name=salazarpinto>Salazar & Pinto 2002, p. 15.</ref> After those dramatic years, the colony of Chile became concentrated in [[Zona Central, Chile|Central Chile]], which was increasingly populated, explored and economically exploited.<ref name=villalobosHacienda>Villalobos ''et al''. 1974, pp. 160-165.</ref> Much land in Central Chile was cleared with fire during this period.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rozas |first1=Vicente |last2=Le-Quesne |first2=Carlos|last3=Rojas-Badilla |first3=Moisés |last4=González |first4=Mauro E. |last5=González-Reyes |first5=Álvaro |date=2018 |title=Coupled human-climate signals on the fire history of upper Cachapoal Valley, Mediterranean Andes of Chile, since 1201 CE |journal=[[Global and Planetary Change]] |volume=167 |pages=137–147 |doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2018.05.013 |bibcode=2018GPC...167..137R |s2cid=133777432 }}</ref> On the contrary, open fields in southern Chile were overgrown as indigenous populations declined due to diseases introduced by the Spanish and intermittent warfare.<ref name=Oteropop25>Otero 2006, p. 25.</ref> The loss of the cities meant Spanish settlements in Chile became increasingly rural,<ref>Lorenzo 1986, p. 158.</ref> with the [[hacienda]] growing in economic and social importance.<ref>Lorenzo 1986, p. 159.</ref>


The establishment of a [[La Frontera, Chile|Spanish-Mapuche frontier]] in the south made [[Concepción, Chile|Concepción]] assume the role of "military capital" of Chile.<ref name=encicloreg2006>{{cite book|title=Enciclopedia regional del Bío Bío|page=44|language=es|date=2006|isbn=956-16-0404-3|publisher=[[Pehuén Editores]]}}</ref> This informal role was given by the establishment of the Spanish [[Army of Arauco]] in the city which was financed by a payments of silver from [[Potosí]] called [[Real Situado]].<ref name=encicloreg2006/> Santiago located at some distance from the war zone remained the political capital since 1578.<ref name=encicloreg2006/>
The establishment of a [[La Frontera (Chile)|Spanish-Mapuche frontier]] in the south made [[Concepción, Chile|Concepción]] assume the role of "military capital" of Chile.<ref name=encicloreg2006>{{cite book|title=Enciclopedia regional del Bío Bío|page=44|language=es|date=2006|isbn=956-16-0404-3|publisher=[[Pehuén Editores]]}}</ref> This informal role was given by the establishment of the Spanish [[Army of Arauco]] in the city which was financed by a payments of silver from [[Potosí]] called [[Real Situado]].<ref name=encicloreg2006/> Santiago located at some distance from the war zone remained the political capital since 1578.<ref name=encicloreg2006/>


===Chiloé, ''Indios reyunos'', Carelmapu and Calbuco===
===Chiloé, ''Indios reyunos'', Carelmapu and Calbuco===
When Valdivia and Osorno were destroyed Spanish settlers and loyal [[yanakuna]] marched south escaping hostile [[Cunco people|Cuncos]] and Huilliches. Reaching Chacao Channel next to [[Chiloé Archipelago|Chiloé]] the refugees were assigned to two new settlements, [[Calbuco]] and [[Carelmapu]].<ref name=Mansilla>{{Citation
When Valdivia and Osorno were destroyed, Spanish settlers and loyal [[yanakuna]] marched south, evading hostile [[Cunco people|Cuncos]] and Huilliches. Reaching Chacao Channel next to [[Chiloé Archipelago|Chiloé]], the refugees were assigned to two new settlements, [[Calbuco]] and [[Carelmapu]].<ref name=Mansilla>{{Citation
|last=Mansilla Almonacid
|last=Mansilla Almonacid
|first=José D.
|first=José D.
Line 44: Line 45:
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001129/http://mingaonline.uach.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0718-17952002000100010&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001129/http://mingaonline.uach.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0718-17952002000100010&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es
|archive-date=2013-12-31
|archive-date=2013-12-31
}}</ref> Loyalty towards the Spanish in these difficult times was rewarded to the yanakuna by giving them exemption from [[encomienda]] labour and turning them into a militia with a salary from the [[Real Situado]].<ref name=Mansilla/> Thus they became known as [[Indios reyunos]], literally meaning "Royal Indians" or "Kingly Indians".<ref name=Mansilla/> 300 of the initial 600 indios reyunos settled in Calbuco.<ref name=Mansilla/>
}}</ref> Yanakuna loyal to the Spanish in these difficult times were rewarded with exemption from [[encomienda]] labour, and formed into a militia with a salary from the [[Real Situado]].<ref name=Mansilla/> Thus, they became known as ''[[Indios reyunos]]'', literally meaning "Royal Indians" or "Kingly Indians".<ref name=Mansilla/> 300 of the initial 600 indios reyunos settled in Calbuco.<ref name=Mansilla/>


The Destruction of the Seven Cities meant the Spanish settlements at Chiloé became cut off from remaining Spanish possessions. Thus Chiloé developed as an isolated and highly peripheral Spanish outpost.<ref name=CastroColonial>{{cite web|title=Castro (1567-1834) |website=[[Memoria Chilena]]|url=http://www.memoriachilena.cl/602/w3-article-3328.html|publisher=[[Biblioteca Nacional de Chile]]|language=es|access-date=31 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180401144432/http://www.memoriachilena.cl/602/w3-article-3328.html|archive-date=1 April 2018|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
The Destruction of the Seven Cities reduced the settlements at Chiloé to an exclave, cut off from the remainder of Spanish Chile. The region, therefore, developed as an isolated and highly peripheral Spanish outpost.<ref name=CastroColonial>{{cite web|title=Castro (1567-1834) |website=[[Memoria Chilena]]|url=http://www.memoriachilena.cl/602/w3-article-3328.html|publisher=[[Biblioteca Nacional de Chile]]|language=es|access-date=31 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180401144432/http://www.memoriachilena.cl/602/w3-article-3328.html|archive-date=1 April 2018|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref>


===Dutch interest in Valdivia===
===Dutch interest in Valdivia===
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| access-date = September 30, 2014
| access-date = September 30, 2014
| language = es
| language = es
}}</ref> Recognizing this situation the Spanish attempted to reoccupy Valdivia in the 1630s but were thwarted by hostile Mapuches.<ref name=BengoaAntiguo450-451>Bengoa 2003, pp. 450–451.</ref> The Dutch [[Dutch occupation of Valdivia|briefly occupied Valdivia in 1643]].<ref name=MCLValcolonial/> Having been told that the Dutch had plans to return to the location, [[Pedro de Toledo, 1st Marquis of Mancera|the Spanish viceroy in Peru]] sent 1,000 men in twenty ships (and 2,000 men by land, who never made it) in 1644 to resettle Valdivia and fortify it.<ref name=Kock>Robbert Kock [http://www.colonialvoyage.com/dutchchile.html The Dutch in Chili] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303204718/http://www.colonialvoyage.com/dutchchile.html |date=2016-03-03 }} at coloniavoyage.com</ref><ref name=Kris>Kris E. Lane [https://books.google.com/books?id=893J8RTsKjgC Pillaging the Empire: Piracy in the Americas, 1500-1750], 1998, pages 88-92</ref>
}}</ref> Recognizing this situation the Spanish attempted to reoccupy Valdivia in the 1630s but were thwarted by hostile Mapuches.<ref name=BengoaAntiguo450-451>Bengoa 2003, pp. 450–451.</ref> The Dutch [[Dutch occupation of Valdivia|briefly occupied Valdivia in 1643]].<ref name=MCLValcolonial/> Having been told that the Dutch had plans to return to the location, [[Pedro de Toledo, 1st Marquis of Mancera|the Spanish viceroy in Peru]] sent 1,000 men in twenty ships (and 2,000 men by land, who never made it) in 1644 to resettle Valdivia and fortify it.<ref name=Kock>Robbert Kock [http://www.colonialvoyage.com/dutchchile.html The Dutch in Chili] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303204718/http://www.colonialvoyage.com/dutchchile.html |date=2016-03-03 }} at coloniavoyage.com</ref><ref name=Kris>Kris E. Lane [https://books.google.com/books?id=893J8RTsKjgC Pillaging the Empire: Piracy in the Americas, 1500-1750], 1998, pages 88-92</ref>


===Spanish reflections on the war===
===Spanish reflections on the war===
The dire situation of the Spanish war efforts in Chile in the 17th century caused it to be compared to that of the [[Eighty Year's War]], with Chile having turned into "Indian Flanders" (''Flandes indiano'') in the view of [[Diego de Rosales]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Baraibar |first=Alvaro |date=2013 |title=Chile como un "Flandes indiano" en las crónicas de los siglos VI y VII |url=http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0718-22952013000300007&script=sci_arttext |journal=[[Revista Chilena de Literatura]] |language=es |volume=85 |access-date=30 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126133000/http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0718-22952013000300007&script=sci_arttext |archive-date=26 January 2017 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ''[[Purén indómito]]'' is a contemporary literary chronicle describing some of the events (1598–1600) surrounding the Destruction of the Seven Cities. It stands out for its realist and raw commentaries as well as critique of both Spanish and Mapuche.<ref>Gregorio Víctor Amunátegui. El capitán don Fernando Álvarez de Toledo. ''[[Anales de la Universidad de Chile]]'', [S.l.], p. Pág. 204-219, marzo, 1866. ISSN 0717-8883. Disponible [http://www.anales.uchile.cl/index.php/ANUC/article/view/20023/21183 en línea]. Fecha de acceso: 01 sep. 2014 doi:10.5354/0717-8883.1866.20023, pp. 212, 215-219.</ref> ''Purén indómito'' and the military analysis of ''[[La guerra de Chile]]'' (published in 1647) challenged traditional Spanish views of the [[conquest of Chile]] as an "epic" series of "victories".<ref>Eduardo Barraza Jara. ''De "La Araucana" a "Butamalón". El discurso de la conquista y el canon de la literatura chilena''. Prólogo de Gilberto Triviños. Claudio Wagner (editor). Valdivia: Anejo 17 de ''[[Estudios Filológicos]]'', 2004, p.204.</ref>
The precarity of Spanish control over Chile in the 17th century prompted comparison to the [[Eighty Year's War]], with Chile, in the view of [[Diego de Rosales]], having turned into an "Indian Flanders" (''Flandes indiano'').<ref>{{cite journal |last=Baraibar |first=Alvaro |date=2013 |title=Chile como un "Flandes indiano" en las crónicas de los siglos VI y VII |url=http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0718-22952013000300007&script=sci_arttext |journal=[[Revista Chilena de Literatura]] |language=es |volume=85 |access-date=30 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126133000/http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0718-22952013000300007&script=sci_arttext |archive-date=26 January 2017 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ''[[Purén indómito]]'', a contemporary literary chronicle (1598–1600) which describes the events surrounding the Destruction of the Seven Cities, is notable for its realistic and unvarnished commentary, and for its criticism of both Spanish and Mapuche actions.<ref>Gregorio Víctor Amunátegui. El capitán don Fernando Álvarez de Toledo. ''[[Anales de la Universidad de Chile]]'', [S.l.], p. Pág. 204-219, marzo, 1866. ISSN 0717-8883. Disponible [http://www.anales.uchile.cl/index.php/ANUC/article/view/20023/21183 en línea]. Fecha de acceso: 01 sep. 2014 doi:10.5354/0717-8883.1866.20023, pp. 212, 215-219.</ref> ''Purén indómito'', along with the military analysis presented by ''[[La guerra de Chile]]'' (published in 1647), challenged the prevailing Spanish tendency to view of the [[conquest of Chile]] as an "epic" series of "victories".<ref>Eduardo Barraza Jara. ''De "La Araucana" a "Butamalón". El discurso de la conquista y el canon de la literatura chilena''. Prólogo de Gilberto Triviños. Claudio Wagner (editor). Valdivia: Anejo 17 de ''[[Estudios Filológicos]]'', 2004, p.204.</ref>


==References==
==References==
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*{{cite book |last=Bengoa |first=José |author-link=José Bengoa|title=Historia de los antiguos mapuches del sur |year=2003 |publisher=Catalonia |location=Santiago |isbn=956-8303-02-2 |language=es}}
*{{cite book |last=Bengoa |first=José |author-link=José Bengoa|title=Historia de los antiguos mapuches del sur |year=2003 |publisher=Catalonia |location=Santiago |isbn=956-8303-02-2 |language=es}}
* [[Diego de Rosales]], ''Historia General del Reino de Chile, Flandes Indiano'', 3 tomos. Valparaíso 1877 - 1878.
* [[Diego de Rosales]], ''Historia General del Reino de Chile, Flandes Indiano'', 3 tomos. Valparaíso 1877 - 1878.
** [https://books.google.com/books?id=C34CAAAAYAAJ ''Historia general de el Reyno de Chile: Flandes Indiano'' Vol. 2] [https://books.google.com/books?id=C34CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA672&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=0_1#PPA269,M1 Libro V La Ruina de las Siete Ciudades]
** [https://books.google.com/books?id=C34CAAAAYAAJ ''Historia general de el Reyno de Chile: Flandes Indiano'' Vol. 2] [https://books.google.com/books?id=C34CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA672&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=0_1#PPA269,M1 Libro V La Ruina de las Siete Ciudades]
* [[Crescente Errázuriz]], [https://archive.org/details/seisaosdelahist00errgoog ''Seis años de la historia de Chile: 23 de diciembre de 1598- 9 de abril de 1605: memoria histórica'', Impr. Nacional, Santiago de Chile, 1881.]
* [[Crescente Errázuriz]], [https://archive.org/details/seisaosdelahist00errgoog ''Seis años de la historia de Chile: 23 de diciembre de 1598- 9 de abril de 1605: memoria histórica'', Impr. Nacional, Santiago de Chile, 1881.]
* ''Atlas de Historia de Chile'', Editorial Universitaria, {{ISBN|956-11-1776-2}} pg. 48
* ''Atlas de Historia de Chile'', Editorial Universitaria, {{ISBN|956-11-1776-2}} pg. 48
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[[Category:Arauco War]]
[[Category:Arauco War]]
[[Category:Battles of the Arauco War]]
[[Category:Battles of the Arauco War]]
[[Category:Captaincy General of Chile]]
[[Category:1590s in the Captaincy General of Chile]]
[[Category:1600s in the Captaincy General of Chile]]
[[Category:Huilliche history]]
[[Category:Huilliche history]]
[[Category:Indigenous rebellions against the Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Indigenous rebellions against the Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Destroyed cities]]
[[Category:Populated places destroyed during wars]]

Latest revision as of 18:19, 3 November 2024

Settlements of the Conquistadores before the Destruction of the Seven Cities
Anganamón a key Mapuche leader in the Destruction of the Seven Cities. Image from the book Relación del viaje de Fray Diego de Ocaña por el Nuevo Mundo (1599-1605).
A 1646 illustration of La Imperial, one of the Spanish colonial cities destroyed by the Mapuches.

The Destruction of the Seven Cities (Spanish: Destrucción de las siete ciudades) is a term used in Chilean historiography to refer to the destruction or abandonment of seven major Spanish outposts in southern Chile around 1600, caused by the Mapuche and Huilliche uprising of 1598. The Destruction of the Seven Cities, in traditional historiography, marks the end of the Conquest period and the beginning of the proper colonial period.

The Destruction of the Seven Cities had a long-lasting impact on the history of the Mapuche and the history of Chile, determining the shape of future Colonial Spanish–Mapuche relations, e.g. by causing the development of a Spanish–Mapuche frontier.

Course of events

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Decades prior to these events, some conquistadors and settlers recognised the fragility of Spanish rule in southern Chile. In 1576, Melchior Calderón wrote to the king of Spain arguing for diminishing the number of cities in southern Chile by merging them, he proposed to merge Concepción, Angol, and Tucapel into one and La Imperial and Villarrica into another one.[1]

The revolt was triggered by the news of the Battle of Curalaba on 23 December 1598, where the vice toqui Pelantaru and his lieutenants, Anganamón and Guaiquimilla, with three hundred men ambushed and killed the Spanish governor Martín García Óñez de Loyola and nearly all his companions.[2][3]

Over the next few years, the Mapuche were able to destroy or force the abandonment of many cities and minor settlements including all seven of the Spanish cities in Mapuche territory south of the Biobío River: Santa Cruz de Coya (1599), Santa María la Blanca de Valdivia (1599, reoccupied in 1602 and abandoned again in 1604), San Andrés de Los Infantes (1599), La Imperial (1600), Santa María Magdalena de Villa Rica (1602), San Mateo de Osorno (1603), and San Felipe de Araucan (1604).[4]

Death toll and fate of captives

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Contemporary chronicler Alonso González de Nájera writes that Mapuches killed more than 3,000 Spanish and took over 500 women as captives. Many children and Spanish clergy were also captured.[5] Skilled artisans, renegade Spanish, and women were generally spared by the Mapuches.[5] In the case of the women it was, in the words of González de Nájera, "to take advantage of them" (Spanish: aprovecharse de ellas).

While some Spanish women were recovered in Spanish raids, others were set free only in agreements following the Parliament of Quillín in 1641.[5] Some Spanish women became accustomed to Mapuche life and stayed voluntarily among the Mapuche.[5] The Spanish understood this phenomenon as a result either of women's weak character or their shame at having been abused.[5] Women in captivity gave birth to a large number of mestizos, who were rejected by the Spanish, but accepted among the Mapuches.[5] These women's children may have had a significant demographic impact on Mapuche society, which had been ravaged by war and epidemic disease.[5]

The capture of women during the Destruction of the Seven Cities initiated a tradition of abductions of Spanish women in the 17th century by Mapuches.[5]

Aftermath

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Central Chile becomes the Spanish heartland

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The collapse of the Spanish cities in the south following the battle of Curalaba (1598) meant, for the Spaniards, the loss of their main sources of gold and indigenous labor.[6] After those dramatic years, the colony of Chile became concentrated in Central Chile, which was increasingly populated, explored and economically exploited.[7] Much land in Central Chile was cleared with fire during this period.[8] On the contrary, open fields in southern Chile were overgrown as indigenous populations declined due to diseases introduced by the Spanish and intermittent warfare.[9] The loss of the cities meant Spanish settlements in Chile became increasingly rural,[10] with the hacienda growing in economic and social importance.[11]

The establishment of a Spanish-Mapuche frontier in the south made Concepción assume the role of "military capital" of Chile.[12] This informal role was given by the establishment of the Spanish Army of Arauco in the city which was financed by a payments of silver from Potosí called Real Situado.[12] Santiago located at some distance from the war zone remained the political capital since 1578.[12]

Chiloé, Indios reyunos, Carelmapu and Calbuco

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When Valdivia and Osorno were destroyed, Spanish settlers and loyal yanakuna marched south, evading hostile Cuncos and Huilliches. Reaching Chacao Channel next to Chiloé, the refugees were assigned to two new settlements, Calbuco and Carelmapu.[13] Yanakuna loyal to the Spanish in these difficult times were rewarded with exemption from encomienda labour, and formed into a militia with a salary from the Real Situado.[13] Thus, they became known as Indios reyunos, literally meaning "Royal Indians" or "Kingly Indians".[13] 300 of the initial 600 indios reyunos settled in Calbuco.[13]

The Destruction of the Seven Cities reduced the settlements at Chiloé to an exclave, cut off from the remainder of Spanish Chile. The region, therefore, developed as an isolated and highly peripheral Spanish outpost.[14]

Dutch interest in Valdivia

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Main article: Dutch expedition to Valdivia

The abandoned city of Valdivia turned into an attractive site for Spain's enemies to control since it would allow them to establish a base amidst Spain's Chilean possessions.[15] Recognizing this situation the Spanish attempted to reoccupy Valdivia in the 1630s but were thwarted by hostile Mapuches.[16] The Dutch briefly occupied Valdivia in 1643.[15] Having been told that the Dutch had plans to return to the location, the Spanish viceroy in Peru sent 1,000 men in twenty ships (and 2,000 men by land, who never made it) in 1644 to resettle Valdivia and fortify it.[17][18]

Spanish reflections on the war

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The precarity of Spanish control over Chile in the 17th century prompted comparison to the Eighty Year's War, with Chile, in the view of Diego de Rosales, having turned into an "Indian Flanders" (Flandes indiano).[19] Purén indómito, a contemporary literary chronicle (1598–1600) which describes the events surrounding the Destruction of the Seven Cities, is notable for its realistic and unvarnished commentary, and for its criticism of both Spanish and Mapuche actions.[20] Purén indómito, along with the military analysis presented by La guerra de Chile (published in 1647), challenged the prevailing Spanish tendency to view of the conquest of Chile as an "epic" series of "victories".[21]

References

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  1. ^ Guarda 1978, p. 41
  2. ^ Barros Arana 2000, p. 178
  3. ^ Bengoa 2003, pp. 320–321.
  4. ^ Villalobos et al. 1974, p. 109.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h Guzmán, Carmen Luz (2013). "Las cautivas de las Siete Ciudades: El cautiverio de mujeres hispanocriollas durante la Guerra de Arauco, en la perspectiva de cuatro cronistas (s. XVII)" [The captives of the Seven Cities: The captivity of hispanic-creole women during the Arauco's War, from the insight of four chroniclers (17th century)]. Intus-Legere Historia (in Spanish). 7 (1): 77–97. doi:10.15691/07176864.2014.094 (inactive 1 November 2024).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  6. ^ Salazar & Pinto 2002, p. 15.
  7. ^ Villalobos et al. 1974, pp. 160-165.
  8. ^ Rozas, Vicente; Le-Quesne, Carlos; Rojas-Badilla, Moisés; González, Mauro E.; González-Reyes, Álvaro (2018). "Coupled human-climate signals on the fire history of upper Cachapoal Valley, Mediterranean Andes of Chile, since 1201 CE". Global and Planetary Change. 167: 137–147. Bibcode:2018GPC...167..137R. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2018.05.013. S2CID 133777432.
  9. ^ Otero 2006, p. 25.
  10. ^ Lorenzo 1986, p. 158.
  11. ^ Lorenzo 1986, p. 159.
  12. ^ a b c Enciclopedia regional del Bío Bío (in Spanish). Pehuén Editores. 2006. p. 44. ISBN 956-16-0404-3.
  13. ^ a b c d Mansilla Almonacid, José D. (2002), "La Población de Calbuco Evolución de las Cifras. Siglos XVII-XX", Revista Austral de Ciencias Sociales (in Spanish), 6 (6): 125–134, doi:10.4206/rev.austral.cienc.soc.2002.n6-10, archived from the original on 2013-12-31
  14. ^ "Castro (1567-1834)". Memoria Chilena (in Spanish). Biblioteca Nacional de Chile. Archived from the original on 1 April 2018. Retrieved 31 March 2018.
  15. ^ a b "Valdivia colonial (1552–1820)". Memoria Chilena (in Spanish). Biblioteca Nacional de Chile. Retrieved September 30, 2014.
  16. ^ Bengoa 2003, pp. 450–451.
  17. ^ Robbert Kock The Dutch in Chili Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine at coloniavoyage.com
  18. ^ Kris E. Lane Pillaging the Empire: Piracy in the Americas, 1500-1750, 1998, pages 88-92
  19. ^ Baraibar, Alvaro (2013). "Chile como un "Flandes indiano" en las crónicas de los siglos VI y VII". Revista Chilena de Literatura (in Spanish). 85. Archived from the original on 26 January 2017. Retrieved 30 January 2016.
  20. ^ Gregorio Víctor Amunátegui. El capitán don Fernando Álvarez de Toledo. Anales de la Universidad de Chile, [S.l.], p. Pág. 204-219, marzo, 1866. ISSN 0717-8883. Disponible en línea. Fecha de acceso: 01 sep. 2014 doi:10.5354/0717-8883.1866.20023, pp. 212, 215-219.
  21. ^ Eduardo Barraza Jara. De "La Araucana" a "Butamalón". El discurso de la conquista y el canon de la literatura chilena. Prólogo de Gilberto Triviños. Claudio Wagner (editor). Valdivia: Anejo 17 de Estudios Filológicos, 2004, p.204.

Sources

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  • Otero, Luis (2006). La huella del fuego: Historia de los bosques nativos. Poblamiento y cambios en el paisaje del sur de Chile. Pehuén Editores. ISBN 956-16-0409-4.
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