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{{short description|Norse prose sagas of the romance genre}}
[[File:HakonTheOldAndSkule-Flateyjarbok crop.jpg|thumb|[[Haakon IV of Norway]], as portrayed in [[Flateyjarbók]]. A key patron of chivalric sagas.]]
[[File:HakonTheOldAndSkule-Flateyjarbok crop.jpg|thumb|[[Haakon IV of Norway]], as portrayed in [[Flateyjarbók]]; A key patron of chivalric sagas.]]

The '''''riddarasögur''''' (literally 'sagas of knights', also known in English as 'chivalric sagas', 'romance-sagas', 'knights' sagas', 'sagas of chivalry') are Norse prose [[Norse saga|sagas]] of the [[romance (heroic literature)|romance genre]]. Starting in the thirteenth century with Norse translations of French ''[[chansons de geste]]'' and Latin romances and histories, the genre expanded in Iceland to indigenous creations in a similar style.
The '''''riddarasögur''''' (literally 'sagas of knights', also known in English as 'chivalric sagas', 'romance-sagas', 'knights' sagas', 'sagas of chivalry') are Norse prose [[Norse saga|sagas]] of the [[romance (heroic literature)|romance genre]]. Starting in the thirteenth century with Norse translations of French ''[[chansons de geste]]'' and Latin romances and histories, the genre expanded in Iceland to indigenous creations in a similar style.


While the ''riddarasögur'' were widely read in Iceland for many centuries they have traditionally been regarded as popular literature inferior in artistic quality to the [[Icelanders' sagas]] and other indigenous genres. Receiving little attention from scholars of [[Old Norse literature]], many remain untranslated. The most comprehensive guide to the manuscripts, editions, translations, and secondary literature of this body of sagas is Kalinke and Mitchell's 1985 ''Bibliography of Old Norse-Icelandic Romances''.<ref name="Marianne E 1985">Marianne E. Kalinke and P. M. Mitchell, ''Bibliography of Old Norse–Icelandic Romances'', Islandica, 44 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985).</ref>
While the ''riddarasögur'' were widely read in Iceland for many centuries they have traditionally been regarded as popular literature inferior in artistic quality to the [[Icelanders' sagas]] and other indigenous genres. Receiving little attention from scholars of [[Old Norse literature]], many remain untranslated.


The production of chivalric sagas in Scandinavia was focused on Norway in the thirteenth century and then Iceland in the fourteenth. Vernacular Danish and Swedish romances came to prominence rather later and were generally in verse; the most famous of these are the [[Eufemiavisorna]], themselves predominantly translations of Norwegian translations of Continental European romances.
The production of chivalric sagas in Scandinavia was focused on Norway in the thirteenth century and then Iceland in the fourteenth. Vernacular Danish and Swedish romances came to prominence rather later and were generally in verse; the most famous of these are the [[Eufemiavisorna]], themselves predominantly translations of Norwegian translations of Continental European romances.


==Terminology==
==Terminology==
The term ''riddarasögur'' (singular ''riddarasaga'') occurs in ''Mágus saga jarls'' where there is a reference to "Frásagnir...svo sem...Þiðreks saga, Flóvenz saga eðr aðrar riddarasögur", "narratives such as the saga of Þiðrekr, the saga of Flóvent, or other knights' sagas".<ref>Glauser 2005:372.</ref> Another technical term sometimes encountered is ''lygisögur'' (singular ''lygisaga''), "lie sagas", applied to fictional chivalric and [[legendary saga]]s.
The term ''riddarasögur'' (singular ''riddarasaga'') occurs in ''[[Mágus saga jarls]]'' where there is a reference to "Frásagnir...svo sem...Þiðreks saga, Flóvenz saga eðr aðrar riddarasögur", "narratives such as the saga of Þiðrekr, the saga of Flóvent, or other knights' sagas".{{sfn|Glauser|2005|p=372}} Another technical term sometimes encountered is ''lygisögur'' (singular ''lygisaga''), "lie sagas", applied to fictional chivalric and [[legendary saga]]s.


==Translations==
==Translations==
The first known Old Norse translations of European romances occurred under the patronage of king [[Hákon Hákonarson]] of Norway, and seem to have been part of a programme of Europeanisation. The earliest dated work is a 1226 translation by one [[Brother Robert]] of ''Tristan'' by [[Thomas of Britain]]. The Old Norse work, ''Tristrams saga ok Ísöndar'', is especially valuable since the original Old French poem is only preserved in fragments. ''Elis saga ok Rósamundu'', a translation of ''Elie de Saint Gille'', is similarly attributed to an Abbot Robert, presumably the same man having been promoted within his order. King Hákon also commissioned ''Möttuls saga'', an adaptation of ''[[Le mantel mautaillé]]'', ''Ívens saga'', a reworking of [[Chrétien de Troyes]]'s ''[[Yvain, le Chevalier au Lion|Yvain]]'' and ''[[Strengleikar]]'', a collection of ballads principally by [[Marie de France]].<ref name="Naess 1993:34">Naess 1993:34.</ref>
The first known Old Norse translations of European romances occurred under the patronage of king [[Hákon Hákonarson]] of Norway, and seem to have been part of a programme of Europeanisation. The earliest dated work is a 1226 translation by one [[Brother Robert]] of ''Tristan'' by [[Thomas of Britain]]. The Old Norse work, ''Tristrams saga ok Ísöndar'', is especially valuable since the original Old French poem is only preserved in fragments. ''Elis saga ok Rósamundu'', a translation of ''Elie de Saint Gille'', is similarly attributed to an Abbot Robert, presumably the same man having been promoted within his order. King Hákon also commissioned ''[[Möttuls saga]]'', an adaptation of ''[[Le mantel mautaillé]]'', ''Ívens saga'', a reworking of [[Chrétien de Troyes]]'s ''[[Yvain, le Chevalier au Lion|Yvain]]'' and ''[[Strengleikar]]'', a collection of ballads principally by [[Marie de France]].{{sfn|Naess|1993|p=34}}


Works in similar style, which may also have been commissioned by King Hákon, are ''Parcevals saga'', ''Valvens þáttr'' and ''Erex saga'', all derived from the works of Chrétien de Troyes. ''[[Karlamagnús saga]]'' is a compilation of more disparate origin, dealing with [[Charlemagne]] and his twelve paladins and drawing on historiographical material as well as chansons de geste. Other works believed to derive from French originals are ''Bevers saga'', ''Flóres saga ok Blankiflúr'', ''Flóvents saga'' and ''Partalopa saga''.
Works in similar style, which may also have been commissioned by King Hákon, are ''Parcevals saga'', ''Valvens þáttr'' and ''[[Erex saga]]'', all derived from the works of Chrétien de Troyes. ''[[Karlamagnús saga]]'' is a compilation of more disparate origin, dealing with [[Charlemagne]] and his twelve paladins and drawing on historiographical material as well as chansons de geste. Other works believed to derive from French originals are ''Bevers saga'', ''Flóres saga ok Blankiflúr'', ''Flóvents saga'' and ''[[Partalopa saga]]''.


Pseudo-historical works translated from Latin are ''[[Alexanders saga]]'' (a translation of ''[[Alexandreis]]''), ''[[Amis et Amiles|Amícus saga ok Amilíus]]'' (based on [[Vincent of Beauvais]]'s ''Speculum historiale''), ''[[Breta sögur]]'' (a translation of ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]''), and ''[[Trójumanna saga]]'' (a translation of ''[[De excidio Troiae]]''). Also pseudo-historical, ''[[Þiðreks saga af Bern]]'' is unusual in having been translated from German.<ref name="Naess 1993:34"/>
Pseudo-historical works translated from Latin are ''[[Alexanders saga]]'' (a translation of ''[[Alexandreis]]''), ''[[Amis et Amiles|Amícus saga ok Amilíus]]'' (based on [[Vincent of Beauvais]]'s ''Speculum historiale''), ''[[Breta sögur]]'' (a translation of ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]''), and ''[[Trójumanna saga]]'' (a translation of ''[[De excidio Troiae]]''). Also pseudo-historical, ''[[Þiðreks saga af Bern]]'' is unusual in having been translated from German.{{sfn|Naess|1993|p=34}}


These Old Norse translations have been characterised by Margaret Clunies Ross thus:
These Old Norse translations have been characterised by Margaret Clunies Ross thus:
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==Original compositions==
==Original compositions==


Inspired by translated Continental romances, Icelanders began enthusiastically composing their own romance-sagas, apparently around the later thirteenth century, with the genre flourishing from the fourteenth century. The rise of the genre has been associated with Iceland coming under Norwegian rule in the 1260s, and the consequent need for Icelandic ecclesiastical and secular elites to explore Icelanders' new identities as vassals to a king. These new political formations particularly affected the marriage market for elite Icelanders, making gender politics a central theme of many romances.<ref>Jóhanna Katrín Friðriksdóttir, ''Women in Old Norse Literature: Bodies, Words,
Inspired by translated Continental romances, Icelanders began enthusiastically composing their own romance-sagas, apparently around the later thirteenth century, with the genre flourishing from the fourteenth century. The rise of the genre has been associated with Iceland coming under Norwegian rule in the 1260s, and the consequent need for Icelandic ecclesiastical and secular elites to explore Icelanders' new identities as vassals to a king. These new political formations particularly affected the marriage market for elite Icelanders, making gender politics a central theme of many romances.<ref>Jóhanna Katrín Friðriksdóttir, ''Women in Old Norse Literature: Bodies, Words, and Power'' (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), esp. pp. 5, 116.</ref> One seminal composition, directly or indirectly influential on many subsequent sagas, seems to have been ''[[Klári saga]]'', whose prologue states that it was translated from a Latin metrical work which [[Jón Halldórsson (bishop)|Jón Halldórsson]] [[Bishop of Skálholt]] found in France, but which is now thought to have been composed by Jón from scratch.<ref>{{cite book|author=Shaun F. D. Hughes|chapter=''Klári saga'' as an Indigenous Romance|title=Romance and Love in Late Medieval and Early Modern Iceland|editor=Kirsten Wolf|editor2=Johanna Denzin|series=Islandica|volume=54|location=Ithaca, NY|publisher=Cornell University Library|date=2008|pages=135–164|chapter-url=http://cip.cornell.edu/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&handle=cul.isl/1242914143}}; cf. Marianne Kalinke, 'Clári saga: A Case of Low German Infiltration', Scripta Islandica: Isländska sällskapets ärbok, 59 (2008), pp. 5-25.</ref> Jón's work seems to have been one of the inspirations for the fourteenth-century [[North Icelandic Benedictine School]] which, while most clearly associated with religious writing, also seems to have involved romance-writing.
and Power'' (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), esp. pp. 5, 116.</ref> One seminal composition, directly or indirectly influential on many subsequent sagas, seems to have been ''[[Klári saga]]'', whose prologue states that it was translated from a Latin metrical work which [[Jón Halldórsson (bishop)|Jón Halldórsson]] [[Bishop of Skálholt]] found in France, but which is now thought to have been composed by Jón from scratch.<ref>Shaun F. D. Hughes, ' ''Klári saga'' as an Indigenous Romance', in Romance and Love in Late Medieval and Early Modern Iceland, ed. by Kirsten Wolf and Johanna Denzin, Islandica 54 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Library, 2008), pp. 135-164, available at [http://cip.cornell.edu/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&handle=cul.isl/1242914143 http://cip.cornell.edu/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&handle=cul.isl/1242914143]; cf. Marianne Kalinke, 'Clári saga: A Case of Low German Infiltration', Scripta Islandica: Isländska sällskapets ärbok, 59 (2008), 5-25.</ref> Jón's work seems to have been one of the inspirations for the fourteenth-century [[North Icelandic Benedictine School]] which, while most clearly associated with religious writing, also seems to have involved romance-writing.

⚫
The material received a fairly substantial survey in [[Margaret Schlauch|Margaret Schlauch's]] 1934 ''Romance in Iceland'',<ref>Margaret Schlauch, ''Romance in Iceland'' (London: Allen & Unwin, 1934).</ref> since when the main monograph studies of the genre have been Astrid van Nahl's ''Originale Riddarasögur als Teil altnordischer Sagaliteratur'', [[Jürg Glauser|Jürg Glauser's]] ''Isländische Märchensagas'', [[Marianne Kalinke|Marianne Kalinke's]] ''Bridal-Quest Romance in Medieval Iceland'', and [[Geraldine Barnes|Geraldine Barnes's]] ''The Bookish Riddarasögur''.<ref>Astrid van Nahl, ''Originale Riddarasögur als Teil altnordischer Sagaliteratur'', Europäische Hochschulschriften, series 1, 447 (Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 1981); Jürg Glauser, ''Isländische Märchensagas: Studien zur Prosaliteratur im spätmittelalterlichen Island'', Beiträge zue nordischen Philologie, 12 (Basel: Helbing & Lichtenhahn, 1983); Marianne E. Kalinke, ''Bridal-Quest Romance in Medieval Iceland'', Islandica, 46 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990); Geraldine Barnes, ''The Bookish Riddarasögur: Writing Romance in Late Mediaeval Iceland'', The Viking Collection, 21 ([Odense]: University Press of Southern Denmark, 2014).</ref>


==Post-medieval reception==
==Post-medieval reception==


Chivalric sagas remained in widespread manuscript circulation in Iceland into the twentieth century.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Alaric |last1=Hall |first2=Katelin |last2=Parsons |title=Making Stemmas with Small Samples, and Digital Approaches to Publishing them: Testing the Stemma of Konráðs saga keisarasonar |journal=Digital Medievalist |volume=9 |year=2013 |url=http://digitalmedievalist.org/journal/9/hall/#d2e500 |access-date=2015-01-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150123061846/http://www.digitalmedievalist.org/journal/9/hall/#d2e500 |archive-date=2015-01-23 |url-status = dead}} {{open access}}</ref> They were often reworked as ''[[rímur]]'', and new chivalric sagas in the same mould as medieval ones continued to be composed into the nineteenth century.<ref>Matthew James Driscoll, ''The unwashed children of Eve: the production, dissemination and reception of popular literature in post-Reformation Iceland'' (Enfield Lock: Hisarlik Press, 1997).</ref>
Chivalric sagas remained in widespread manuscript circulation in Iceland into the twentieth century.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Alaric |last1=Hall |first2=Katelin |last2=Parsons |title=Making Stemmas with Small Samples, and Digital Approaches to Publishing them: Testing the Stemma of Konráðs saga keisarasonar |journal=Digital Medievalist |volume=9 |year=2013 |doi=10.16995/dm.51 |doi-access=free }} {{open access}}</ref> They were often reworked as ''[[rímur]]'', and new chivalric sagas in the same mould as medieval ones continued to be composed into the nineteenth century.{{sfn|Driscoll|1997}}

⚫
Particularly during the eighteenth century, some chivalric sagas were taken to be useful historical sources for the history of Sweden and Denmark, underpinning their imperial aspirations, and were printed in these countries. One prominent example is [[Erik Julius Biörner|Erik Julius Biörner's]] ''Nordiska kämpa dater'' of 1737.<ref>Erik Julius Biörner, ''Nordiska kämpa dater: I en sagoflock samlade om forna kongar och hjältar. Volumen historicum, continens variorum in orbe hyperboreo antiquo regum, heroum et pugilum res praeclare et mirabiliter gestas. Accessit praeter conspectum genealogicum Suethicorum regum et reginarum accuratissimum etiam praefatio &c.'' (Stockholm: Typis Joh. L. Horrn, 1737).</ref><ref>{{cite thesis|author=Kay Busch|language=de|title=Grossmachtstatus und Sagainterpretation - die schwedischen Vorzeitsagaeditionen des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts|type=PhD thesis|publisher=Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg|date=2002|url=https://opus4.kobv.de/opus4-fau/frontdoor/index/index/docId/45}}</ref>

=== Modern scholarship ===
The most comprehensive guide to the manuscripts, editions, translations, and secondary literature of this body of sagas is Kalinke and Mitchell's 1985 ''Bibliography of Old Norse-Icelandic Romances''.{{sfn|Kalinke|Mitchell|1985}}


⚫
The genre received a fairly substantial survey in [[Margaret Schlauch|Margaret Schlauch's]] 1934 ''Romance in Iceland'',<ref>Margaret Schlauch, ''Romance in Iceland'' (London: Allen & Unwin, 1934).</ref> since when the main monograph studies of the genre have been Astrid van Nahl's ''Originale Riddarasögur als Teil altnordischer Sagaliteratur'', [[Jürg Glauser|Jürg Glauser's]] ''Isländische Märchensagas'', [[Marianne Kalinke|Marianne Kalinke's]] ''Bridal-Quest Romance in Medieval Iceland'', and [[Geraldine Barnes|Geraldine Barnes's]] ''The Bookish Riddarasögur''.<ref>Astrid van Nahl, ''Originale Riddarasögur als Teil altnordischer Sagaliteratur'', Europäische Hochschulschriften, series 1, 447 (Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 1981); Jürg Glauser, ''Isländische Märchensagas: Studien zur Prosaliteratur im spätmittelalterlichen Island'', Beiträge zue nordischen Philologie, 12 (Basel: Helbing & Lichtenhahn, 1983); {{harv|Kalinke|1990}}; Geraldine Barnes, ''The Bookish Riddarasögur: Writing Romance in Late Mediaeval Iceland'', The Viking Collection, 21 ([Odense]: University Press of Southern Denmark, 2014).</ref>
⚫
Particularly during the eighteenth century, some chivalric sagas were taken to be useful historical sources for the history of Sweden and Denmark, underpinning their imperial aspirations, and were printed in these countries. One prominent example is [[Erik Julius Biörner|Erik Julius Biörner's]] ''Nordiska kämpa dater'' of 1737.<ref>Erik Julius Biörner, ''Nordiska kämpa dater: I en sagoflock samlade om forna kongar och hjältar. Volumen historicum, continens variorum in orbe hyperboreo antiquo regum, heroum et pugilum res praeclare et mirabiliter gestas. Accessit praeter conspectum genealogicum Suethicorum regum et reginarum accuratissimum etiam praefatio &c.'' (Stockholm: Typis Joh. L. Horrn, 1737).</ref><ref>Kay Busch, 'Grossmachtstatus und Sagainterpretation - die schwedischen Vorzeitsagaeditionen des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts' (PhD thesis, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 2002), www.opus4.kobv.de/opus4-fau/frontdoor/index/index/docId/45.</ref>


==List of chivalric sagas==
==List of chivalric sagas==


===Translated into Old Norse===
===Translated into Old Norse===
Kalinke and Mitchell's ''Bibliography of Old Norse-Icelandic Romances'' lists the following translated ''riddarasögur'':<ref name="Marianne E 1985"/>
Kalinke and Mitchell's ''Bibliography of Old Norse-Icelandic Romances'' lists the following translated ''riddarasögur'':{{sfn|Kalinke|Mitchell|1985}}


* ''Alexanders saga'' (''[[Alexandreis]]'')
* ''[[Alexanders saga]]'' (''[[Alexandreis]]'')
* ''Amicus saga ok Amilíus'' ([[Vincent of Beauvais|Vincent of Beauvais's]] ''Speculum historiale'')
* ''[[Amícus saga ok Amilíus]]'' ([[Vincent of Beauvais|Vincent of Beauvais's]] ''[[Speculum historiale]]'')
* ''Bevis saga'' (''[[Bevis of Hampton|Boeve de Haumtone]]'')
* ''[[Bevis saga]]'' (''[[Bevis of Hampton|Boeve de Haumtone]]'')
* ''[[Breta sögur]]'' (''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'')
* ''[[Breta sögur]]'' (''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'')
* ''Elis saga ok Rósamundu'' (''[[Elie de Saint-Gille]]'')
* ''Elis saga ok Rósamundu'' (''[[Elie de Saint-Gille]]'')
* ''Erex saga'' (''[[Erec and Enide|Érec et Énide]]'')
* ''[[Erex saga]]'' (''[[Erec and Enide|Érec et Énide]]'')
* ''Flóres saga ok Blankiflúr'' (''[[Floris and Blancheflour|Floire et Blanchiflor]]'')
* ''[[Flóres saga ok Blankiflúr]]'' (''[[Floris and Blancheflour|Floire et Blanchiflor]]'')
* ''Flóvents saga'' (''[[Floovant]]'')
* ''Flóvents saga'' (''[[Floovant]]'')
* ''[[Ívens saga]]'' (''[[Yvain, the Knight of the Lion|Yvain, le Chevalier au Lion]]'')
* ''[[Ívens saga]]'' (''[[Yvain, the Knight of the Lion|Yvain, le Chevalier au Lion]]'')
* ''[[Karlamagnús saga]]''
* ''[[Karlamagnús saga]]''
* ''Möttuls saga'' (''[[La mantel mautaillé]]'')
* ''[[Möttuls saga]]'' (''[[La mantel mautaillé]]'')
* ''Pamphilus ok Galathea'' (''[[Pamphilus de amore]]'')
* ''Pamphilus ok Galathea'' (''[[Pamphilus de amore]]'')
* ''Parcevals saga'' and ''Valvens þáttr'' (''[[Perceval, the Story of the Grail|Perceval, le Conte du Graal]]'')
* ''Parcevals saga'' and ''Valvens þáttr'' (''[[Perceval, the Story of the Grail|Perceval, le Conte du Graal]]'')
* ''Partalopa saga'' (''[[Partonopeus de Blois]]'')
* ''[[Partalopa saga]]'' (''[[Partonopeus de Blois]]'')
* ''[[Strengleikar]]''
* ''[[Strengleikar]]''
** ''Forræða'' 'prologue'
** ''Forræða'' 'prologue'
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* ''[[Tiódels saga]]'' (''[[Bisclavret]]'', via ''Bisclaretz ljóð'')
* ''[[Tiódels saga]]'' (''[[Bisclavret]]'', via ''Bisclaretz ljóð'')
* ''Tristrams saga ok Ísöndar'' ([[Thomas of Britain|Thomas of Britain's]] ''Tristan'')
* ''Tristrams saga ok Ísöndar'' ([[Thomas of Britain|Thomas of Britain's]] ''Tristan'')
* ''Trójumanna saga'' (''[[De excidio Troiae]]'')
* ''[[Trójumanna saga]]'' (''[[De excidio Troiae]]'')


===Composed in Icelandic during the Middle Ages===
===Composed in Icelandic during the Middle Ages===
The following is a probably complete list of original medieval Icelandic chivalric sagas.<ref>Based on Marianne E. Kalinke and P. M. Mitchell, ''Bibliography of Old Norse–Icelandic Romances'', Islandica, 44 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985).</ref>
The following is a probably complete list of original medieval Icelandic chivalric sagas.{{sfn|Kalinke|Mitchell|1985}}


*''[[Adonias saga]]''
*''[[Adonias saga]]''
Line 120: Line 124:


===Composed in Icelandic after the Middle Ages===
===Composed in Icelandic after the Middle Ages===
Romance sagas continued to be composed in Iceland after the Middle Ages in the tradition of the medieval texts. There are thought to be about 150 post-medieval examples; ten are believed to have been penned, for example, by the priest [[Jón Oddsson Hjaltalín]] (1749-1835).<ref>Matthew James Driscoll, ''The Unwashed Children of Eve: The Production, Dissemination and Reception of Popular Literature in Post-Reformation Iceland'' (Enfield Lock: Hisarlik Press, 1997), pp. 6, 35.</ref> The following is an incomplete list:
Romance sagas continued to be composed in Iceland after the Middle Ages in the tradition of the medieval texts; ten are believed to have been penned, for example, by the priest [[Jón Oddsson Hjaltalín]] (1749-1835).{{sfn|Driscoll|1997|pp=6, 35}} There are thought to be about 150 post-medieval examples.{{sfn|Driscoll|1997|pp=6, 35}} The following is an incomplete list:


*''[[Amleth|Ambales saga]]''
*''[[Amleth|Ambales saga]]''
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==Notes==
==Notes==
{{reflist|40em}}

<references/>


==External links==
==External links==
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==References==
==References==
* {{cite book|last=Driscoll|first=Matthew|date=1997|title=The Unwashed Children of Eve: The Production, Dissemination and Reception of Popular Literature in Post-Reformation Iceland|location=Enfield Lock|publisher=Hisarlik Press}}
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* Driscoll, Matthew (2005). "Late Prose Fiction (lygisögur)" in ''A Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature and Culture'' pp.&nbsp;190–204. Blackwell Publishing. {{ISBN|0-631-23502-7}}
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* {{cite book|last=Glauser|first=Jürg|date=2005|chapter=Romance|trans-chapter=riddarasögur|title=A Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature and Culture|pages=372–387|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=0-631-23502-7}}
⚫
* {{cite book|last=Kalinke|first=Marianne E.|date=1990|title=Bridal-Quest Romance in Medieval Iceland|series=Islandica|volume=46|location=Ithaca, N.Y.|publisher=Cornell University Press}}
⚫
* {{cite book|last1=Kalinke|first1=Marianne E.|first2=P. M.|last2=Mitchell|title=Bibliography of Old Norse–Icelandic Romances|series=Islandica|volume=44|location=Ithaca|publisher=Cornell University Press|date=1985}}
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* [[Agnete Loth|Loth, Agnete]] (1962-5). ''Late medieval Icelandic romances'' (5 vols.) Den Arnamagnæanske Komission. Copenhagen.
*{{cite book|last=Künzler|first=Sarah|date=2016|title= Flesh and word: reading bodies in old norse-icelandic and early irish literature|publisher=De Gruyter}}
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* {{cite book|last=Naess|first=Harald S.|date=1993|title=A History of Norwegian Literature|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|isbn=0-8032-3317-5}}
* O'Connor, Ralph J. "[https://www.abdn.ac.uk/staffpages/uploads/his221/history-or-fiction.pdf History or fiction? Truth-claims and defensive narrators in Icelandic romance-sagas]." In: ''Mediaeval Scandinavia'' 15 (2005): pp. 101-169.
* {{Cite journal|last=Rasmussen|first=Elizabeth|date=2004|title=Translation in Medieval and Reformation Norway: A History of Stories or the Story of History|url=http://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/meta/2015-v60-n3-meta816/009382ar/|journal=Meta: Journal des traducteurs / Meta: Translators' Journal|language=en|volume=49|issue=3|pages=629–645|doi=10.7202/009382ar|issn=0026-0452|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602174550/https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/meta/2004-v49-n3-meta816/009382ar/|archive-date=2 June 2018|doi-access=free}}


{{Chivalric sagas}}
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* Driscoll, Matthew (2005). "Late Prose Fiction (lygisögur)" in ''A Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature and Culture'' pp.&nbsp;190–204. Blackwell Publishing. {{ISBN|0-631-23502-7}}
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* Glauser, Jürg (2005). "Romance (Translated ''riddarasögur'')" in ''A Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature and Culture'' pp.&nbsp;372–387. Blackwell Publishing. {{ISBN|0-631-23502-7}}
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* Kalinke, Marianne E. (1990). ''Bridal-Quest Romance in Medieval Iceland'', Islandica, 46. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
⚫
* Kalinke, Marianne E. and P. M. Mitchell, ''Bibliography of Old Norse–Icelandic Romances'', Islandica, 44 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985).
⚫
*[[Agnete Loth|Loth, Agnete]] (1962-5). ''Late medieval Icelandic romances'' (5 vols.) Den Arnamagnæanske Komission. Copenhagen.
⚫
* Naess, Harald S. (1993). ''A History of Norwegian Literature''. University of Nebraska Press. {{ISBN|0-8032-3317-5}}
* [http://www.erudit.org/revue/meta/2004/v49/n3/009382ar.pdf]


[[Category:Chivalric sagas| ]]
[[Category:Chivalric sagas| ]]

Latest revision as of 14:58, 4 November 2024

Haakon IV of Norway, as portrayed in Flateyjarbók; A key patron of chivalric sagas.

The riddarasögur (literally 'sagas of knights', also known in English as 'chivalric sagas', 'romance-sagas', 'knights' sagas', 'sagas of chivalry') are Norse prose sagas of the romance genre. Starting in the thirteenth century with Norse translations of French chansons de geste and Latin romances and histories, the genre expanded in Iceland to indigenous creations in a similar style.

While the riddarasögur were widely read in Iceland for many centuries they have traditionally been regarded as popular literature inferior in artistic quality to the Icelanders' sagas and other indigenous genres. Receiving little attention from scholars of Old Norse literature, many remain untranslated.

The production of chivalric sagas in Scandinavia was focused on Norway in the thirteenth century and then Iceland in the fourteenth. Vernacular Danish and Swedish romances came to prominence rather later and were generally in verse; the most famous of these are the Eufemiavisorna, themselves predominantly translations of Norwegian translations of Continental European romances.

Terminology

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The term riddarasögur (singular riddarasaga) occurs in Mágus saga jarls where there is a reference to "Frásagnir...svo sem...Þiðreks saga, Flóvenz saga eðr aðrar riddarasögur", "narratives such as the saga of Þiðrekr, the saga of Flóvent, or other knights' sagas".[1] Another technical term sometimes encountered is lygisögur (singular lygisaga), "lie sagas", applied to fictional chivalric and legendary sagas.

Translations

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The first known Old Norse translations of European romances occurred under the patronage of king Hákon Hákonarson of Norway, and seem to have been part of a programme of Europeanisation. The earliest dated work is a 1226 translation by one Brother Robert of Tristan by Thomas of Britain. The Old Norse work, Tristrams saga ok Ísöndar, is especially valuable since the original Old French poem is only preserved in fragments. Elis saga ok Rósamundu, a translation of Elie de Saint Gille, is similarly attributed to an Abbot Robert, presumably the same man having been promoted within his order. King Hákon also commissioned Möttuls saga, an adaptation of Le mantel mautaillé, Ívens saga, a reworking of Chrétien de Troyes's Yvain and Strengleikar, a collection of ballads principally by Marie de France.[2]

Works in similar style, which may also have been commissioned by King Hákon, are Parcevals saga, Valvens þáttr and Erex saga, all derived from the works of Chrétien de Troyes. Karlamagnús saga is a compilation of more disparate origin, dealing with Charlemagne and his twelve paladins and drawing on historiographical material as well as chansons de geste. Other works believed to derive from French originals are Bevers saga, Flóres saga ok Blankiflúr, Flóvents saga and Partalopa saga.

Pseudo-historical works translated from Latin are Alexanders saga (a translation of Alexandreis), Amícus saga ok Amilíus (based on Vincent of Beauvais's Speculum historiale), Breta sögur (a translation of Historia Regum Britanniae), and Trójumanna saga (a translation of De excidio Troiae). Also pseudo-historical, Þiðreks saga af Bern is unusual in having been translated from German.[2]

These Old Norse translations have been characterised by Margaret Clunies Ross thus:

The Old Norse term riddarasaga ... covers what were a number of genres in Latin, French and Anglo-Norman, but common to all of them are their courtly setting, their interest in kingship, and their concerns with the ethics of chivalry and courtly love. It seems, however, from a comparison between the French originals and the Old Norse translations of courtly romances, such as Chrétien de Troyes' Erec et Enide (Erex saga), Yvain (Ívens saga) and Perceval (Parcevals saga and Velvens þáttr), that the translators who supplied King Hákon's court and others in Norway and Iceland who enjoyed such sagas offered an independent rewriting of their sources. It is notable that they did not convey a number of key aspects of Chrétien's somewhat ironic perspective on courtly society. This may well be because most of the translators were probably clerics, but it is also likely to reflect traditional Norse tastes and narrative conventions. In particular, most elements of explicit eroticism have been deleted from the riddarasögur, as have much comedy and irony in the treatment of the protagonists' behaviour. Instead, the narratives are largely exemplary and didactic, in large part because the Scandinavian translators refrained from using two essential narrative devices of their sources, namely the internal monologue, which conveyed the private thoughts and feelings of the characters, and the intrusive involvement of the narrator, which was a vehicle for conveying a nuanced and often ironic point of view.[3]

Original compositions

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Inspired by translated Continental romances, Icelanders began enthusiastically composing their own romance-sagas, apparently around the later thirteenth century, with the genre flourishing from the fourteenth century. The rise of the genre has been associated with Iceland coming under Norwegian rule in the 1260s, and the consequent need for Icelandic ecclesiastical and secular elites to explore Icelanders' new identities as vassals to a king. These new political formations particularly affected the marriage market for elite Icelanders, making gender politics a central theme of many romances.[4] One seminal composition, directly or indirectly influential on many subsequent sagas, seems to have been Klári saga, whose prologue states that it was translated from a Latin metrical work which Jón Halldórsson Bishop of Skálholt found in France, but which is now thought to have been composed by Jón from scratch.[5] Jón's work seems to have been one of the inspirations for the fourteenth-century North Icelandic Benedictine School which, while most clearly associated with religious writing, also seems to have involved romance-writing.

Post-medieval reception

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Chivalric sagas remained in widespread manuscript circulation in Iceland into the twentieth century.[6] They were often reworked as rímur, and new chivalric sagas in the same mould as medieval ones continued to be composed into the nineteenth century.[7]

Particularly during the eighteenth century, some chivalric sagas were taken to be useful historical sources for the history of Sweden and Denmark, underpinning their imperial aspirations, and were printed in these countries. One prominent example is Erik Julius Biörner's Nordiska kämpa dater of 1737.[8][9]

Modern scholarship

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The most comprehensive guide to the manuscripts, editions, translations, and secondary literature of this body of sagas is Kalinke and Mitchell's 1985 Bibliography of Old Norse-Icelandic Romances.[10]

The genre received a fairly substantial survey in Margaret Schlauch's 1934 Romance in Iceland,[11] since when the main monograph studies of the genre have been Astrid van Nahl's Originale Riddarasögur als Teil altnordischer Sagaliteratur, Jürg Glauser's Isländische Märchensagas, Marianne Kalinke's Bridal-Quest Romance in Medieval Iceland, and Geraldine Barnes's The Bookish Riddarasögur.[12]

List of chivalric sagas

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Translated into Old Norse

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Kalinke and Mitchell's Bibliography of Old Norse-Icelandic Romances lists the following translated riddarasögur:[10]

Composed in Icelandic during the Middle Ages

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The following is a probably complete list of original medieval Icelandic chivalric sagas.[10]

Composed in Icelandic after the Middle Ages

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Romance sagas continued to be composed in Iceland after the Middle Ages in the tradition of the medieval texts; ten are believed to have been penned, for example, by the priest Jón Oddsson Hjaltalín (1749-1835).[13] There are thought to be about 150 post-medieval examples.[13] The following is an incomplete list:

Notes

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  1. ^ Glauser 2005, p. 372.
  2. ^ a b Naess 1993, p. 34.
  3. ^ Margaret Clunies Ross, The Cambridge Introduction to the Old Norse-Icelandic Saga (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 81.
  4. ^ Jóhanna Katrín Friðriksdóttir, Women in Old Norse Literature: Bodies, Words, and Power (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), esp. pp. 5, 116.
  5. ^ Shaun F. D. Hughes (2008). "Klári saga as an Indigenous Romance". In Kirsten Wolf; Johanna Denzin (eds.). Romance and Love in Late Medieval and Early Modern Iceland. Islandica. Vol. 54. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Library. pp. 135–164.; cf. Marianne Kalinke, 'Clári saga: A Case of Low German Infiltration', Scripta Islandica: Isländska sällskapets ärbok, 59 (2008), pp. 5-25.
  6. ^ Hall, Alaric; Parsons, Katelin (2013). "Making Stemmas with Small Samples, and Digital Approaches to Publishing them: Testing the Stemma of Konráðs saga keisarasonar". Digital Medievalist. 9. doi:10.16995/dm.51. Open access icon
  7. ^ Driscoll 1997.
  8. ^ Erik Julius Biörner, Nordiska kämpa dater: I en sagoflock samlade om forna kongar och hjältar. Volumen historicum, continens variorum in orbe hyperboreo antiquo regum, heroum et pugilum res praeclare et mirabiliter gestas. Accessit praeter conspectum genealogicum Suethicorum regum et reginarum accuratissimum etiam praefatio &c. (Stockholm: Typis Joh. L. Horrn, 1737).
  9. ^ Kay Busch (2002). Grossmachtstatus und Sagainterpretation - die schwedischen Vorzeitsagaeditionen des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts (PhD thesis) (in German). Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg.
  10. ^ a b c Kalinke & Mitchell 1985.
  11. ^ Margaret Schlauch, Romance in Iceland (London: Allen & Unwin, 1934).
  12. ^ Astrid van Nahl, Originale Riddarasögur als Teil altnordischer Sagaliteratur, Europäische Hochschulschriften, series 1, 447 (Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 1981); Jürg Glauser, Isländische Märchensagas: Studien zur Prosaliteratur im spätmittelalterlichen Island, Beiträge zue nordischen Philologie, 12 (Basel: Helbing & Lichtenhahn, 1983); (Kalinke 1990); Geraldine Barnes, The Bookish Riddarasögur: Writing Romance in Late Mediaeval Iceland, The Viking Collection, 21 ([Odense]: University Press of Southern Denmark, 2014).
  13. ^ a b Driscoll 1997, pp. 6, 35.
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References

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  • Driscoll, Matthew (1997). The Unwashed Children of Eve: The Production, Dissemination and Reception of Popular Literature in Post-Reformation Iceland. Enfield Lock: Hisarlik Press.
  • Driscoll, Matthew (2005). "Late Prose Fiction (lygisögur)" in A Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature and Culture pp. 190–204. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-23502-7
  • Glauser, Jürg (2005). "Romance" [riddarasögur]. A Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature and Culture. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 372–387. ISBN 0-631-23502-7.
  • Kalinke, Marianne E. (1990). Bridal-Quest Romance in Medieval Iceland. Islandica. Vol. 46. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
  • Kalinke, Marianne E.; Mitchell, P. M. (1985). Bibliography of Old Norse–Icelandic Romances. Islandica. Vol. 44. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
  • Loth, Agnete (1962-5). Late medieval Icelandic romances (5 vols.) Den Arnamagnæanske Komission. Copenhagen.
  • Künzler, Sarah (2016). Flesh and word: reading bodies in old norse-icelandic and early irish literature. De Gruyter.
  • Naess, Harald S. (1993). A History of Norwegian Literature. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-3317-5.
  • O'Connor, Ralph J. "History or fiction? Truth-claims and defensive narrators in Icelandic romance-sagas." In: Mediaeval Scandinavia 15 (2005): pp. 101-169.
  • Rasmussen, Elizabeth (2004). "Translation in Medieval and Reformation Norway: A History of Stories or the Story of History". Meta: Journal des traducteurs / Meta: Translators' Journal. 49 (3): 629–645. doi:10.7202/009382ar. ISSN 0026-0452. Archived from the original on 2 June 2018.
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