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{{Short description|Moroccan tribal leader and rebel (1871–1925)}}
{{Infobox officeholder
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Mulai Ahmed er Raisuni<br>{{lang|ar|مولاي أحمد الريسوني}}
| name = Mulai Ahmed er Raisuni
| native_name = {{lang|ar|مولاي أحمد الريسوني}}
| order= General [[Emir]] of the [[Jebala]] Tribal Confederacy
| order= General [[Emir]] of the [[Jebala]] Tribal Confederacy
| image= Raisuli.JPG
| image= Raisuli.JPG
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| death_date= April 1925 (aged 53–54)
| death_date= April 1925 (aged 53–54)
| death_place=Prison in Tamasint (near Al Hoceima)
| death_place=Prison in Tamasint (near Al Hoceima)
| citizenship=
| office=[[Emir]] of the [[Jebala]] Tribal Confederacy
| nationality= Moroccan
| spouse=
| spouse=
| children=
| children=
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}}
}}


'''Mulai Ahmed er Raisuni''' (Arabic: "مولاي أحمد الريسوني", known as '''Raisuli''' to most English speakers, also '''Raissoulli''', '''Rais Uli''', and '''Raysuni'''; 1871<ref name= "Forbes p. 29">{{harvnb|Forbes|1924|p=29}}</ref> – April 1925<ref name= "TIME 1925a ">{{harvnb|TIME|1925a|p=}}</ref>) was a [[Sharif]] (descendant of the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]]), and a leader of the [[Jebala]] tribal confederacy in [[Morocco]] at the turn of the 20th Century. While he was regarded by foreigners and the Moroccan government as a brigand, some Moroccans, especially among the Jebala, considered him a heroic figure, fighting a repressive, corrupt government, while others considered him a thief. Historian David S. Woolman referred to Raisuni as "a combination [[Robin Hood]], feudal baron, and tyrannical bandit."<ref name= "Woolman p. 46">{{harvnb|Woolman|1968|p=46}}</ref> He was considered by many as "The last of the [[Barbary Pirates]]" though Barbary Coast piracy had ended by the middle of the 19th century. On the other hand, according to [[Douglas Porch]], an American historian, Raisuni was part of the rule rather than the exception in that every successful Moroccan politician at the time combined villainy with sainthood.<ref name= "Porch p. 107">{{harvnb|Porch|2005|p=104}}</ref> He died in April 1925 after having been captured and imprisoned by his rival [[Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi|Abd el Krim]].
'''Mulai Ahmed er Raisuni''' (Arabic: "مولاي أحمد الريسوني", known as '''Raisuli''' to most English speakers, also '''Raissoulli''', '''Rais Uli''', and '''Raysuni'''; 1871<ref name= "Forbes p. 29">{{harvnb|Forbes|1924|p=29}}</ref> – April 1925<ref name= "TIME 1925a ">{{harvnb|TIME|1925a|p=}}</ref>) was a [[Sharif]] (descendant of the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]]), and a leader of the [[Jebala]] tribal confederacy in [[Morocco]] at the turn of the 20th century.
While he was regarded by foreigners and the Moroccan government as a brigand, some Moroccans, especially among the Jebala, considered him a heroic figure, fighting a repressive, corrupt government, while others considered him a thief. Historian David S. Woolman referred to Raisuni as "a combination [[Robin Hood]], feudal baron, and tyrannical bandit."<ref name= "Woolman p. 46">{{harvnb|Woolman|1968|p=46}}</ref> He was considered by many as "the last of the [[Barbary Pirates]]" though Barbary Coast piracy had ended by the middle of the 19th century. On the other hand, according to [[Douglas Porch]], an American historian, Raisuni was part of the rule rather than the exception in that every successful Moroccan politician at the time combined villainy with sainthood.<ref name= "Porch p. 107">{{harvnb|Porch|2005|p=104}}</ref>
He died in April 1925 after having been captured and imprisoned by his rival [[Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi|Abd el Krim]].


==Early life==
==Early life==
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Mulai Ahmed er Raisuni was born in the village of [[Zinat]] sometime in 1871.{{Citation needed|date= May 2018}} Due to his place of origin and his reportedly handsome visage, one of his other nicknames was "the Eagle of Zinat."{{Citation needed|date= May 2018}} He was the son of a prominent [[Qaid|Caid]], and began following in his father's footsteps. However, Raisuni eventually drifted into crime, stealing cattle and sheep and earning the ire of Moroccan authorities. He was also widely known as a womanizer.{{Citation needed|date= May 2018}}
Mulai Ahmed er Raisuni was born in the village of [[Zinat]] sometime in 1871.{{Citation needed|date= May 2018}} Due to his place of origin and his reportedly handsome visage, one of his other nicknames was "the Eagle of Zinat."{{Citation needed|date= May 2018}} He was the son of a prominent [[Qaid|Caid]], and began following in his father's footsteps. However, Raisuni eventually drifted into crime, stealing cattle and sheep and earning the ire of Moroccan authorities. He was also widely known as a womanizer.{{Citation needed|date= May 2018}}


By most accounts, the formative event in Raisuni's life was his arrest and imprisonment by Abd-el-Rahman Abd el-Saduk, the [[Pasha]] of [[Tangier]], who was Raisuli's cousin and foster brother.{{Citation needed|date= May 2018}} The Pasha had invited Raisuni to dinner in his home in Tangier, only for his men to capture and brutalize Raisuni when he arrived. He was sent to the [[dungeon]] of [[Mogador]] and chained to a wall for four years. Fortunately, his friends were allowed to bring him food and he managed to survive. Raisuni was released from prison as part of a general clemency early in the reign of Sultan [[Abdelaziz of Morocco|Abdelaziz]] - soon to become Raisuni's greatest enemy.{{Citation needed|date= May 2018}}
By most accounts, the formative event in Raisuni's life was his arrest and imprisonment by Abd-el-Rahman Abd el-Saduk, the [[Pasha]] of [[Tangier]], who was Raisuli's cousin and foster brother.{{Citation needed|date= May 2018}} The Pasha had invited Raisuni to dinner in his home in Tangier, only for his men to capture and brutalize Raisuni when he arrived. He was sent to the [[dungeon]] of [[Mogador]] and chained to a wall for four years. His friends were allowed to bring him food and he managed to survive. Raisuni was released from prison as part of a general clemency early in the reign of Sultan [[Abdelaziz of Morocco|Abdelaziz]] - soon to become Raisuni's greatest enemy.{{Citation needed|date= May 2018}}


==Outlaw and pirate==
==Outlaw and pirate==
⚫
Raisuni was hardened by his imprisonment, and returned to criminality after his release. However, he became more ambitious than before, growing to resent the Sultan's fealty to the various European powers - Britain, France, Spain and Germany - jockeying for influence in Morocco.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Powell |first=J. Mark |date=Dec 17, 2023 |title=Handling a hostage crisis, 1904-style |url=https://www.myjournalcourier.com/news/article/handling-hostage-crisis-1904-style-holy-cow-18539661.php |access-date=March 22, 2024 |website=My JournalCourier}}</ref> With a small but devoted band of followers, Raisuni embarked on a second career: kidnapping prominent officials and holding them for ransoms.
{{Unreferenced section|date= May 2018}}
⚫
Raisuni was hardened by his imprisonment, and returned to criminality after his release. However, he became more ambitious than before, growing to resent the Sultan's fealty to the various European powers - Britain, France, Spain and Germany - jockeying for influence in Morocco. With a small but devoted band of followers, Raisuni embarked on a second career: kidnapping prominent officials and holding them for ransoms.


Raisuni's first victim was [[Walter Burton Harris]], an Englishman and correspondent for ''[[The Times]]'' who already knew Raisuni. Raisuni demanded not money, but the release of several of Raisuni's men held in prison; Harris was released after only three weeks captivity.
Raisuni's first victim was [[Walter Burton Harris]], an Englishman and correspondent for ''[[The Times]]'' who already knew Raisuni. Rains demanded not money, but the release of several of Raisuni's men held in prison; Harris was released after only three weeks captivity.<ref>{{Cite book |title=On The Fringes Of Diplomacy: Influences On British Foreign Policy, 1800-1945 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |year=2011 |isbn=9781409401193 |editor-last=Fisher |editor-first=John |chapter=An Eagle Whose Wings Are Not Easy To Clip: Walter Burton Harris |editor-last2=Best |editor-first2=Antony}}</ref>


Many of Raisuni's other victims of this time were Moroccan military and political officials; his men only rarely kidnapped Europeans. In between kidnappings, Raisuni extorted 'tribute' from villagers in territories controlled by his followers, executing those who refused to pay. He also periodically maintained a small fleet of boats for seagoing [[piracy]]; however, he was less successful in this endeavor than in his kidnapping and extortion schemes.
Many of Raisuni's other victims of this time were Moroccan military and political officials; his men only rarely kidnapped Europeans. In between kidnappings, Raisuni extorted "tribute" from villagers in territories controlled by his followers, executing those who refused to pay. He also periodically maintained a small fleet of boats for seagoing [[piracy]]; however, he was less successful in this endeavor than in his kidnapping and extortion schemes. {{Citation needed|date= March 2024}}


Raisuni had a mixed reputation. He became known for his chivalry and respectful attitude towards his hostages; he pledged Ion Perdicaris that he would defend him from any harm, and was known to have befriended many of his other hostages. He was also known as a well-educated man who enjoyed reading any book he could, and was extremely generous to his family and followers.
Raisuni had a mixed reputation. He became known for his chivalry and respectful attitude toward his hostages; he pledged Ion Perdicaris that he would defend him from any harm and was known to have befriended many of his other hostages.<ref>{{Cite book |title=American Monthly Review of Reviews Volume 30 |publisher=Review of Reviews |year=1904 |edition=4th |location=Chicago |pages=495–496 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=1904: Teddy's Big Stick |url=http://www.capitalcentury.com/1904.html |access-date=2024-03-22 |website=www.capitalcentury.com}}</ref> He was also known as a well-educated man who enjoyed reading any book he could, and was extremely generous to his family and followers.


However, towards those who were not worthy of ransom, emissaries of the Pasha and the Sultan, or those disloyal to him, he was known for cruelty. A favorite punishment of Raisuni's was burning out an enemy's eyes with heated copper coins. On one occasion, he returned the head of an envoy to the Pasha in a basket of melons.
However, towards those who were not worthy of ransom, emissaries of the Pasha and the Sultan, or those disloyal to him, he was known for cruelty. A favorite punishment of Raisuni's was burning out an enemy's eyes with heated copper coins. On one occasion, he returned the head of an envoy to the Pasha in a basket of melons.{{Citation needed|date= March 2024 }}


==The Perdicaris incident==
===The Perdicaris incident===


{{main|Perdicaris incident}}
{{main|Perdicaris incident}}
In 1904, Raisuni was propelled onto the international stage when he kidnapped the Greek-American expatriate [[Ion Perdicaris]] and his stepson [[Cromwell Varley]] and held them for a [[ransom]] of $70,000 (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|70000|1904|r=-2}}}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}}).<ref name= "Simon pp. 34-36">{{harvnb|Simon|2001|pp=34–36}}</ref><ref name= "The Star p. 2">{{harvnb|The Star|1907|p=2}}</ref> American President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], then running for [[1904 U.S. presidential election|re-election]], made political capital out of the incident, sending a squadron of warships to Morocco to force Abdelaziz's compliance with Raisuni's demands, famously proclaiming "Perdicaris Alive or Raisuli Dead!"<ref name= "Simon pp. 34-36"/><ref name= "TIME p. ">{{harvnb|TIME|1925|p=}}</ref>
In 1904, Raisuni was propelled onto the international stage when he kidnapped the Greek-American expatriate [[Ion Perdicaris]] and his stepson [[Cromwell Varley]] and held them for a [[ransom]] of $70,000 (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|70000|1904|r=-4}}}} in {{Inflation/year|US}}).<ref name= "Simon pp. 34-36">{{harvnb|Simon|2001|pp=34–36}}</ref><ref name= "The Star p. 2">{{harvnb|The Star|1907|p=2}}</ref> American President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], then running for [[1904 U.S. presidential election|re-election]], made political capital out of the incident, sending a squadron of warships to Morocco to force Abdelaziz's compliance with Raisuni's demands, famously proclaiming "Perdicaris Alive or Raisuli Dead!"<ref name= "Simon pp. 34-36"/><ref name= "TIME p. ">{{harvnb|TIME|1925|p=}}</ref>


After a near-confrontation between the government of Morocco and troops of the [[United States of America]], Raisuni received his ransom money and concessions; he was appointed Pasha of Tangier and Governor of Jibala province, and all of his imprisoned followers were released. However, Raisuni was ousted from the post in 1906 due to corruption and cruelty to his subjects; a year later he was again declared an outlaw by the Moroccan government.{{Citation needed|date= May 2018}}
After a near-confrontation between the government of Morocco and troops of the [[United States of America]], Raisuni received his ransom money and concessions; he was appointed Pasha of Tangier and Governor of Jibala province, and all of his imprisoned followers were released. However, Raisuni was ousted from the post in 1906 due to corruption and cruelty to his subjects; a year later he was again declared an outlaw by the Moroccan government.{{Citation needed|date= May 2018}}


Shortly after his dismissal, Raisuni kidnapped [[Harry Aubrey de Vere Maclean|Sir Harry "Caid" Maclean]], a British army officer serving as a military aide to the Sultan's army. Raisuni ransomed Maclean for £20,000 from the British government (£{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|20000|1906|r=-2}}}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}}).<ref name= "Weir p. 96">{{harvnb|Weir|2008|p=96}}</ref>
Shortly after his dismissal, Raisuni kidnapped [[Harry Aubrey de Vere Maclean|Sir Harry "Caid" Maclean]], a British army officer serving as a military aide to the Sultan's army. Raisuni ransomed Maclean for £20,000 from the British government (£{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|20000|1906|r=-4}}}} in {{Inflation/year|UK}}).<ref name= "Weir p. 96">{{harvnb|Weir|2008|p=96}}</ref>


==Later years==
==Later years==
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During [[World War I]], Raisuni was reportedly in contact with agents of the German government to lead a tribal rebellion against France. Responding to these rumors, French troops launched a punitive expedition into [[Spanish Morocco]] in May 1915, which dispersed Raisuni's followers but failed to capture Raisuni himself.<ref name= "The New York Times p. 2">{{harvnb|The New York Times|1915|p=2}}</ref> In September 1922, and after an interview with Colonel [[:es:José Villalba Riquelme|José Villalba Riquelme]] and permission of the [[:es:Ricardo Burguete|High Commissioner of Spain in Morocco, Ricardo Burguete]], he submitted to the Spanish authorities and subsequently joined forces with the Spanish army in the [[Rif War (1920)|Rif War]] of the 1920s.<ref name= "Chandler p. 315">{{harvnb|Chandler|1975|p=315}}</ref> This agreement was heavily criticized at the time as Raisuni's forces, heavily weakened by their conflict with Abd el Krim, were seen as on the verge of defeat.<ref name= "Chandler p. 315"/> Raisuni was intensely jealous of [[Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi|Abd el Krim]] and his growing popularity with the Rif peoples, hoping to gain control of Western Morocco with a Spanish victory.
During [[World War I]], Raisuni was reportedly in contact with agents of the German government to lead a tribal rebellion against France. Responding to these rumors, French troops launched a punitive expedition into [[Spanish Morocco]] in May 1915, which dispersed Raisuni's followers but failed to capture Raisuni himself.<ref name= "The New York Times p. 2">{{harvnb|The New York Times|1915|p=2}}</ref> In September 1922, and after an interview with Colonel [[:es:José Villalba Riquelme|José Villalba Riquelme]] and permission of the [[:es:Ricardo Burguete|High Commissioner of Spain in Morocco, Ricardo Burguete]], he submitted to the Spanish authorities and subsequently joined forces with the Spanish army in the [[Rif War (1920)|Rif War]] of the 1920s.<ref name= "Chandler p. 315">{{harvnb|Chandler|1975|p=315}}</ref> This agreement was heavily criticized at the time as Raisuni's forces, heavily weakened by their conflict with Abd el Krim, were seen as on the verge of defeat.<ref name= "Chandler p. 315"/> Raisuni was intensely jealous of [[Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi|Abd el Krim]] and his growing popularity with the Rif peoples, hoping to gain control of Western Morocco with a Spanish victory.


In January 1925, Abd el Krim's followers attacked Raisuni's palace, killing most of his guards and capturing Raisuni.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Resort to war: a data guide to inter-state, extra-state, intra-state, and non-state wars, 1816-2007|url=https://archive.org/details/resorttowardatag00sark|url-access=limited|last1=Reid Sarkees|first1=Meredith|last2=Whelon Wayman|first2=Frank|publisher=CQ Press|year=2010|isbn=9780872894341|pages=[https://archive.org/details/resorttowardatag00sark/page/n322 304]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wAFAAAAMAAJ&q=1925+Raisuli+captured|title=The Modern Review, Volume 40|last=Chatterjee|first=Ramananda|publisher=Modern Review Office|year=1926|pages=411}}</ref> He was jailed in Tamasint (near Al Hoceima), where he died by the end of April 1925, having suffered from [[Edema|dropsy (Edema)]] for several years. Rumors of his survival persisted, however, as Raisuni had been erroneously reported dead in 1914 and 1923. He is still regarded as a folk hero by many in Morocco, although his reputation is mixed at best.<ref name="Porch p. 107" />
In January 1925, after the Spanish army retreat to the Estella Line, Abd el Krim's followers attacked Raisuni's palace, killing most of his guards and capturing Raisuni.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Resort to war: a data guide to inter-state, extra-state, intra-state, and non-state wars, 1816-2007|url=https://archive.org/details/resorttowardatag00sark|url-access=limited|last1=Reid Sarkees|first1=Meredith|last2=Whelon Wayman|first2=Frank|publisher=CQ Press|year=2010|isbn=9780872894341|pages=[https://archive.org/details/resorttowardatag00sark/page/n322 304]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wAFAAAAMAAJ&q=1925+Raisuli+captured|title=The Modern Review, Volume 40|last=Chatterjee|first=Ramananda|publisher=Modern Review Office|year=1926|pages=411}}</ref> He was jailed in Tamasint (near Al Hoceima), where he died by the end of April 1925, having suffered from [[Edema|dropsy (Edema)]] for several years. Rumors of his survival persisted, however, as Raisuni had been erroneously reported dead in 1914 and 1923. He is still regarded as a folk hero by many in Morocco, although his reputation is mixed at best.<ref name="Porch p. 107" />


==Portrayal in popular culture==
==Portrayal in popular culture==
===Movies===
===Movies===
*[[The Wind and the Lion]] - He was portrayed by [[Sean Connery]] in the heavily fictionalized 1975 film ''[[The Wind and the Lion]]'', which was filmed in Spain by the American director [[John Milius]]. Milius drew largely on an [[American Heritage (magazine)|American Heritage]] magazine article by [[Barbara W. Tuchman]].<ref name= "Tuchman pp. 104-117">{{harvnb|Tuchman|1959|pp=104–117}}</ref>
*''[[The Wind and the Lion]]'' - He was portrayed by [[Sean Connery]] in the heavily fictionalized 1975 film ''[[The Wind and the Lion]]'', which was filmed in Spain by the American director [[John Milius]]. Milius drew largely on an [[American Heritage (magazine)|American Heritage]] magazine article by [[Barbara W. Tuchman]].<ref name= "Tuchman pp. 104-117">{{harvnb|Tuchman|1959|pp=104–117}}</ref>


===Books===
===Books===
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*Full-length biography of Raisuli written by [[Rosita Forbes]]: ''The Sultan of the Mountains: The Life Story of the Raisuli'',<ref name= "Forbes p. ">{{harvnb|Forbes|1924|p=}}</ref> published the year of Raisuli's death (1925).
*Full-length biography of Raisuli written by [[Rosita Forbes]]: ''The Sultan of the Mountains: The Life Story of the Raisuli'',<ref name= "Forbes p. ">{{harvnb|Forbes|1924|p=}}</ref> published the year of Raisuli's death (1925).
*French historian I.S. Allouche published a collection of his correspondence with Raisuni in 1951.{{Citation needed|date= May 2018}}
*French historian I.S. Allouche published a collection of his correspondence with Raisuni in 1951.{{Citation needed|date= May 2018}}
*Raisuni is also featured in Walter B. Harris's memoir: {{cite book |last=Harris|first=Walter Burton | author-link = Walter Burton Harris| title = Morocco that was|url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.11698|year=1921| publisher = W. Blackwood and sons}} <small>- Total pages: 333 </small>
*Raisuni is also featured in Walter B. Harris's memoir: {{cite book |last=Harris|first=Walter Burton | author-link = Walter Burton Harris| title = Morocco that was|url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.11698|year=1921| publisher = W. Blackwood and sons |ref=none}} <small>- Total pages: 333 </small>
*{{cite book |last=Sheean|first=Vincent | author-link = Vincent Sheean| title = An American among the Riffi|year=1926| publisher = [[The Century Company]]}} <small>- Total pages: 345 </small>
*{{cite book |last=Sheean|first=Vincent | author-link = Vincent Sheean| title = An American among the Riffi|year=1926| publisher = [[The Century Company]] |ref=none}} <small>- Total pages: 345 </small>
*{{cite book|last=Woolman|first=David S. | title = Rebels in the Rif: Abd el Krim and the Rif Rebellion|year=1968| publisher = [[Stanford University Press]] }} <small>- Total pages: 257 </small>
*{{cite book|last=Woolman|first=David S. | title = Rebels in the Rif: Abd el Krim and the Rif Rebellion|year=1968| publisher = [[Stanford University Press]] |ref=none}} <small>- Total pages: 257 </small>
*A history of the Rif War in {{cite book|last=Porch|first=Douglas | author-link = Douglas Porch| title = The Conquest of Morocco: A History|year=2005| publisher = [[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]]| isbn=9781429998857 }} <small>- Total pages: 368 </small>
*A history of the Rif War in {{cite book|last=Porch|first=Douglas | author-link = Douglas Porch| title = The Conquest of Morocco: A History|year=2005| publisher = [[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]]| isbn=9781429998857 |ref=none}} <small>- Total pages: 368 </small>


==Bibliography==
==Bibliography==
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{{reflist|20em}}
{{reflist|20em}}
'''References'''
'''References'''
*{{cite journal |last=Chandler|first= James A. |author-link=James Chandler |date=April 1975|title=Spain and Her Moroccan Protectorate 1898 - 1927|journal= [[Journal of Contemporary History]]|volume= 10|issue=2 |pages=301–322| publisher=[[SAGE Publishing|Sage Publications, Ltd]] |issn=1461-7250|jstor=260149|doi=10.1177/002200947501000205|s2cid=159817508}}
*{{cite journal |last=Chandler|first= James A. |author-link=James Chandler (academic) |date=April 1975|title=Spain and Her Moroccan Protectorate 1898 - 1927|journal= [[Journal of Contemporary History]]|volume= 10|issue=2 |pages=301–322| publisher=[[SAGE Publishing|Sage Publications, Ltd]] |issn=1461-7250|jstor=260149|doi=10.1177/002200947501000205|s2cid=159817508}}
*{{cite book |last=Forbes|first=Rosita | title = The Sultan of the Mountains: The Life Story of Raisuli|year=1924| publisher = [[Henry Holt and Company|Holt]]}} <small>- Total pages: 351 </small>
*{{cite book |last=Forbes|first=Rosita | title = The Sultan of the Mountains: The Life Story of Raisuli|year=1924| publisher = [[Henry Holt and Company|Holt]]}} <small>- Total pages: 351 </small>
*{{cite book |last=Hart |first=David M. | title = Qabila: Tribal Profiles and Tribe-state Relations in Morocco and on the Afghanistan-Pakistan Frontier|year=2001| publisher = Transaction Publishers| isbn=9789055892044}} <small>- Total pages: 254 </small>
*{{cite book |last=Hart |first=David M. | title = Qabila: Tribal Profiles and Tribe-state Relations in Morocco and on the Afghanistan-Pakistan Frontier|year=2001| publisher = Transaction Publishers| isbn=9789055892044}} <small>- Total pages: 254 </small>
*{{cite news |title= Raisuli Busy for Germany| last=The New York Times|author-link=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1915/05/27/archives/raisuli-busy-for-germany-agitating-against-french-in-morocco.html?mtrref=undefined&gwh=F59E06B5B35AA8F1552B3E317F6CDAB4&gwt=pay|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|publisher=[[Adolph Ochs]]|location=New York City|issn=1553-8095 |oclc=1645522|date=May 27, 1915|accessdate= July 11, 2019}}
*{{cite news |title= Raisuli Busy for Germany| last=The New York Times|author-link=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1915/05/27/archives/raisuli-busy-for-germany-agitating-against-french-in-morocco.html?mtrref=undefined&gwh=F59E06B5B35AA8F1552B3E317F6CDAB4&gwt=pay|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|location=New York City|issn=1553-8095 |oclc=1645522|date=May 27, 1915|accessdate= July 11, 2019}}
*{{cite book |last=Porch|first=Douglas | author-link = Douglas Porch| title = The Conquest of Morocco: A History|year=2005| publisher = [[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]]| isbn=9781429998857 }} <small>- Total pages: 368 </small>
*{{cite book |last=Porch|first=Douglas | author-link = Douglas Porch| title = The Conquest of Morocco: A History|year=2005| publisher = [[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]]| isbn=9781429998857 }} <small>- Total pages: 368 </small>
*{{cite book |last=Simon|first=Jeffrey D. | title = The Terrorist Trap, Second Edition: America's Experience with Terrorism|year=2001| publisher = [[Indiana University Press]]| isbn= 9780253028266 }} <small>- Total pages: 496 </small>
*{{cite book |last=Simon|first=Jeffrey D. | title = The Terrorist Trap, Second Edition: America's Experience with Terrorism|year=2001| publisher = [[Indiana University Press]]| isbn= 9780253028266 }} <small>- Total pages: 496 </small>
*{{cite news |title= The Real Raisuni| last=The Star|author-link=The Star (Christchurch)|url=https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/TS19071019.2.9|newspaper=[[The Star (Christchurch)]]|date=19 October 1907|accessdate= July 11, 2019 }}
*{{cite news |title= The Real Raisuni| last=The Star|author-link=The Star (Christchurch)|url=https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/TS19071019.2.9|newspaper=[[The Star (Christchurch)]]|date=19 October 1907|accessdate= July 11, 2019 }}
*{{cite journal |last=TIME|author-link=Time (magazine)|date=June 8, 1925|url = http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,723165,00.html?iid=chix-sphere|title =National Affairs: Defiance|journal=Time|publisher = [[Time (magazine)|TIME Magazine]]| accessdate = July 11, 2019 }}
*{{cite magazine |last=TIME|author-link=Time (magazine)|date=June 8, 1925|url = http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,723165,00.html?iid=chix-sphere|title =National Affairs: Defiance|magazine=Time|publisher = [[Time (magazine)|TIME Magazine]]| accessdate = July 11, 2019 }}
*{{cite journal |last=TIME|author-link=Time (magazine)|date=August 17, 1925a|url = http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,720761-3,00.html|title =Foreign News: El Riff|journal=Time|publisher =[[Time (magazine)|TIME Magazine]]| accessdate = July 11, 2019 }}
*{{cite magazine |last=TIME|author-link=Time (magazine)|date=August 17, 1925a|url = http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,720761-3,00.html|title =Foreign News: El Riff|magazine=Time|publisher =[[Time (magazine)|TIME Magazine]]| accessdate = July 11, 2019 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Tuchman|first= Barbara Wertheim |author-link=Barbara W. Tuchman|date= August 1959|title=Perdicaris Alive or Raisuli Dead! - later republished in Tuchman's compilation book ''Practicing History: Selected Essays'' (1981)|journal= [[American Heritage (magazine)|American Heritage]]|volume= 10|issue=5 |pages=104–117|url=https://www.americanheritage.com/content/august-1959|accessdate= July 11, 2019 |issn=0002-8738}}
*{{cite journal |last=Tuchman|first= Barbara Wertheim |author-link=Barbara W. Tuchman|date= August 1959|title=Perdicaris Alive or Raisuli Dead! - later republished in Tuchman's compilation book ''Practicing History: Selected Essays'' (1981)|journal= [[American Heritage (magazine)|American Heritage]]|volume= 10|issue=5 |pages=104–117|url=https://www.americanheritage.com/content/august-1959|accessdate= July 11, 2019 |issn=0002-8738}}
*{{cite book |last=Weir|first=William | author-link = William Weir (author)| title = Guerrilla Warfare: Irregular Warfare in the Twentieth Century|year=2008| publisher = [[Stackpole Books]]| isbn= 9781461751090 }} <small>- Total pages: 240 </small>
*{{cite book |last=Weir|first=William | author-link = William Weir (author)| title = Guerrilla Warfare: Irregular Warfare in the Twentieth Century|year=2008| publisher = [[Stackpole Books]]| isbn= 9781461751090 }} <small>- Total pages: 240 </small>
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[[Category:People from Tétouan]]
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[[Category:Pretenders to the throne of Morocco]]
[[Category:Pretenders]]

Latest revision as of 14:34, 5 November 2024

Mulai Ahmed er Raisuni
مولاي أحمد الريسوني
Mulai Ahmed er Raisuli
General Emir of the Jebala Tribal Confederacy
Personal details
Born1871
Zinat
DiedApril 1925 (aged 53–54)
Prison in Tamasint (near Al Hoceima)

Mulai Ahmed er Raisuni (Arabic: "مولاي أحمد الريسوني", known as Raisuli to most English speakers, also Raissoulli, Rais Uli, and Raysuni; 1871[1] – April 1925[2]) was a Sharif (descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad), and a leader of the Jebala tribal confederacy in Morocco at the turn of the 20th century.

While he was regarded by foreigners and the Moroccan government as a brigand, some Moroccans, especially among the Jebala, considered him a heroic figure, fighting a repressive, corrupt government, while others considered him a thief. Historian David S. Woolman referred to Raisuni as "a combination Robin Hood, feudal baron, and tyrannical bandit."[3] He was considered by many as "the last of the Barbary Pirates" though Barbary Coast piracy had ended by the middle of the 19th century. On the other hand, according to Douglas Porch, an American historian, Raisuni was part of the rule rather than the exception in that every successful Moroccan politician at the time combined villainy with sainthood.[4]

He died in April 1925 after having been captured and imprisoned by his rival Abd el Krim.

Early life

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A goumi standing guard in the camp of Mulai Ahmed er Raisuli in Tangier, Morocco.

Mulai Ahmed er Raisuni was born in the village of Zinat sometime in 1871.[citation needed] Due to his place of origin and his reportedly handsome visage, one of his other nicknames was "the Eagle of Zinat."[citation needed] He was the son of a prominent Caid, and began following in his father's footsteps. However, Raisuni eventually drifted into crime, stealing cattle and sheep and earning the ire of Moroccan authorities. He was also widely known as a womanizer.[citation needed]

By most accounts, the formative event in Raisuni's life was his arrest and imprisonment by Abd-el-Rahman Abd el-Saduk, the Pasha of Tangier, who was Raisuli's cousin and foster brother.[citation needed] The Pasha had invited Raisuni to dinner in his home in Tangier, only for his men to capture and brutalize Raisuni when he arrived. He was sent to the dungeon of Mogador and chained to a wall for four years. His friends were allowed to bring him food and he managed to survive. Raisuni was released from prison as part of a general clemency early in the reign of Sultan Abdelaziz - soon to become Raisuni's greatest enemy.[citation needed]

Outlaw and pirate

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Raisuni was hardened by his imprisonment, and returned to criminality after his release. However, he became more ambitious than before, growing to resent the Sultan's fealty to the various European powers - Britain, France, Spain and Germany - jockeying for influence in Morocco.[5] With a small but devoted band of followers, Raisuni embarked on a second career: kidnapping prominent officials and holding them for ransoms.

Raisuni's first victim was Walter Burton Harris, an Englishman and correspondent for The Times who already knew Raisuni. Rains demanded not money, but the release of several of Raisuni's men held in prison; Harris was released after only three weeks captivity.[6]

Many of Raisuni's other victims of this time were Moroccan military and political officials; his men only rarely kidnapped Europeans. In between kidnappings, Raisuni extorted "tribute" from villagers in territories controlled by his followers, executing those who refused to pay. He also periodically maintained a small fleet of boats for seagoing piracy; however, he was less successful in this endeavor than in his kidnapping and extortion schemes. [citation needed]

Raisuni had a mixed reputation. He became known for his chivalry and respectful attitude toward his hostages; he pledged Ion Perdicaris that he would defend him from any harm and was known to have befriended many of his other hostages.[7][8] He was also known as a well-educated man who enjoyed reading any book he could, and was extremely generous to his family and followers.

However, towards those who were not worthy of ransom, emissaries of the Pasha and the Sultan, or those disloyal to him, he was known for cruelty. A favorite punishment of Raisuni's was burning out an enemy's eyes with heated copper coins. On one occasion, he returned the head of an envoy to the Pasha in a basket of melons.[citation needed]

The Perdicaris incident

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Main article: Perdicaris incident

In 1904, Raisuni was propelled onto the international stage when he kidnapped the Greek-American expatriate Ion Perdicaris and his stepson Cromwell Varley and held them for a ransom of $70,000 ($2,370,000 in 2023).[9][10] American President Theodore Roosevelt, then running for re-election, made political capital out of the incident, sending a squadron of warships to Morocco to force Abdelaziz's compliance with Raisuni's demands, famously proclaiming "Perdicaris Alive or Raisuli Dead!"[9][11]

After a near-confrontation between the government of Morocco and troops of the United States of America, Raisuni received his ransom money and concessions; he was appointed Pasha of Tangier and Governor of Jibala province, and all of his imprisoned followers were released. However, Raisuni was ousted from the post in 1906 due to corruption and cruelty to his subjects; a year later he was again declared an outlaw by the Moroccan government.[citation needed]

Shortly after his dismissal, Raisuni kidnapped Sir Harry "Caid" Maclean, a British army officer serving as a military aide to the Sultan's army. Raisuni ransomed Maclean for £20,000 from the British government (£2,720,000 in 2023).[12]

Later years

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For years, Raisuni continued to antagonize the Moroccan government, even after Abdelaziz's forced abdication.[citation needed] He briefly regained favor with the Moroccan government, by siding with Mulay Hafid's overthrow of Abdelaziz, and was restored again as Pasha of Tangier. However, at the instigation of the Spanish government, the Sultan removed Raisuni from his post in 1912.[citation needed]

In 1913, Raisuni led several Rif tribes in a bloody revolt against the Spanish, and continued a protracted guerilla war against them. His men were finally defeated by Colonel Manuel Fernández Silvestre on 3 October 1919 in the Battle of Fondak Pass, although Raisuni and most of his troops managed to slip away.[13] Silvestre was later infamous as the Spanish commander at the Battle of Annual.

During World War I, Raisuni was reportedly in contact with agents of the German government to lead a tribal rebellion against France. Responding to these rumors, French troops launched a punitive expedition into Spanish Morocco in May 1915, which dispersed Raisuni's followers but failed to capture Raisuni himself.[14] In September 1922, and after an interview with Colonel José Villalba Riquelme and permission of the High Commissioner of Spain in Morocco, Ricardo Burguete, he submitted to the Spanish authorities and subsequently joined forces with the Spanish army in the Rif War of the 1920s.[15] This agreement was heavily criticized at the time as Raisuni's forces, heavily weakened by their conflict with Abd el Krim, were seen as on the verge of defeat.[15] Raisuni was intensely jealous of Abd el Krim and his growing popularity with the Rif peoples, hoping to gain control of Western Morocco with a Spanish victory.

In January 1925, after the Spanish army retreat to the Estella Line, Abd el Krim's followers attacked Raisuni's palace, killing most of his guards and capturing Raisuni.[16][17] He was jailed in Tamasint (near Al Hoceima), where he died by the end of April 1925, having suffered from dropsy (Edema) for several years. Rumors of his survival persisted, however, as Raisuni had been erroneously reported dead in 1914 and 1923. He is still regarded as a folk hero by many in Morocco, although his reputation is mixed at best.[4]

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Movies

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Books

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A number of other works have been published about Raisuni, though many are now out of print.

  • Full-length biography of Raisuli written by Rosita Forbes: The Sultan of the Mountains: The Life Story of the Raisuli,[19] published the year of Raisuli's death (1925).
  • French historian I.S. Allouche published a collection of his correspondence with Raisuni in 1951.[citation needed]
  • Raisuni is also featured in Walter B. Harris's memoir: Harris, Walter Burton (1921). Morocco that was. W. Blackwood and sons. - Total pages: 333
  • Sheean, Vincent (1926). An American among the Riffi. The Century Company. - Total pages: 345
  • Woolman, David S. (1968). Rebels in the Rif: Abd el Krim and the Rif Rebellion. Stanford University Press. - Total pages: 257
  • A history of the Rif War in Porch, Douglas (2005). The Conquest of Morocco: A History. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 9781429998857. - Total pages: 368

Bibliography

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Notes

  1. ^ Forbes 1924, p. 29
  2. ^ TIME 1925a
  3. ^ Woolman 1968, p. 46
  4. ^ a b Porch 2005, p. 104
  5. ^ Powell, J. Mark (Dec 17, 2023). "Handling a hostage crisis, 1904-style". My JournalCourier. Retrieved March 22, 2024.
  6. ^ Fisher, John; Best, Antony, eds. (2011). "An Eagle Whose Wings Are Not Easy To Clip: Walter Burton Harris". On The Fringes Of Diplomacy: Influences On British Foreign Policy, 1800-1945. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 9781409401193.
  7. ^ American Monthly Review of Reviews Volume 30 (4th ed.). Chicago: Review of Reviews. 1904. pp. 495–496.
  8. ^ "1904: Teddy's Big Stick". www.capitalcentury.com. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
  9. ^ a b Simon 2001, pp. 34–36
  10. ^ The Star 1907, p. 2
  11. ^ TIME 1925
  12. ^ Weir 2008, p. 96
  13. ^ Eyre, Edward (1939). European Civilization, Its Origin and Development, Volume 7. Oxford University Press. p. 273.
  14. ^ The New York Times 1915, p. 2
  15. ^ a b Chandler 1975, p. 315
  16. ^ Reid Sarkees, Meredith; Whelon Wayman, Frank (2010). Resort to war: a data guide to inter-state, extra-state, intra-state, and non-state wars, 1816-2007. CQ Press. pp. 304. ISBN 9780872894341.
  17. ^ Chatterjee, Ramananda (1926). The Modern Review, Volume 40. Modern Review Office. p. 411.
  18. ^ Tuchman 1959, pp. 104–117
  19. ^ Forbes 1924

References

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