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{{Short description|Sufi text on comparative religion}}
{{refimprove|date=November 2016}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Majma-ul-Bahrain
| image = Majma-ul-Bahrain page Victoria Memorial view001.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
⚫
| caption = Majma-ul-Bahrain in the [[Victoria Memorial (India)|Victoria memorial]], [[Calcutta]].
| author = [[Dara Shukoh]]
| title_orig = مجمع البحرین
| orig_lang_code = fa
| language = [[Persian language#Classical Persian|Classical Persian]]
| subject = [[Comparative religion]]
| genre =
| published = c. 1655
| pages =
| oclc =
| dewey =
| congress =
| native_wikisource =
| wikisource =
⚫
}}


'''Majma-ul-Bahrain''' ({{lang-hi|मज्म 'उल बह् रैन'}}, {{lang-ur|{{Nastaliq|مجمع البحرین}}}}, "The Confluence of the Two Seas") is a book on comparative religion authored by [[Dara Shikoh]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/prince-of-peace/article7015511.ece|title=Prince of peace}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/emperor-s-old-clothes/story-myjjDFPaNeS9JoLCrIY7NP.html|title=Emperor’s old clothes}}</ref><ref name="thewire">{{cite web|url=http://thewire.in/9549/why-we-should-oppose-the-aurangzebing-of-aurangzeb/|publisher=thewire.in|title=Why We Should Oppose the Aurangzebing of Aurangzeb - The Wire|accessdate=2016-11-19}}</ref> It was devoted to a revelation of the mystical and pluralistic affinities between Sufic and Vedantic speculation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://scroll.in/article/814923/lahores-iconic-mosque-stood-witness-to-two-historic-moments-where-tolerance-gave-way-to-brutality|title=Lahore's iconic mosque stood witness to two historic moments where tolerance gave way to brutality}}</ref><ref>MAJMA' UL BAHARAIN or The Mingling Of Two Oceans, by Prince Muhammad Dara Shikoh, Edited in the Original Persian with English Translation, notes & variants by '''M.Mahfuz-ul-Haq''', ''published by'' '''The Asiatic Society, Kolkata''', Bibliotheca Indica Series no. 246, 1st. published 1929. See also [http://indianmuslims.in/dara-shikohs-two-oceans-book-review/ this] book review by [[Yoginder Sikand]], indianmuslims.in.</ref> The book was authored as a short treatise in Persian in 1654–55.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/columns/a-dangerous-influence-modi-govt-under-rss-control/story-6CC2UwjPV8z4yw4EvzlbBO.html|title=A dangerous influence: Modi govt under RSS control}}</ref><ref name="scroll">{{cite web|url=http://scroll.in/article/813769/why-repeat-vjapayees-slogans-when-you-do-not-have-his-credibility-sitaram-yechury|author=Sitaram Yechury|publisher=scroll.in|title=Why repeat Vajpayee&#39;s slogans when you do not have his credibility?: Sitaram Yechury|accessdate=2016-11-19}}</ref> Its Hindi version is called Samudra Sangam Grantha.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/standpoint-the-tradition-of-indo-persian-literature-1991974|title=The Tradition of Indo-Persian Literature}}</ref><ref name="exoticindiaart">{{cite web|url=http://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/majma-ul-bahrain-NZH404/|publisher=exoticindiaart.com|title=मज्म 'उल बह् रैन' (समुद्र संगम:) -Majma Ul Bahrain|accessdate=2016-11-19}}</ref><ref name="pustak">{{cite web|url=http://www.pustak.org/books/bookdetails/87|publisher=pustak.org|title=समुद्र संगम - भोला शंकर व्यास Samudra Sangam - Hindi book by - Bhola Shanker Vyas|accessdate=2016-11-19}}</ref>
'''''Majma-ul-Bahrain''''' ({{langx|fa|مجمع البحرین}}, "The Confluence of the Two Seas" or "The Mingling of the Two Oceans") is a Sufi text on [[comparative religion]] authored by [[Mughal people|Mughal]] [[Shah#Shahzadeh|Shahzada]] [[Dara Shukoh]] as a short treatise in [[Persian language|Persian]], c. 1655.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/prince-of-peace/article7015511.ece|title=Prince of peace|website=[[The Hindu]]|date=20 March 2015 |last1=Arora |first1=Nadeem Naqvisanjeev }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/emperor-s-old-clothes/story-myjjDFPaNeS9JoLCrIY7NP.html|title=Emperor's old clothes|date=12 April 2007 }}</ref><ref name="thewire">{{cite web|url=http://thewire.in/9549/why-we-should-oppose-the-aurangzebing-of-aurangzeb/|publisher=thewire.in|title=Why We Should Oppose the Aurangzebing of Aurangzeb – The Wire|access-date=2016-11-19}}</ref> It was devoted to a revelation of the mystical and pluralistic affinities between [[Sufism|Sufic]] and [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] speculation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://scroll.in/article/814923/lahores-iconic-mosque-stood-witness-to-two-historic-moments-where-tolerance-gave-way-to-brutality|title=Lahore's iconic mosque stood witness to two historic moments where tolerance gave way to brutality}}</ref><ref>MAJMA' UL BAHARAIN or The Mingling Of Two Oceans, by Prince Muhammad Dara Shikoh, Edited in the Original Persian with English Translation, notes & variants by '''M.Mahfuz-ul-Haq''', ''published by'' '''The Asiatic Society, Kolkata''', Bibliotheca Indica Series no. 246, 1st. published 1929. See also [http://indianmuslims.in/dara-shikohs-two-oceans-book-review/ this] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090909192744/http://indianmuslims.in/dara-shikohs-two-oceans-book-review/ |date=2009-09-09 }} book review by [[Yoginder Sikand]], indianmuslims.in.</ref> It was one of the earliest works to explore both the diversity of religions and a [[Hindu–Muslim unity|unity of Islam and Hinduism]] and other religions.<ref>[http://indianexpress.com/article/explained/dalhousie-delhi-road-name-change-dara-shikoh-mughal-emperor-islam-hinduism-4512963/ On the road with the 'good' Mughal]</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://indianexpress.com/article/research/dalhousie-road-renamed-after-dara-shikoh-why-hindutva-right-wingers-favour-a-mughal-prince/ | title=Dalhousie Road renamed after Dara Shikoh: Why Hindutva right wingers favour a Mughal prince | date=7 February 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/columns/a-dangerous-influence-modi-govt-under-rss-control/story-6CC2UwjPV8z4yw4EvzlbBO.html|title=A dangerous influence: Modi govt under RSS control|date=7 September 2015 }}</ref><ref name="scroll">{{cite web|url=http://scroll.in/article/813769/why-repeat-vjapayees-slogans-when-you-do-not-have-his-credibility-sitaram-yechury|author=Sitaram Yechury|publisher=scroll.in|title=Why repeat Vajpayee's slogans when you do not have his credibility?: Sitaram Yechury|access-date=2016-11-19}}</ref> Its [[Hindi]] version is called ''Samudra Sangam Grantha''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/standpoint-the-tradition-of-indo-persian-literature-1991974|title=The Tradition of Indo-Persian Literature}}</ref><ref name="exoticindiaart">{{cite web|url=http://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/majma-ul-bahrain-NZH404/|publisher=exoticindiaart.com|title=मज्म 'उल बह् रैन' (समुद्र संगम:) -Majma Ul Bahrain|access-date=2016-11-19}}</ref><ref name="pustak">{{cite web|url=http://www.pustak.org/books/bookdetails/87|publisher=pustak.org|title=समुद्र संगम – भोला शंकर व्यास Samudra Sangam – Hindi book by – Bhola Shanker Vyas|access-date=2016-11-19}}</ref> and an [[Urdu]] translation titled ''Nūr-i-Ain'' was lithographed in 1872.


==Background==
{{gallery
[[File:Dara Shikoh With Mian Mir And Mulla Shah.jpg|thumb|left|Shahzada Dara Shukoh seated with his spiritual master, [[Mian Mir]], c. 1635.]]
|File:Majma Ul Bahrain Samudra Sangam.png|Majma Ul Bahrain titled as Samudra Sangam in Hindi
During the 16th century, the ''Maktab Khana'' (translation bureau of Emperor [[Akbar]], literally meaning ''house of translation'') heavily contributed to altering the Muslim perception of Hinduism by translating works such as the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' into the ''[[Razmnāma]]'' ([[Persian language|Persian]]: رزم نامہ, lit. ''Book of War''), the ''[[Ramayana]]'', and the ''[[Yoga Vashishta]]'' from ancient [[Sanskrit]] into Persian, as the Emperor Akbar sought to "form a basis for a united search for truth" and "enable the people to understand the true spirit of their religion".<ref>{{cite book |last=Shikuh |first=Dara |author-link= |date=1998 |title=The Mingling of the Two Oceans |url=https://www.themathesontrust.org/papers/hinduism/darashikoh-majma.pdf |location=Calcutta |publisher=The Asiatic Society |isbn=}}</ref> [[Akbar|Akbar's]] efforts to cultivate ''[[Din-i Ilahi#Ṣulḥ-i-kul|Ṣulḥ-i-Kul]]'' (literally meaning "peace with all", "universal peace", or "absolute peace", as inspired by Sufi mystic principles) throughout his [[Mughal Empire|empire]] continued in-spirit with his descendent, Shahzada Dara Shukoh.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.in/entry/finding-tolerance-in-akba_b_3031746|title=Finding Tolerance in Akbar, the Philosopher-King|date=10 April 2013 }}</ref>
⚫
|File:Majma-ul-Bahrain page Victoria Memorial view001.jpg|A page from Majma-ul-Bahrain in the manuscripts collection at the Portrait Gallery of [[Victoria Memorial (India)|Victoria memorial]], [[Calcutta]].

⚫
|}}
With a [[Perennial philosophy|perennial]] worldview similar to [[Kabir]] and his Mughal ancestor [[Akbar|Emperor Akbar]], Dara Shukoh sought to understand the similarities between the religions of the land around him. After his time as a disciple of [[Mian Mir]] (witnessing events such as the foundation of the [[Golden Temple]] of [[Amritsar]]), Dara Shukoh began compiling his spiritual and mystical learnings in a series of books written between 1640 and 1653. The learning which resulted in Majma-ul-Bahrain occurred during this time, specifically encompassing nine years of researching and studying the [[Brahmavidya]] and the [[Qur'an]]. Dara Shukoh's learning caused him to travel across 14,000&nbsp;km of the [[Indian subcontinent]], searching for mystical knowledge in places such as [[Ajmer]], [[Delhi]], [[Agra]], [[Allahabad]], [[Varanasi]], [[Kashmir]], and [[Gujarat]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/prince-of-peace/article7015511.ece|title=Prince of peace|first=Nadeem Naqvisanjeev|last=Arora|newspaper=The Hindu |date=20 March 2015|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref> The Shahzada wrote the ''Majma-ul-Bahrain'' when he was 42 and it was the last text he wrote before the struggle for succession which resulted in his [[Dara Shikoh#Death and aftermath|defeat, humiliation, and death]] a few years later.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AV--abKg9GEC&q=jiwan+malik&pg=PA378|title=The Peacock Throne: The Drama of Mogul India|first=Waldemar|last=Hansen|date=9 September 1986|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|via=Google Books|isbn=9788120802254}}</ref>

==Contents==
The foremost focus of the treatise is to provide an [[exegesis]] on what is common between [[Hinduism|Sanatana Dharma]] and [[Islam]], specifically in regards to [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] and [[Sufism|Sufic]] mysticism and the numerous concepts therein. Dara Shukoh utilizes many terms from both branches of religion to illuminate the similarities between the two, albeit while exhibiting a knowledge more thorough of Sufic terminology in order to illume the Vedantic. Many Sufi saints are mentioned in the eleventh section, including [[al-Ghazali]], [[Bayazid Bastami|Bayazid al-Bastami]], [[Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad Rūmī]], and [[Ibn Arabi|Ibn al-'Arabi]]. The text begins with an introductory section and contains twenty sections with the following headings:
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
#The Elements
#The Senses
#The Religious Exercises
#The Attributes
#The Wind
#The Four Worlds
#The Fire
#The [[Nūr (Islam)|Light]]
#The [[Ihsan|Beholding of God]]
#The [[Names of God in Islam|Names of God, the Most High]]
#The [[Apostle#Islam|Apostleship]] and the [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|Prophetship]]
#The [[Brahman|Barhmand]]
#The Directions
#The Skies
#The Earths
#The Divisions of the Earth
#The [[Barzakh]]
#The [[Islamic eschatology|Great Resurrection]]
#The [[Jivanmukta|Mukt]]
#The Night and the Day
{{div col end}}

==Aftermath==
There was no other major text written on the subject of comparative religions and universal truth contemporaneous with the ''Majma-ul-Bahrain''. According to the ''Siya-ul-Mutakherin'' by the historian [[Ghulam Husain Salim]], the ''Majma-ul-Bahrain'' brought about the death of its own author when it was presented to the imperial [[ulama]], who declared the work [[Zandaqa|blasphemous]] and ordered the death of Shahzada Dara Shukoh, an [[fatwa|order]] which was gladly carried out by his brother, [[Aurangzeb|Shahzada Aurangzeb]], during the [[Aurangzeb#War of Succession|War of Succession]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Khan |first=Ghulam Husain |author-link= |date=2018 |title=The Siyar-Ul-Mutakherin, Vol. 1: A History of the Mahomedan Power in India During the Last Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EZ9RAAAAcAAJ |location=London |publisher=Forgotten Books |isbn=978-1330706077}}</ref> After being brought to [[Delhi]], Dara Shukoh was put in chains and [[Public humiliation|paraded through the streets of the capital]] whilst mounted atop an unclean elephant.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scroll.in/article/828960/bad-muslim-good-muslim-out-with-aurangzeb-in-with-dara-shikoh|title=Bad Muslim, good Muslim: Out with Aurangzeb, in with Dara Shikoh|first=Ipsita|last=Chakravarty|website=Scroll.in}}</ref> In the official history of Aurangzib, the ''Maathir-i-Alamgiri'', the official charge against Dara Shukoh is declared as the following:

{{blockquote|"The [[Five Pillars of Islam|pillars]] of the [[Aurangzeb#Establishment of Islamic law|Canonical Law and Faith]] apprehended many kinds of disturbances from his life. So the Emperor [e.g. Aurangzid], both out of necessity to protect the [[Sharia|Holy Law]], and also for reasons of State, considered it unlawful to allow Dara to remain alive any longer as a destroyer of the public peace."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.61973|title=Maasir-i- Alamgiri (1947)|first=Jadunath|last=Sarkar|date=9 September 1947|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>}}

On 10 August 1659, Shahzada Dara Shukoh was beheaded on grounds of apostasy and his head was sent to his father, [[Shah Jahan]].<ref name="Chandra2005p272">{{cite book |title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals |volume=2 |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |year=2005 |isbn=9788124110669 |first=Satish |last=Chandra <!--|author-link=Satish Chandra--> |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rm9MC4DDrcC&pg=PA270 |page=272 <!--|access-date=29 September 2012-->}}</ref> When Aurangzeb ascended to the imperial throne, he continued to execute others for political reasons (ex: his brother [[Murad Baksh]] and his nephew [[Sulaiman Shikoh]]) and persecute denizens of his empire on grounds of heresy, including the beheading of the [[Armenians|Armenian]] Sufi mystic, [[Sarmad Kashani]], for charges of [[antinomian]] [[atheism]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Votary of freedom: Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Sarmad|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20071007/spectrum/book1.htm|work=Tribune India|date=7 October 2007}}</ref> and the ninth [[Sikh Guru]], [[Guru Tegh Bahadur#Execution by Aurangzeb|Guru Tegh Bahadur]], for refusing to [[Forced conversion#India|convert to Islam]],<ref name="Grewal1998p71">{{cite book|author=J. S. Grewal|title=The Sikhs of the Punjab|url=https://archive.org/details/sikhsofpunjab0000grew|url-access=registration|year=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-63764-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/sikhsofpunjab0000grew/page/71 71]–73}}</ref> making the murder of his brother Dara Shukoh the first in [[Aurangzeb#Execution of opponents|a long line of executions]].

==See also==
* [[Din-i Ilahi]]
* [[Allopanishad]]
* [[Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb|Ganga–Jamuni Tehzeeb]]


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


[[Category:Mughal literature]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]
[[Category:1650s in India]]

[[Category:Religious pluralism]]

[[Category:Religious syncretism in Asia]]
{{reli-book-stub}}
[[Category:Universalism]]
[[Category:Culture of India]]
[[Category:17th-century Indian books]]
[[Category:Indian religious texts]]
[[Category:Sufi literature]]
[[Category:Hinduism and Islam]]
[[Category:Indian literature]]
[[Category:Persian-language literature]]
[[Category:Works of Dara Shikoh]]
[[Category:17th-century Persian books]]

Latest revision as of 19:23, 9 November 2024

Majma-ul-Bahrain
Majma-ul-Bahrain in the Victoria memorial, Calcutta.
AuthorDara Shukoh
Original titleمجمع البحرین
LanguageClassical Persian
SubjectComparative religion
Publishedc. 1655

Majma-ul-Bahrain (Persian: مجمع البحرین, "The Confluence of the Two Seas" or "The Mingling of the Two Oceans") is a Sufi text on comparative religion authored by Mughal Shahzada Dara Shukoh as a short treatise in Persian, c. 1655.[1][2][3] It was devoted to a revelation of the mystical and pluralistic affinities between Sufic and Vedantic speculation.[4][5] It was one of the earliest works to explore both the diversity of religions and a unity of Islam and Hinduism and other religions.[6][7][8][9] Its Hindi version is called Samudra Sangam Grantha[10][11][12] and an Urdu translation titled Nūr-i-Ain was lithographed in 1872.

Background

[edit]
Shahzada Dara Shukoh seated with his spiritual master, Mian Mir, c. 1635.

During the 16th century, the Maktab Khana (translation bureau of Emperor Akbar, literally meaning house of translation) heavily contributed to altering the Muslim perception of Hinduism by translating works such as the Mahabharata into the Razmnāma (Persian: رزم نامہ, lit. Book of War), the Ramayana, and the Yoga Vashishta from ancient Sanskrit into Persian, as the Emperor Akbar sought to "form a basis for a united search for truth" and "enable the people to understand the true spirit of their religion".[13] Akbar's efforts to cultivate Ṣulḥ-i-Kul (literally meaning "peace with all", "universal peace", or "absolute peace", as inspired by Sufi mystic principles) throughout his empire continued in-spirit with his descendent, Shahzada Dara Shukoh.[14]

With a perennial worldview similar to Kabir and his Mughal ancestor Emperor Akbar, Dara Shukoh sought to understand the similarities between the religions of the land around him. After his time as a disciple of Mian Mir (witnessing events such as the foundation of the Golden Temple of Amritsar), Dara Shukoh began compiling his spiritual and mystical learnings in a series of books written between 1640 and 1653. The learning which resulted in Majma-ul-Bahrain occurred during this time, specifically encompassing nine years of researching and studying the Brahmavidya and the Qur'an. Dara Shukoh's learning caused him to travel across 14,000 km of the Indian subcontinent, searching for mystical knowledge in places such as Ajmer, Delhi, Agra, Allahabad, Varanasi, Kashmir, and Gujarat.[15] The Shahzada wrote the Majma-ul-Bahrain when he was 42 and it was the last text he wrote before the struggle for succession which resulted in his defeat, humiliation, and death a few years later.[16]

Contents

[edit]

The foremost focus of the treatise is to provide an exegesis on what is common between Sanatana Dharma and Islam, specifically in regards to Vedantic and Sufic mysticism and the numerous concepts therein. Dara Shukoh utilizes many terms from both branches of religion to illuminate the similarities between the two, albeit while exhibiting a knowledge more thorough of Sufic terminology in order to illume the Vedantic. Many Sufi saints are mentioned in the eleventh section, including al-Ghazali, Bayazid al-Bastami, Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad Rūmī, and Ibn al-'Arabi. The text begins with an introductory section and contains twenty sections with the following headings:

  1. The Elements
  2. The Senses
  3. The Religious Exercises
  4. The Attributes
  5. The Wind
  6. The Four Worlds
  7. The Fire
  8. The Light
  9. The Beholding of God
  10. The Names of God, the Most High
  11. The Apostleship and the Prophetship
  12. The Barhmand
  13. The Directions
  14. The Skies
  15. The Earths
  16. The Divisions of the Earth
  17. The Barzakh
  18. The Great Resurrection
  19. The Mukt
  20. The Night and the Day

Aftermath

[edit]

There was no other major text written on the subject of comparative religions and universal truth contemporaneous with the Majma-ul-Bahrain. According to the Siya-ul-Mutakherin by the historian Ghulam Husain Salim, the Majma-ul-Bahrain brought about the death of its own author when it was presented to the imperial ulama, who declared the work blasphemous and ordered the death of Shahzada Dara Shukoh, an order which was gladly carried out by his brother, Shahzada Aurangzeb, during the War of Succession.[17] After being brought to Delhi, Dara Shukoh was put in chains and paraded through the streets of the capital whilst mounted atop an unclean elephant.[18] In the official history of Aurangzib, the Maathir-i-Alamgiri, the official charge against Dara Shukoh is declared as the following:

"The pillars of the Canonical Law and Faith apprehended many kinds of disturbances from his life. So the Emperor [e.g. Aurangzid], both out of necessity to protect the Holy Law, and also for reasons of State, considered it unlawful to allow Dara to remain alive any longer as a destroyer of the public peace."[19]

On 10 August 1659, Shahzada Dara Shukoh was beheaded on grounds of apostasy and his head was sent to his father, Shah Jahan.[20] When Aurangzeb ascended to the imperial throne, he continued to execute others for political reasons (ex: his brother Murad Baksh and his nephew Sulaiman Shikoh) and persecute denizens of his empire on grounds of heresy, including the beheading of the Armenian Sufi mystic, Sarmad Kashani, for charges of antinomian atheism[21] and the ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, for refusing to convert to Islam,[22] making the murder of his brother Dara Shukoh the first in a long line of executions.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Arora, Nadeem Naqvisanjeev (20 March 2015). "Prince of peace". The Hindu.
  2. ^ "Emperor's old clothes". 12 April 2007.
  3. ^ "Why We Should Oppose the Aurangzebing of Aurangzeb – The Wire". thewire.in. Retrieved 2016-11-19.
  4. ^ "Lahore's iconic mosque stood witness to two historic moments where tolerance gave way to brutality".
  5. ^ MAJMA' UL BAHARAIN or The Mingling Of Two Oceans, by Prince Muhammad Dara Shikoh, Edited in the Original Persian with English Translation, notes & variants by M.Mahfuz-ul-Haq, published by The Asiatic Society, Kolkata, Bibliotheca Indica Series no. 246, 1st. published 1929. See also this Archived 2009-09-09 at the Wayback Machine book review by Yoginder Sikand, indianmuslims.in.
  6. ^ On the road with the 'good' Mughal
  7. ^ "Dalhousie Road renamed after Dara Shikoh: Why Hindutva right wingers favour a Mughal prince". 7 February 2017.
  8. ^ "A dangerous influence: Modi govt under RSS control". 7 September 2015.
  9. ^ Sitaram Yechury. "Why repeat Vajpayee's slogans when you do not have his credibility?: Sitaram Yechury". scroll.in. Retrieved 2016-11-19.
  10. ^ "The Tradition of Indo-Persian Literature".
  11. ^ "मज्म 'उल बह् रैन' (समुद्र संगम:) -Majma Ul Bahrain". exoticindiaart.com. Retrieved 2016-11-19.
  12. ^ "समुद्र संगम – भोला शंकर व्यास Samudra Sangam – Hindi book by – Bhola Shanker Vyas". pustak.org. Retrieved 2016-11-19.
  13. ^ Shikuh, Dara (1998). The Mingling of the Two Oceans (PDF). Calcutta: The Asiatic Society.
  14. ^ "Finding Tolerance in Akbar, the Philosopher-King". 10 April 2013.
  15. ^ Arora, Nadeem Naqvisanjeev (20 March 2015). "Prince of peace". The Hindu – via www.thehindu.com.
  16. ^ Hansen, Waldemar (9 September 1986). The Peacock Throne: The Drama of Mogul India. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 9788120802254 – via Google Books.
  17. ^ Khan, Ghulam Husain (2018). The Siyar-Ul-Mutakherin, Vol. 1: A History of the Mahomedan Power in India During the Last Century. London: Forgotten Books. ISBN 978-1330706077.
  18. ^ Chakravarty, Ipsita. "Bad Muslim, good Muslim: Out with Aurangzeb, in with Dara Shikoh". Scroll.in.
  19. ^ Sarkar, Jadunath (9 September 1947). "Maasir-i- Alamgiri (1947)" – via Internet Archive.
  20. ^ Chandra, Satish (2005). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals. Vol. 2. Har-Anand Publications. p. 272. ISBN 9788124110669.
  21. ^ "Votary of freedom: Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Sarmad". Tribune India. 7 October 2007.
  22. ^ J. S. Grewal (1998). The Sikhs of the Punjab. Cambridge University Press. pp. 71–73. ISBN 978-0-521-63764-0.
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