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Coordinates: Sky map 00h 47m 33s, −25° 17′ 18″
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{{Short description|Intermediate spiral galaxy in the constellation Sculptor}}
{{Distinguish|text = the [[Sculptor Dwarf Galaxy]] or the [[Sculptor Dwarf Irregular Galaxy]]}}
{{Distinguish|text = the [[Sculptor Dwarf Galaxy]] or the [[Sculptor Dwarf Irregular Galaxy]]}}

{{Infobox Galaxy
{{Infobox Galaxy
| name = Sculptor Galaxy
| name = Sculptor Galaxy
| image = Sculptor Galaxy by VISTA.jpg
| image = NGC 253 Galaxy.jpg
| image_size = 280px
| caption =
| caption = The Sculptor Galaxy taken with the ESO [[VISTA (telescope)|VISTA Telescope]] at the [[Paranal Observatory]] in Chile
| epoch = [[Epoch (astronomy)#Julian years and J2000|J2000]]
| epoch = [[Epoch (astronomy)#Julian years and J2000|J2000]]
| ra = {{RA|00|47|33}}<ref name="ned" />
| ra = {{RA|00|47|33}}<ref name="ned" />
Line 11: Line 12:
| z = 0.000811<ref name="ned" />
| z = 0.000811<ref name="ned" />
| h_radial_v = {{nowrap|243 ± 2 [[Metre per second|km/s]]}} <ref name="ned" />
| h_radial_v = {{nowrap|243 ± 2 [[Metre per second|km/s]]}} <ref name="ned" />
| dist_ly = 11.4 ± 0.7 [[light year|Mly]]<br/>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(3.5 ± 0.2 [[parsec|Mpc]])<ref name="Rekolaetal2005" />
| dist_ly = 11.4 ± 0.7 [[light year|Mly]]<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(3.5 ± 0.2 [[parsec|Mpc]])<ref name="Rekolaetal2005" />
| type = SAB(s)c<ref name="ned" />
| type = SAB(s)c<ref name="ned" />
| appmag_v = 8.0<ref name="ned" />
| appmag_v = 8.0<ref name="ned" />
| size_v = 27′.5 × 6′.8<ref name="ned" />
| size_v = 27′.5 × 6′.8<ref name="ned" />
| size = {{convert|36.96|kpc|ly|-2|abbr=off|lk=on}}<br />(diameter; [[Galaxy#Isophotal diameter|D<sub>27</sub> isophote]])
| size = ~90,000 ly (diameter)
| notes =
| notes =
| names = Silver Coin Galaxy,<ref name="ned" /> Silver Dollar Galaxy,<ref name="apod-2006-04-21">{{Cite APOD
| names = Silver Coin Galaxy,<ref name="ned" /> Silver Dollar Galaxy,<ref name="apod-2006-04-21">{{Cite APOD
Line 23: Line 24:
}}</ref> [[New General Catalogue|NGC]] 253,<ref name="ned" /> UGCA 13,<ref name="ned" /> [[Principal Galaxies Catalogue|PGC]] 2789<ref name="ned" /> [[Caldwell catalogue|Caldwell]]&nbsp;65
}}</ref> [[New General Catalogue|NGC]] 253,<ref name="ned" /> UGCA 13,<ref name="ned" /> [[Principal Galaxies Catalogue|PGC]] 2789<ref name="ned" /> [[Caldwell catalogue|Caldwell]]&nbsp;65
}}
}}
⚫
The '''Sculptor Galaxy''' (also known as the '''Silver Coin Galaxy''', '''Silver Dollar Galaxy''', '''NGC 253''', or '''Caldwell 65''') is an [[intermediate spiral galaxy]] in the [[constellation]] [[Sculptor (constellation)|Sculptor]]. The Sculptor Galaxy is a [[starburst galaxy]], which means that it is currently undergoing a period of intense [[star formation]].

⚫
The '''Sculptor Galaxy''', also known as the '''Silver Coin''' or '''Silver Dollar Galaxy''', '''NGC 253''', is an [[intermediate spiral galaxy]] in the [[constellation]] [[Sculptor (constellation)|Sculptor]]. The Sculptor Galaxy is a [[starburst galaxy]], which means that it is currently undergoing a period of intense [[star formation]].


==Observation==
==Observation==


===Observational history===
===Observational history===
The galaxy was discovered by [[Caroline Herschel]] in 1783 during one of her systematic [[comet]] searches.<ref name="Dreyer1888">{{cite journal|last=Dreyer|first=J. L. E.|author-link=John Louis Emil Dreyer|date=1888|title=A New General Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars, being the Catalogue of the late Sir John F.W. Herschel, Bart., revised, corrected, and enlarged|url=|journal=[[Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society]]|volume=49|pages=1–237|bibcode=1888MmRAS..49....1D|via=}}</ref><ref name="Burnhams">{{cite book|title=Burnham's Celestial Handbook: An Observer's Guide to the Universe Beyond the Solar System|last=Burnham|first=Robert|date=1978|publisher=Dover Publications, Inc.|isbn=978-0-486-24065-7|volume=Volume Three, Pavo Through Vulpecula|location=|page=[https://archive.org/details/burnhamscelestia03burn/page/1736 1736]|authorlink=Robert Burnham, Jr.|url=https://archive.org/details/burnhamscelestia03burn/page/1736}}</ref> About half a century later, [[John Herschel]] observed it using his 18-inch metallic mirror [[reflecting telescope|reflector]] at the [[Cape of Good Hope]].<ref name="Burnhams" /> He wrote: "very bright and large (24′ in length); a superb object.... Its light is somewhat streaky, but I see no stars in it except 4 large and one very small one, and these seem not to belong to it, there being many near..."<ref name="Burnhams" />
The galaxy was discovered by [[Caroline Herschel]] in 1783 during one of her systematic [[comet]] searches.<ref name="Dreyer1888">{{cite journal|last=Dreyer|first=J. L. E.|author-link=John Louis Emil Dreyer|date=1888|title=A New General Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars, being the Catalogue of the late Sir John F.W. Herschel, Bart., revised, corrected, and enlarged|journal=[[Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society]]|volume=49|pages=1–237|bibcode=1888MmRAS..49....1D}}</ref><ref name="Burnhams">{{cite book|title=Burnham's Celestial Handbook: An Observer's Guide to the Universe Beyond the Solar System|last=Burnham|first=Robert|date=1978|publisher=Dover Publications, Inc.|isbn=978-0-486-24065-7|volume=Three, Pavo Through Vulpecula|page=[https://archive.org/details/burnhamscelestia03burn/page/1736 1736]|author-link=Robert Burnham, Jr.|url=https://archive.org/details/burnhamscelestia03burn/page/1736}}</ref> About half a century later, [[John Herschel]] observed it using his 18-inch metallic mirror [[reflecting telescope|reflector]] at the [[Cape of Good Hope]].<ref name="Burnhams" /> He wrote: "very bright and large (24′ in length); a superb object.... Its light is somewhat streaky, but I see no stars in it except 4 large and one very small one, and these seem not to belong to it, there being many near..."<ref name="Burnhams" />


In 1961, [[Allan Sandage]] wrote in the ''Hubble Atlas of Galaxies'' that the Sculptor Galaxy is "the prototype example of a special subgroup of Sc systems....photographic images of galaxies of the group are dominated by the dust pattern. [[Dust lane]]s and patches of great complexity are scattered throughout the surface. Spiral arms are often difficult to trace.... The arms are defined as much by the dust as by the spiral pattern."<ref name="Sandage1961">{{cite book|url=|title=The Hubble Atlas of Galaxies|last=Sandage|first=Allan|date=1961|publisher=Washington: Carnegie Institution|isbn=978-0-87279-629-4|location=|pages=|bibcode=1961hag..book.....S|authorlink=Allan Sandage}}</ref> [[Bernard Y. Mills]], working out of [[Sydney]], discovered that the Sculptor Galaxy is also a fairly strong [[Radio sources|radio source]].<ref name="Burnhams" />
In 1961, [[Allan Sandage]] wrote in the ''Hubble Atlas of Galaxies'' that the Sculptor Galaxy is "the prototype example of a special subgroup of Sc systems....photographic images of galaxies of the group are dominated by the dust pattern. [[Dust lane]]s and patches of great complexity are scattered throughout the surface. Spiral arms are often difficult to trace.... The arms are defined as much by the dust as by the spiral pattern."<ref name="Sandage1961">{{cite book|title=The Hubble Atlas of Galaxies|last=Sandage|first=Allan|date=1961|publisher=Washington: Carnegie Institution|isbn=978-0-87279-629-4|bibcode=1961hag..book.....S|author-link=Allan Sandage}}</ref> [[Bernard Y. Mills]], working out of [[Sydney]], discovered that the Sculptor Galaxy is also a fairly strong [[Radio sources|radio source]].<ref name="Burnhams" />


In 1998, the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] took a detailed image of NGC 253.<ref name="hubb">{{cite web
In 1998, the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] took a detailed image of NGC 253.<ref name="hubb">{{cite web | title=HubbleSite NewsCenter | work=Results for NGC 253 | url=http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/1998/42/image/a | access-date=2007-04-05}}</ref>
| title=HubbleSite NewsCenter
| work=Results for NGC 253
| url=http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/1998/42/image/a
| accessdate=2007-04-05}}</ref>


===Amateur observation===
===Amateur===
⚫
As one of the brightest galaxies in the sky, the Sculptor Galaxy can be seen through [[binoculars]] and is near the star [[Beta Ceti]]. It is considered one of the most easily viewed galaxies in the sky after the [[Andromeda Galaxy]].<ref name="Burnhams"/><ref name="NSOG">{{cite book|title=The Night Sky Observer's Guide|last1=Kepple|first1=George Robert|last2=Sanner|first2=Glen W.|publisher=Willmann-Bell, Inc.|year=1998|isbn=978-0-943396-60-6|volume=2|pages=365, 371}}</ref>


⚫
The Sculptor Galaxy is a good target for observation with a telescope with a 300&nbsp;mm diameter or larger.<ref name="NSOG" /> In such telescopes, it appears as a galaxy with a long, oval bulge and a mottled [[galactic disc]].<ref name="NSOG" /> Although the bulge appears only slightly brighter than the rest of the galaxy, it is fairly extended compared to the disk.<ref name="NSOG" /> In 400&nbsp;mm scopes and larger, a dark dust lane northwest of the [[Active galactic nucleus|nucleus]] is visible, and over a dozen faint stars can be seen superimposed on the bulge.<ref name="NSOG" /> Some people claim to have observed the galaxy with the unaided eye under exceptional viewing conditions.
⚫
As one of the brightest galaxies in the sky, the Sculptor Galaxy can be seen through [[binoculars]] and is near the star [[Beta Ceti]]. It is considered one of the most easily viewed galaxies in the sky after the [[Andromeda Galaxy]].<ref name="Burnhams"/><ref name="NSOG">{{cite book|title=The Night Sky Observer's Guide|last=Kepple|first=George Robert|last2=Sanner|first2=Glen W.|publisher=Willmann-Bell, Inc.|year=1998|isbn=978-0-943396-60-6|volume=2|location=|pages=365, 371}}</ref>

⚫
The Sculptor Galaxy is a good target for observation with a telescope with a 300&nbsp;mm diameter or larger.<ref name="NSOG" /> In such telescopes, it appears as a galaxy with a long, oval bulge and a mottled [[galactic disc]].<ref name="NSOG" /> Although the bulge appears only slightly brighter than the rest of the galaxy, it is fairly extended compared to the disk.<ref name="NSOG" /> In 400&nbsp;mm scopes and larger, a dark dust lane northwest of the [[Active galactic nucleus|nucleus]] is visible, and over a dozen faint stars can be seen superimposed on the bulge.<ref name="NSOG" />


==Features==
==Features==
[[Image:Three-dimensional view of ALMA observations of the outflows from NGC 253.jpg|thumb|Three-dimensional view of [[Atacama Large Millimeter Array|ALMA]] observations of the outflows.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.eso.org/public/news/eso1334/|title=Starburst to Star Bust|last=|first=|date=24 July 2013|newspaper=|accessdate=15 August 2013|publisher=[[European Southern Observatory]]}}</ref>]]
[[Image:Three-dimensional view of ALMA observations of the outflows from NGC 253.jpg|thumb|Three-dimensional simulation of [[Atacama Large Millimeter Array|ALMA]] observations of the outflows.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.eso.org/public/news/eso1334/|title=Starburst to Star Bust|date=24 July 2013|access-date=15 August 2013|publisher=[[European Southern Observatory]]}}</ref>]]
[[Image:NGC 253.jpg|thumb|Detail of NGC 253 by [[Hubble Space Telescope]]. (Credit: HST/[[NASA]]/[[ESA]]).]]
[[Image:NGC 253.jpg|thumb|Detail of NGC 253 by [[Hubble Space Telescope]]. (Credit: HST/[[NASA]]/[[ESA]]).]]
The Sculptor Galaxy is located at the center of the [[Sculptor Group]], one of the nearest [[galaxy group|groups of galaxies]] to the [[Milky Way]].<ref name="karachentsev2005">{{cite journal|last=Karachentsev|first=I. D.|date=2005|title=The Local Group and Other Neighboring Galaxy Groups|url=|journal=[[The Astronomical Journal]]|volume=129|issue=1|pages=178–188|arxiv=astro-ph/0410065|bibcode=2005AJ....129..178K|doi=10.1086/426368}}</ref> The Sculptor Galaxy (the brightest galaxy in the group and one of the [[Intrinsic brightness|intrinsically brightest]] galaxies in the vicinity of ours, only surpassed by the Andromeda Galaxy and the [[Sombrero Galaxy]]<ref name="Karachentsev2004">{{cite journal|last=Karachentsev|first=Igor D.|last2=Karachentseva|first2=Valentina E.|last3=Huchtmeier|first3=Walter K.|last4=Makarov|first4=Dmitry I.|date=2003|title=A Catalog of Neighboring Galaxies|url=|journal=[[The Astronomical Journal]]|volume=127|issue=4|pages=2031–2068|bibcode=2004AJ....127.2031K|doi=10.1086/382905|doi-access=free}}</ref>) and the companion galaxies [[NGC 247]], [[PGC 2881]], [[PGC 2933]], [[Sculptor-dE1]], and [[UGCA 15]] form a gravitationally-bound core near the center of the group. Most other galaxies associated with the Sculptor Group are only weakly gravitationally bound to this core.<ref name="karachentsev2005" /><ref name="karachentsevetal2003">{{cite journal|last=Karachentsev|first=I. D.|last2=Grebel|first2=E. K.|last3=Sharina|first3=M. E.|last4=Dolphin|first4=A. E.|author5=D. Geisler|author6=P. Guhathakrta|author7=P. W. Hodge|author8=V. E. Karachentseva|author9=A. Sarajedini|display-authors=4|date=2003|title=Distances to nearby galaxies in Sculptor|journal=[[Astronomy and Astrophysics]]|volume=404|issue=1|pages=93–111|arxiv=astro-ph/0302045|bibcode=2003A&A...404...93K|doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20030170|author10=P. Seitzer}}</ref>
The Sculptor Galaxy is located at the center of the [[Sculptor Group]], one of the nearest [[galaxy group|groups of galaxies]] to the [[Milky Way]].<ref name="karachentsev2005">{{cite journal|last=Karachentsev|first=I. D.|date=2005|title=The Local Group and Other Neighboring Galaxy Groups|journal=[[The Astronomical Journal]]|volume=129|issue=1|pages=178–188|arxiv=astro-ph/0410065|bibcode=2005AJ....129..178K|doi=10.1086/426368|s2cid=119385141 }}</ref> The Sculptor Galaxy (the brightest galaxy in the group and one of the [[Intrinsic brightness|intrinsically brightest]] galaxies in the vicinity of ours, only surpassed by the Andromeda Galaxy and the [[Sombrero Galaxy]]<ref name="Karachentsev2004">{{cite journal|last1=Karachentsev|first1=Igor D.|last2=Karachentseva|first2=Valentina E.|last3=Huchtmeier|first3=Walter K.|last4=Makarov|first4=Dmitry I.|date=2003|title=A Catalog of Neighboring Galaxies|journal=[[The Astronomical Journal]]|volume=127|issue=4|pages=2031–2068|bibcode=2004AJ....127.2031K|doi=10.1086/382905|doi-access=free}}</ref>) and the companion galaxies [[NGC 247]], [[PGC 2881]], [[PGC 2933]], [[Sculptor-dE1]], and [[UGCA 15]] form a gravitationally-bound core near the center of the group. Most other galaxies associated with the Sculptor Group are only weakly gravitationally bound to this core.<ref name="karachentsev2005" /><ref name="karachentsevetal2003">{{cite journal|last1=Karachentsev|first1=I. D.|last2=Grebel|first2=E. K.|last3=Sharina|first3=M. E.|last4=Dolphin|first4=A. E.|author5=D. Geisler|author6=P. Guhathakrta|author7=P. W. Hodge|author8=V. E. Karachentseva|author9=A. Sarajedini|display-authors=4|date=2003|title=Distances to nearby galaxies in Sculptor|journal=[[Astronomy and Astrophysics]]|volume=404|issue=1|pages=93–111|arxiv=astro-ph/0302045|bibcode=2003A&A...404...93K|doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20030170|author10=P. Seitzer|s2cid=54977869}}</ref>


===Starburst===
===Starburst===
NGC 253's starburst has created several [[super star cluster]]s on NGC 253's center (discovered with the aid of the Hubble Space Telescope): one with a mass of 1.5*10<sup>6</sup> [[solar mass]]es, and [[absolute magnitude]] of at least -15, and two others with 5*10<sup>4</sup> solar masses and absolute magnitudes around -11;<ref name="Watson1996">{{cite journal|last=Watson|first=A. M.|last2=Gallagher|first2=J. S., III|last3=Holtzman|first3=J. A.|last4=Hester|first4=J. J.|author5=Mould, J. R.|author6=Ballester, G. E.|author7=Burrows, C. J.|author8=Casertano, S.|author9=Clarke, J. T.|display-authors=4|date=1996|title=The Discovery of Young, Luminous, Compact Stellar Clusters in the Starburst Galaxy NGC 253|url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/53645/1/1996AJ____112__534W.pdf|journal=[[The Astronomical Journal]]|volume=112|issue=2|pages=534|bibcode=1996AJ....112..534W|doi=10.1086/118032|author10=Crisp, D.|author11=Evans, R.|author12=Griffiths, R. E.|author13=Hoessel, J. G.|author14=Scowen, P. A.|author15=Stapelfeldt, K. R.|author16=Trauger, J. T.|author17=Westphal, J. A.}}</ref> later studies have discovered an even more massive cluster heavily obscured by NGC 253's [[Cosmic dust|interstellar dust]] with a mass of 1.4*10<sup>7</sup> solar masses, an age of around 5.7*10<sup>6</sup> years, and rich in [[Wolf–Rayet star|Wolf-Rayet stars]].<ref name="Kornei2009">{{cite journal|last=Kornei|first=Katherine A.|last2=McCrady|first2=Nate|date=2009|title=A Young Super Star Cluster in the Nuclear Region of NGC 253|url=|journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal]]|volume=697|issue=2|pages=1180–1186|arxiv=0902.4027|bibcode=2009ApJ...697.1180K|doi=10.1088/0004-637X/697/2/1180}}</ref>
NGC 253's starburst has created several [[super star cluster]]s on NGC 253's center (discovered with the aid of the Hubble Space Telescope): one with a mass of {{val|1.5|e=6}} [[solar mass]]es, and [[absolute magnitude]] of at least −15, and two others with {{val|5|e=4}} solar masses and absolute magnitudes around −11;<ref name="Watson1996">{{cite journal|last1=Watson|first1=A. M.|last2=Gallagher|first2=J. S. III|last3=Holtzman|first3=J. A.|last4=Hester|first4=J. J.|author5=Mould, J. R.|author6=Ballester, G. E.|author7=Burrows, C. J.|author8=Casertano, S.|author9=Clarke, J. T.|display-authors=4|date=1996|title=The Discovery of Young, Luminous, Compact Stellar Clusters in the Starburst Galaxy NGC 253|url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/53645/1/1996AJ____112__534W.pdf|journal=[[The Astronomical Journal]]|volume=112|issue=2|page=534|bibcode=1996AJ....112..534W|doi=10.1086/118032|author10=Crisp, D.|author11=Evans, R.|author12=Griffiths, R. E.|author13=Hoessel, J. G.|author14=Scowen, P. A.|author15=Stapelfeldt, K. R.|author16=Trauger, J. T.|author17=Westphal, J. A.}}</ref> later studies have discovered an even more massive cluster heavily obscured by NGC 253's [[Cosmic dust|interstellar dust]] with a mass of {{val|1.4|e=7}} solar masses, an age of around {{val|5.7|e=6}} years, and rich in [[Wolf–Rayet star|Wolf-Rayet stars]].<ref name="Kornei2009">{{cite journal|last1=Kornei|first1=Katherine A.|last2=McCrady|first2=Nate|date=2009|title=A Young Super Star Cluster in the Nuclear Region of NGC 253|journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal]]|volume=697|issue=2|pages=1180–1186|arxiv=0902.4027|bibcode=2009ApJ...697.1180K|doi=10.1088/0004-637X/697/2/1180|s2cid=18960325}}</ref> The super star clusters are arranged in an ellipse around the center of NGC 253, which from the Earth's perspective appears as a flat line.<ref>{{cite journal |arxiv= 2206.04700|doi= 10.3847/1538-4357/ac7b7a|title= The Morpho-kinematic Architecture of Super Star Clusters in the Center of NGC 253|year= 2022|last1= Levy|first1= Rebecca C.|last2= Bolatto|first2= Alberto D.|last3= Leroy|first3= Adam K.|last4= Sormani|first4= Mattia C.|last5= Emig|first5= Kimberly L.|last6= Gorski|first6= Mark|last7= Lenkić|first7= Laura|last8= Mills|first8= Elisabeth A. C.|last9= Tarantino|first9= Elizabeth|last10= Teuben|first10= Peter|last11= Veilleux|first11= Sylvain|last12= Walter|first12= Fabian|journal= The Astrophysical Journal|volume= 935|issue= 1|page= 19|bibcode= 2022ApJ...935...19L|s2cid= 249605852|doi-access= free}}</ref>


[[Star formation]] is also high in the northeast of NGC 253's disk, where a number of [[red supergiant star]]s can be found, and in its [[Galactic halo|halo]] there are young stars as well as some amounts of [[neutral hydrogen]]. This, along with other peculiarities found in NGC 253, suggest that a gas-rich [[dwarf galaxy]] collided with it 200 million years ago, disturbing its disk and starting the present starburst.<ref name="Davidge2010">{{cite journal|last=Davidge|first=T. J.|date=2010|title=Shaken, Not Stirred: The Disrupted Disk of the Starburst Galaxy NGC 253|journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal]]|volume=725|issue=1|pages=1342–1365|arxiv=1011.3006|bibcode=2010ApJ...725.1342D|doi=10.1088/0004-637X/725/1/1342}}</ref>
[[Star formation]] is also high in the northeast of NGC 253's disk, where a number of [[red supergiant star]]s can be found, and in its [[Galactic halo|halo]] there are young stars as well as some amounts of [[neutral hydrogen]]. This, along with other peculiarities found in NGC 253, suggest that a gas-rich [[dwarf galaxy]] collided with it 200 million years ago, disturbing its disk and starting the present starburst.<ref name="Davidge2010">{{cite journal|last=Davidge|first=T. J.|date=2010|title=Shaken, Not Stirred: The Disrupted Disk of the Starburst Galaxy NGC 253|journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal]]|volume=725|issue=1|pages=1342–1365|arxiv=1011.3006|bibcode=2010ApJ...725.1342D|doi=10.1088/0004-637X/725/1/1342|s2cid=118649411}}</ref>


As happens in other galaxies suffering strong star formation such as [[Messier 82]], [[NGC 4631]], or [[NGC 4666]], the [[stellar wind]]s of the massive stars produced in the starburst as well as their deaths as [[supernova]]e have blown out material to NGC 253's halo in the form of a [[galactic superwind|superwind]] that seems to be inhibiting star formation in the galaxy.<ref name="Bolatto2013">{{cite journal|last=Bolatto|first=Alberto D.|last2=Warren|first2=Steven R.|last3=Leroy|first3=Adam K.|last4=Walter|first4=Fabian|author5=Veilleux, Sylvain|author6=Ostriker, Eve C.|author7=Ott, Jürgen|author8=Zwaan, Martin|author9=Fisher, David B.|display-authors=4|date=2013|title=Suppression of star formation in the galaxy NGC 253 by a starburst-driven molecular wind|url=|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=499|issue=7459|pages=450–453|arxiv=1307.6259|bibcode=2013Natur.499..450B|doi=10.1038/nature12351|pmid=23887428|author10=Weiss, Axel|author11=Rosolowsky, Erik|author12=Hodge, Jacqueline}}</ref>
As happens in other galaxies suffering strong star formation such as [[Messier 82]], [[NGC 4631]], or [[NGC 4666]], the [[stellar wind]]s of the massive stars produced in the starburst as well as their deaths as [[supernova]]e have blown out material to NGC 253's halo in the form of a [[galactic superwind|superwind]] that seems to be inhibiting star formation in the galaxy.<ref name="Bolatto2013">{{cite journal|last1=Bolatto|first1=Alberto D.|last2=Warren|first2=Steven R.|last3=Leroy|first3=Adam K.|last4=Walter|first4=Fabian|author5=Veilleux, Sylvain|author6=Ostriker, Eve C.|author7=Ott, Jürgen|author8=Zwaan, Martin|author9=Fisher, David B.|display-authors=4|date=2013|title=Suppression of star formation in the galaxy NGC 253 by a starburst-driven molecular wind|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=499|issue=7459|pages=450–453|arxiv=1307.6259|bibcode=2013Natur.499..450B|doi=10.1038/nature12351|pmid=23887428|author10=Weiss, Axel|author11=Rosolowsky, Erik|author12=Hodge, Jacqueline|s2cid=4366091}}</ref>


⚫
Although supernovae are generally associated with starburst galaxies, only one supernova has been detected within the Sculptor Galaxy.<ref name="ned">{{cite web | title=NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database | work=Results for NGC 253 | url=http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/cgi-bin/nph-objsearch?objname=NGC+253&img_stamp=yes&extend=no | access-date=2006-11-25}}</ref> The supernova, named [[SN 1940E]], was located approximately 54″ southwest of the galaxy's nucleus. It was discovered in November 1940.<ref name="barbonetal1984">{{cite journal | last1=Barbon| first1=R.| last2=Cappellaro| first2=E.| last3=Ciatti| first3=F.| last4=Turatto| first4=M.| last5=Kowal| first5=C. T.| date=1984| title=A revised supernova catalogue| journal=[[Astronomy & Astrophysics Supplement Series]]| volume=58| pages=735–750| bibcode=1984A&AS...58..735B}}</ref>
Although supernovae are generally associated with starburst galaxies, only one supernova has been detected within the Sculptor Galaxy.<ref name="ned">{{cite web

| title=NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database
NGC 253 is close enough that classical [[nova]]e can also be detected. The first confirmed nova in this galaxy was discovered at magnitude 19.6 on 12 July 2024, by [[BlackGEM]], and designated AT 2024pid.<ref>[https://www.wis-tns.org/object/2024pid Transient Name Server entry for AT 2024pid.] Retrieved 13 July 2024.</ref>
| work=Results for NGC 253
| url=http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/cgi-bin/nph-objsearch?objname=NGC+253&img_stamp=yes&extend=no
⚫
| accessdate=2006-11-25}}</ref> The supernova, named [[SN 1940E]], is located approximately 54″ southwest of the galaxy's nucleus. It was discovered in November 1940.<ref name="barbonetal1984">{{cite journal|last=Barbon|first=R.|last2=Cappellaro|first2=E.|last3=Ciatti|first3=F.|last4=Turatto|first4=M.|last5=Kowal|first5=C. T.|date=1984|title=A revised supernova catalogue|url=|journal=[[Astronomy & Astrophysics Supplement Series]]|volume=58|pages=735–750|bibcode=1984A&AS...58..735B|via=}}</ref>


===Central black hole===
===Central black hole===
⚫
Research suggests the presence of a [[supermassive black hole]] in the center of this galaxy with a mass estimated to be 5 million times that of the Sun, which is slightly heavier than [[Sagittarius A*]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-198|title=Black Hole Naps Amidst Stellar Chaos|date=June 11, 2013|website=[[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]]|publisher=[[NASA]]}}</ref>

⚫
Research suggests the presence of a [[supermassive black hole]] in the center of this galaxy with a mass estimated to be 5 million times that of our Sun, which is slightly heavier than [[Sagittarius A*]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-198|title=Black Hole Naps Amidst Stellar Chaos|last=|first=|date=June 11, 2013|website=[[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]]|publisher=[[NASA]]|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref>


===Distance estimates===
===Distance estimates===
At least two techniques have been used to measure distances to Sculptor in the past ten years.
At least two techniques have been used to measure distances to Sculptor in the past ten years.


Using the [[planetary nebula luminosity function]] method, an estimate of 10.89 {{±|0.85|1.24}} million light years (or Mly; 3.34 {{±|0.26|0.38}} Mega[[parsec]]s, or Mpc) was achieved in 2006.<ref name="Rekolaetal2005">
Using the [[planetary nebula luminosity function]] method, an estimate of 10.89 {{±|0.85|1.24}} million light years (or Mly; 3.34 {{±|0.26|0.38}} [[parsec|Megaparsec]]s, or Mpc) was achieved in 2005.<ref name="Rekolaetal2005">
{{cite journal|last=Rekola|first=R.|last2=Richer|first2=M. G.|last3=McCall|first3=Marshall L.|last4=Valtonen|first4=M. J.|last5=Kotilainen|first5=J. K.|last6=Flynn|first6=Chris|date=2005|title=Distance to NGC 253 based on the planetary nebula luminosity function|url=|journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]|volume=361|issue=1|pages=330–336|bibcode=2005MNRAS.361..330R|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09166.x|doi-access=free}}</ref>
{{cite journal|last1=Rekola|first1=R.|last2=Richer|first2=M. G.|last3=McCall|first3=Marshall L.|last4=Valtonen|first4=M. J.|last5=Kotilainen|first5=J. K.|last6=Flynn|first6=Chris|date=2005|title=Distance to NGC 253 based on the planetary nebula luminosity function|journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]|volume=361|issue=1|pages=330–336|bibcode=2005MNRAS.361..330R|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09166.x|doi-access=free}}</ref>


The Sculptor Galaxy is close enough that the [[tip of the red-giant branch]] (TRGB) method may also be used to estimate its distance. The estimated distance to Sculptor using this technique in 2004 yielded 12.8 ± 1.2 Mly (3.94 ± 0.37 Mpc).<ref name="karachentsevetal2004">{{cite journal|last=Karachentsev|first=Igor D.|last2=Karachentseva|first2=Valentina E.|last3=Hutchmeier|first3=Walter K.|last4=Makarov|first4=Dmitry I.|date=2004|title=A Catalog of Neighboring Galaxies|url=|journal=[[The Astronomical Journal]]|volume=127|issue=4|pages=2031–2068|bibcode=2004AJ....127.2031K|doi=10.1086/382905|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Karachentsevetal2006">{{cite journal|author=Karachentsev, I. D.|author2=Kashibadze, O. G.|date=2006|title=Masses of the local group and of the M81 group estimated from distortions in the local velocity field|url=|journal=[[Astrophysics (journal)|Astrophysics]]|volume=49|issue=1|pages=3–18|bibcode=2006Ap.....49....3K|doi=10.1007/s10511-006-0002-6}}</ref>
The Sculptor Galaxy is close enough that the [[tip of the red-giant branch]] (TRGB) method may also be used to estimate its distance. The estimated distance to Sculptor using this technique in 2004 yielded {{val|12.8|1.2|u=Mly}} ({{val|3.94|0.37|u=Mpc}}).<ref name="karachentsevetal2004">{{cite journal|last1=Karachentsev|first1=Igor D.|last2=Karachentseva|first2=Valentina E.|last3=Hutchmeier|first3=Walter K.|last4=Makarov|first4=Dmitry I.|date=2004|title=A Catalog of Neighboring Galaxies|journal=[[The Astronomical Journal]]|volume=127|issue=4|pages=2031–2068|bibcode=2004AJ....127.2031K|doi=10.1086/382905|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Karachentsevetal2006">{{cite journal|author=Karachentsev, I. D.|author2=Kashibadze, O. G.|date=2006|title=Masses of the local group and of the M81 group estimated from distortions in the local velocity field|journal=[[Astrophysics (journal)|Astrophysics]]|volume=49|issue=1|pages=3–18|bibcode=2006Ap.....49....3K|doi=10.1007/s10511-006-0002-6|s2cid=120973010}}</ref>


A weighted average of the most reliable distance estimates gives a distance of 11.4 ± 0.7 Mly (3.5 ± 0.2 Mpc).<ref name="Rekolaetal2005" />
A weighted average of the most reliable distance estimates gives a distance of {{val|11.4|0.7|u=Mly}} ({{val|3.5|0.2|u=Mpc}}).<ref name="Rekolaetal2005" />


==Satellite==
==Satellite==
An international team of researchers has used the [[Subaru Telescope]] to identify a faint dwarf galaxy disrupting around NGC 253. The [[satellite galaxy]] is called NGC 253-dw2 and may not survive to next passage near to its host. However, the host may suffer some damage too if the dwarf is heavy enough.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.subarutelescope.org/Pressrelease/2016/02/08/index.html|title=Galactic Space Oddity Discovered|last=|first=|date=February 8, 2016|website=[[Subaru Telescope]]|publisher=[[National Astronomical Observatory of Japan]]|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=February 9, 2016}}</ref> The interplay between the two galaxies is responsible of the disturbation in NGC 253's structure.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Romanowsky|first=Aaron J.|last2=Martínez-Delgado|first2=David|last3=Martin|first3=Nicolas F.|last4=Morales|first4=Gustavo|last5=Jennings|first5=Zachary G.|last6=GaBany|first6=R. Jay|last7=Brodie|first7=Jean P.|last8=Grebel|first8=Eva K.|last9=Schedler|first9=Johannes|displayauthors=4|title=Satellite accretion in action: a tidally disrupting dwarf spheroidal around the nearby spiral galaxy NGC 253|url=|journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]|volume=456|issue=1|pages=103–107|arxiv=1512.03815|bibcode=2016MNRAS.457L.103R|doi=10.1093/mnrasl/slv207|first10=Michael|last10=Sidonio|year=2016}}</ref>
An international team of researchers has used the [[Subaru Telescope]] to identify a faint dwarf galaxy disrupted by NGC 253. The [[satellite galaxy]] is called NGC 253-dw2 and may not survive its next passage by its much larger host. The host galaxy may suffer some damage too if the dwarf is massive enough.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.subarutelescope.org/Pressrelease/2016/02/08/index.html|title=Galactic Space Oddity Discovered|date=February 8, 2016|website=[[Subaru Telescope]]|publisher=[[National Astronomical Observatory of Japan]]|access-date=February 9, 2016}}</ref> The interplay between the two galaxies is responsible for the disturbance in NGC 253's structure.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Romanowsky|first1=Aaron J.|last2=Martínez-Delgado|first2=David|last3=Martin|first3=Nicolas F.|last4=Morales|first4=Gustavo|last5=Jennings|first5=Zachary G.|last6=GaBany|first6=R. Jay|last7=Brodie|first7=Jean P.|last8=Grebel|first8=Eva K.|last9=Schedler|first9=Johannes|display-authors=4|title=Satellite accretion in action: a tidally disrupting dwarf spheroidal around the nearby spiral galaxy NGC 253|journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]|volume=456|issue=1|pages=103–107|arxiv=1512.03815|bibcode=2016MNRAS.457L.103R|doi=10.1093/mnrasl/slv207|first10=Michael|last10=Sidonio|year=2016|doi-access=free }}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
* Globular cluster [[NGC 288]], located 1°.8 south-southeast of the Sculptor Galaxy.
* Globular cluster [[NGC 288]], located 1.8° south-southeast of the Sculptor Galaxy.
* [[2MASX J00482185-2507365 occulting pair]], discovered while photographing NGC 253
* [[2MASX J00482185-2507365 occulting pair]], discovered while photographing NGC 253


Line 88: Line 80:


==External links==
==External links==
{{commons category}}
{{commonscat}}
* [http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/archive/releases/1995/10/ STScI news release: Hubble Probes the Violent Birth of Stars in Galaxy NGC 253]
* [http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/archive/releases/1995/10/ STScI news release: Hubble Probes the Violent Birth of Stars in Galaxy NGC 253]
* [http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/archive/releases/1998/42/ STScI news release: Behind a Dusty Veil Lies a Cradle of Star Birth]
* [http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/archive/releases/1998/42/ STScI news release: Behind a Dusty Veil Lies a Cradle of Star Birth]
{{WikiSky|1=NGC 253}}
{{WikiSky|1=NGC 253}}
* [http://messier.seds.org/xtra/ngc/n0253.html SEDS] – NGC 253



{{Sky|00|47|33|-|25|17|18|11400000}}
{{Sky|00|47|33|-|25|17|18|11400000}}
{{Catalogs|NGC=253|C=65|PGC=2789}}
{{Caldwell catalogue}}
{{Caldwell catalogue}}
{{Ngc5}}{{Sculptor (constellation)}}
{{Ngc5}}
{{Sculptor (constellation)}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Galaxy, Sculptor}}
[[Category:Starburst galaxies]]
[[Category:Starburst galaxies]]
[[Category:Intermediate spiral galaxies]]
[[Category:Intermediate spiral galaxies]]
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[[Category:Caldwell objects|065b]]
[[Category:Caldwell objects|065b]]
[[Category:Astronomical objects discovered in 1783|17830923]]
[[Category:Astronomical objects discovered in 1783|17830923]]
[[Category:UGCA objects]]
[[Category:UGCA objects|013]]
[[Category:Discoveries by Caroline Herschel]]
[[Category:Discoveries by Caroline Herschel]]

Latest revision as of 05:06, 11 November 2024

Not to be confused with the Sculptor Dwarf Galaxy or the Sculptor Dwarf Irregular Galaxy.
Sculptor Galaxy
Observation data (J2000 epoch)
ConstellationSculptor
Right ascension00h 47m 33s[1]
Declination−25° 17′ 18″[1]
Redshift0.000811[1]
Heliocentric radial velocity243 ± 2 km/s [1]
Distance11.4 ± 0.7 Mly
   (3.5 ± 0.2 Mpc)[2]
Apparent magnitude (V)8.0[1]
Characteristics
TypeSAB(s)c[1]
Size36.96 kiloparsecs (120,500 light-years)
(diameter; D27 isophote)
Apparent size (V)27′.5 × 6′.8[1]
Other designations
Silver Coin Galaxy,[1] Silver Dollar Galaxy,[3] NGC 253,[1] UGCA 13,[1] PGC 2789[1] Caldwell 65

The Sculptor Galaxy (also known as the Silver Coin Galaxy, Silver Dollar Galaxy, NGC 253, or Caldwell 65) is an intermediate spiral galaxy in the constellation Sculptor. The Sculptor Galaxy is a starburst galaxy, which means that it is currently undergoing a period of intense star formation.

Observation

[edit]

Observational history

[edit]

The galaxy was discovered by Caroline Herschel in 1783 during one of her systematic comet searches.[4][5] About half a century later, John Herschel observed it using his 18-inch metallic mirror reflector at the Cape of Good Hope.[5] He wrote: "very bright and large (24′ in length); a superb object.... Its light is somewhat streaky, but I see no stars in it except 4 large and one very small one, and these seem not to belong to it, there being many near..."[5]

In 1961, Allan Sandage wrote in the Hubble Atlas of Galaxies that the Sculptor Galaxy is "the prototype example of a special subgroup of Sc systems....photographic images of galaxies of the group are dominated by the dust pattern. Dust lanes and patches of great complexity are scattered throughout the surface. Spiral arms are often difficult to trace.... The arms are defined as much by the dust as by the spiral pattern."[6] Bernard Y. Mills, working out of Sydney, discovered that the Sculptor Galaxy is also a fairly strong radio source.[5]

In 1998, the Hubble Space Telescope took a detailed image of NGC 253.[7]

Amateur

[edit]

As one of the brightest galaxies in the sky, the Sculptor Galaxy can be seen through binoculars and is near the star Beta Ceti. It is considered one of the most easily viewed galaxies in the sky after the Andromeda Galaxy.[5][8]

The Sculptor Galaxy is a good target for observation with a telescope with a 300 mm diameter or larger.[8] In such telescopes, it appears as a galaxy with a long, oval bulge and a mottled galactic disc.[8] Although the bulge appears only slightly brighter than the rest of the galaxy, it is fairly extended compared to the disk.[8] In 400 mm scopes and larger, a dark dust lane northwest of the nucleus is visible, and over a dozen faint stars can be seen superimposed on the bulge.[8] Some people claim to have observed the galaxy with the unaided eye under exceptional viewing conditions.

Features

[edit]
Three-dimensional simulation of ALMA observations of the outflows.[9]
Detail of NGC 253 by Hubble Space Telescope. (Credit: HST/NASA/ESA).

The Sculptor Galaxy is located at the center of the Sculptor Group, one of the nearest groups of galaxies to the Milky Way.[10] The Sculptor Galaxy (the brightest galaxy in the group and one of the intrinsically brightest galaxies in the vicinity of ours, only surpassed by the Andromeda Galaxy and the Sombrero Galaxy[11]) and the companion galaxies NGC 247, PGC 2881, PGC 2933, Sculptor-dE1, and UGCA 15 form a gravitationally-bound core near the center of the group. Most other galaxies associated with the Sculptor Group are only weakly gravitationally bound to this core.[10][12]

Starburst

[edit]

NGC 253's starburst has created several super star clusters on NGC 253's center (discovered with the aid of the Hubble Space Telescope): one with a mass of 1.5×106 solar masses, and absolute magnitude of at least −15, and two others with 5×104 solar masses and absolute magnitudes around −11;[13] later studies have discovered an even more massive cluster heavily obscured by NGC 253's interstellar dust with a mass of 1.4×107 solar masses, an age of around 5.7×106 years, and rich in Wolf-Rayet stars.[14] The super star clusters are arranged in an ellipse around the center of NGC 253, which from the Earth's perspective appears as a flat line.[15]

Star formation is also high in the northeast of NGC 253's disk, where a number of red supergiant stars can be found, and in its halo there are young stars as well as some amounts of neutral hydrogen. This, along with other peculiarities found in NGC 253, suggest that a gas-rich dwarf galaxy collided with it 200 million years ago, disturbing its disk and starting the present starburst.[16]

As happens in other galaxies suffering strong star formation such as Messier 82, NGC 4631, or NGC 4666, the stellar winds of the massive stars produced in the starburst as well as their deaths as supernovae have blown out material to NGC 253's halo in the form of a superwind that seems to be inhibiting star formation in the galaxy.[17]

Although supernovae are generally associated with starburst galaxies, only one supernova has been detected within the Sculptor Galaxy.[1] The supernova, named SN 1940E, was located approximately 54″ southwest of the galaxy's nucleus. It was discovered in November 1940.[18]

NGC 253 is close enough that classical novae can also be detected. The first confirmed nova in this galaxy was discovered at magnitude 19.6 on 12 July 2024, by BlackGEM, and designated AT 2024pid.[19]

Central black hole

[edit]

Research suggests the presence of a supermassive black hole in the center of this galaxy with a mass estimated to be 5 million times that of the Sun, which is slightly heavier than Sagittarius A*.[20]

Distance estimates

[edit]

At least two techniques have been used to measure distances to Sculptor in the past ten years.

Using the planetary nebula luminosity function method, an estimate of 10.89 +0.85
−1.24 million light years (or Mly; 3.34 +0.26
−0.38 Megaparsecs, or Mpc) was achieved in 2005.[2]

The Sculptor Galaxy is close enough that the tip of the red-giant branch (TRGB) method may also be used to estimate its distance. The estimated distance to Sculptor using this technique in 2004 yielded 12.8±1.2 Mly (3.94±0.37 Mpc).[21][22]

A weighted average of the most reliable distance estimates gives a distance of 11.4±0.7 Mly (3.5±0.2 Mpc).[2]

Satellite

[edit]

An international team of researchers has used the Subaru Telescope to identify a faint dwarf galaxy disrupted by NGC 253. The satellite galaxy is called NGC 253-dw2 and may not survive its next passage by its much larger host. The host galaxy may suffer some damage too if the dwarf is massive enough.[23] The interplay between the two galaxies is responsible for the disturbance in NGC 253's structure.[24]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database". Results for NGC 253. Retrieved 2006-11-25.
  2. ^ a b c Rekola, R.; Richer, M. G.; McCall, Marshall L.; Valtonen, M. J.; Kotilainen, J. K.; Flynn, Chris (2005). "Distance to NGC 253 based on the planetary nebula luminosity function". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 361 (1): 330–336. Bibcode:2005MNRAS.361..330R. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09166.x.
  3. ^ Nemiroff, R.; Bonnell, J., eds. (2006-04-21). "NGC 253: Dusty Island Universe". Astronomy Picture of the Day. NASA. Retrieved 2010-12-04.
  4. ^ Dreyer, J. L. E. (1888). "A New General Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars, being the Catalogue of the late Sir John F.W. Herschel, Bart., revised, corrected, and enlarged". Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society. 49: 1–237. Bibcode:1888MmRAS..49....1D.
  5. ^ a b c d e Burnham, Robert (1978). Burnham's Celestial Handbook: An Observer's Guide to the Universe Beyond the Solar System. Vol. Three, Pavo Through Vulpecula. Dover Publications, Inc. p. 1736. ISBN 978-0-486-24065-7.
  6. ^ Sandage, Allan (1961). The Hubble Atlas of Galaxies. Washington: Carnegie Institution. Bibcode:1961hag..book.....S. ISBN 978-0-87279-629-4.
  7. ^ "HubbleSite NewsCenter". Results for NGC 253. Retrieved 2007-04-05.
  8. ^ a b c d e Kepple, George Robert; Sanner, Glen W. (1998). The Night Sky Observer's Guide. Vol. 2. Willmann-Bell, Inc. pp. 365, 371. ISBN 978-0-943396-60-6.
  9. ^ "Starburst to Star Bust". European Southern Observatory. 24 July 2013. Retrieved 15 August 2013.
  10. ^ a b Karachentsev, I. D. (2005). "The Local Group and Other Neighboring Galaxy Groups". The Astronomical Journal. 129 (1): 178–188. arXiv:astro-ph/0410065. Bibcode:2005AJ....129..178K. doi:10.1086/426368. S2CID 119385141.
  11. ^ Karachentsev, Igor D.; Karachentseva, Valentina E.; Huchtmeier, Walter K.; Makarov, Dmitry I. (2003). "A Catalog of Neighboring Galaxies". The Astronomical Journal. 127 (4): 2031–2068. Bibcode:2004AJ....127.2031K. doi:10.1086/382905.
  12. ^ Karachentsev, I. D.; Grebel, E. K.; Sharina, M. E.; Dolphin, A. E.; et al. (2003). "Distances to nearby galaxies in Sculptor". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 404 (1): 93–111. arXiv:astro-ph/0302045. Bibcode:2003A&A...404...93K. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20030170. S2CID 54977869.
  13. ^ Watson, A. M.; Gallagher, J. S. III; Holtzman, J. A.; Hester, J. J.; et al. (1996). "The Discovery of Young, Luminous, Compact Stellar Clusters in the Starburst Galaxy NGC 253" (PDF). The Astronomical Journal. 112 (2): 534. Bibcode:1996AJ....112..534W. doi:10.1086/118032.
  14. ^ Kornei, Katherine A.; McCrady, Nate (2009). "A Young Super Star Cluster in the Nuclear Region of NGC 253". The Astrophysical Journal. 697 (2): 1180–1186. arXiv:0902.4027. Bibcode:2009ApJ...697.1180K. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/697/2/1180. S2CID 18960325.
  15. ^ Levy, Rebecca C.; Bolatto, Alberto D.; Leroy, Adam K.; Sormani, Mattia C.; Emig, Kimberly L.; Gorski, Mark; Lenkić, Laura; Mills, Elisabeth A. C.; Tarantino, Elizabeth; Teuben, Peter; Veilleux, Sylvain; Walter, Fabian (2022). "The Morpho-kinematic Architecture of Super Star Clusters in the Center of NGC 253". The Astrophysical Journal. 935 (1): 19. arXiv:2206.04700. Bibcode:2022ApJ...935...19L. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac7b7a. S2CID 249605852.
  16. ^ Davidge, T. J. (2010). "Shaken, Not Stirred: The Disrupted Disk of the Starburst Galaxy NGC 253". The Astrophysical Journal. 725 (1): 1342–1365. arXiv:1011.3006. Bibcode:2010ApJ...725.1342D. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/725/1/1342. S2CID 118649411.
  17. ^ Bolatto, Alberto D.; Warren, Steven R.; Leroy, Adam K.; Walter, Fabian; et al. (2013). "Suppression of star formation in the galaxy NGC 253 by a starburst-driven molecular wind". Nature. 499 (7459): 450–453. arXiv:1307.6259. Bibcode:2013Natur.499..450B. doi:10.1038/nature12351. PMID 23887428. S2CID 4366091.
  18. ^ Barbon, R.; Cappellaro, E.; Ciatti, F.; Turatto, M.; Kowal, C. T. (1984). "A revised supernova catalogue". Astronomy & Astrophysics Supplement Series. 58: 735–750. Bibcode:1984A&AS...58..735B.
  19. ^ Transient Name Server entry for AT 2024pid. Retrieved 13 July 2024.
  20. ^ "Black Hole Naps Amidst Stellar Chaos". Jet Propulsion Laboratory. NASA. June 11, 2013.
  21. ^ Karachentsev, Igor D.; Karachentseva, Valentina E.; Hutchmeier, Walter K.; Makarov, Dmitry I. (2004). "A Catalog of Neighboring Galaxies". The Astronomical Journal. 127 (4): 2031–2068. Bibcode:2004AJ....127.2031K. doi:10.1086/382905.
  22. ^ Karachentsev, I. D.; Kashibadze, O. G. (2006). "Masses of the local group and of the M81 group estimated from distortions in the local velocity field". Astrophysics. 49 (1): 3–18. Bibcode:2006Ap.....49....3K. doi:10.1007/s10511-006-0002-6. S2CID 120973010.
  23. ^ "Galactic Space Oddity Discovered". Subaru Telescope. National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. February 8, 2016. Retrieved February 9, 2016.
  24. ^ Romanowsky, Aaron J.; Martínez-Delgado, David; Martin, Nicolas F.; Morales, Gustavo; et al. (2016). "Satellite accretion in action: a tidally disrupting dwarf spheroidal around the nearby spiral galaxy NGC 253". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 456 (1): 103–107. arXiv:1512.03815. Bibcode:2016MNRAS.457L.103R. doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slv207.
[edit]
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