Turtleback tomb: Difference between revisions

Content deleted Content added

Inline

Latest revision as of 06:31, 11 November 2024

Turtleback or Turtle-back tombs or turtle shell tombs (simplified Chinese: 龟壳墓; traditional Chinese: 龜殼墓; pinyin: guī ké mù; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: ku-khak-bōng; Okinawan: カーミナクーバカ, kaaminakuubaka) are a particular type of tombs originating from the Song Dynasty. They are commonly found in some coastal provinces of southern China (Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong), the Ryukyu Islands of Japan, and in Vietnam. They can also be found in countries with overseas Chinese populations like Malaysia.

In the Chinese version, the tomb itself is made to look like the carapace of a tortoise; the vertical tombstone with the name of the deceased is put where the tortoise would have had its head, at the end of the grave where the feet of the buried body are.^[1] The tomb is surrounded by an Ω-shaped ridge, with its opening on the side where the tortoise's head would have been and where the tombstone is.^[1]

The Ryukyuan version has the same overall shape and layout, but on a much greater scale. The body of the "tortoise" serves as a family burial vault.^[2]

Significance

According to J. J. M. de Groot, the main purpose of the horseshoe-shaped or, more frequently, omega-shaped ridge surrounding the tomb is to substitute for a range of hills ridge which, according to the principles of feng shui, needs to protect the grave from the "noxious winds" from the three sides – the situation that is rarely naturally obtainable.^[3]

The tumulus over the tomb naturally has somewhat turtle-like shape, considering the large size of a traditional Chinese coffin, its shape, and the shallowness of the grave.^[1]^[3] However, the tumulus is often actually covered with plaster (or, these days, concrete), decorated in such a way as to remind one of the pattern seen on a tortoise shell.^[1]

It is commonly said that the tomb imitates the shape of a tortoise due to those animals' longevity, thus promising long life to the descendants of the deceased.^[1] It has been suggested (among others, by J.J.M. de Groot) that the custom of building turtle-shaped tombs may also have to do with the desire to place the grave under the influence of the heavenly warrior Xuanwu, whose symbol is the Black Tortoise.^[1]^[4]

A legend has been recorded which ascribes to tortoises the ability to find an auspicious place for a burial. According to the legend, some time during the Xiangfu era of Emperor Zhenzong, a man in Guangdong who was looking for a suitable (in feng shui terms) place to bury one of his parents on a certain mountain learned that ten days prior several dozens of tortoises had brought a large dead tortoise to a certain spot and buried him there. The man found the tortoise's grave, reburied the reptile elsewhere, and used the spot to bury his own parent. Accordingly, he then had three sons born to him, two of whom earned the jinshi degrees, and all three were to occupy high positions in the Song establishment.^[5]

When considering the turtle motif in tomb constructions, some authors link it with the general symbolism of a turtle in the ancient Chinese culture, with its flat plastron below and its domed carapace above, representing the shape of the universe.^[6] Throughout China, for almost two millennia stone turtles, which became known as bixi, have been holding memorial stelae near graves of emperors and dignitaries;^[7] however, unlike Fujian's turtle-back shaped tombs, bixi are not placed directly above the grave. Unlike bixis, turtle-back graves don't have tablets standing on top of them.

When discussing the connection between the turtle/tortoise symbolism and burial practices, some authors even mention the custom of eating a variety of the traditional sweets, red tortoise cakes, at funeral feasts.^[6]

Turtle-back tombs in Lingshan Islamic Cemetery, Quanzhou

In the Ryūkyū Islands

Turtleback tombs are thought to have been introduced into the Ryukyu Kingdom from Fujian in the late 17th or early 18th century ("in the interval between the careers of Shō Shōken and Sai On", according to Gregory Smits' monograph on the intellectual history of the Ryukyu Kingdom.^[8] Some authors give earlier dates; in particular, the tomb of Gosamaru (d. 1458) is often described as the first Ryūkyūan turtleback tomb.^[9]^[10] Okinawans believe that the shape of the tombs represent a woman's womb, so that the dead "return to the source".^[11] In the recent decades, several turtleback tombs in Okinawa Prefecture were designated cultural assets of cities, such as the Motobu Udun Tomb in Ganeko, Ginowan.

As of the mid-20th century, the turtleback tomb became the predominant tomb style in some parts of the Ryūkyū Islands. E.g., this was reported in Kabira Village (near Kabira Bay) in Ishigaki Island. Unlike single-person turtleback tombs of Fujian, the turtleback tombs of Ryūkyū were more of a burial vault, where bones of many generations of a particular family could repose. Typically, the coffin with the body of a deceased member of the family would stay in one part of such a tomb for some years (3, 5, 7, or 9). After the body would have decomposed, the bones would be washed by young female relatives of the deceased, placed into a large earthenware jar, and stored elsewhere in the tomb.^[2]

In a fictionalized description of a turtleback tomb in the eponymous novel by Tatsuhiro Ōshiro (where much of the action happens inside such a tomb), the tomb's floor space is 150 square feet.^[12] Inside the tomb, urns with the bones of deceased ancestors stand on multiple rows of stone shelves, in the order of seniority. The doorway of the tomb is closed with a massive stone, serving as a door.^[12]

In the spring of 1945, during the Battle of Okinawa, many Okinawan civilians sought refuge from the naval bombardment of the island inside their ancestors' turtleback tombs,^[13]^[14] just like the characters of Ōshiro's short novel.^[12] Later, many of these tombs were also used by the Japanese defenders of the islands.^[14] The image became iconic enough for a local novelist, Tatsuhiro Ōshiro, to name a novel after these turtleback tombs. (Kame kōbaka, 1966).^[13]

Fighting for the turtleback tombs is mentioned in the accounts of American soldiers as well.^[15]

Notable turtle-back tombs

A tomb in Bukit Cina cemetery, Melaka, Malaysia. The deceased are of Xiamen-area origin

The tomb of Tan Kah Kee in Jimei District, Xiamen.^[16]^[17]
Gosamaru's tomb

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f de Groot 1892, pp. 1082–1083
^ ^a ^b Allan H. Smith (Apr 19, 1960), "The Culture of Kabira, Southern Ryūkyū Islands", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 104 (2): 134–171, JSTOR 985656 (pp. 170–171).
^ ^a ^b de Groot, Jan Jakob Maria (1892), The Religious System of China, vol. III, Brill Archive, pp. 941–942
^ 李永球 (Li Yongqiu) (2010-03-07), 各籍貫墳墓造型 [In every land, its own kind of graves], Sin Chew Daily
^ de Groot 1892, pp. 980–981。 De Groot quotes and translates the legend from 補筆談 ("Additions to the Pencil Gossip"), Chapter (quan) 3. The location mentioned in the legend, Liangzhou (廉州) is near today's Beihai, Guangxi.
^ ^a ^b Watson, James L.; Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida (1990), Watson, James L.; Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida (eds.), Death ritual in late imperial and modern China, Volume 8 of Studies on China, University of California Press, pp. 105–106, ISBN 0520071298. On the shape of the turtle, Watson and Rawski quote Burkhardt, Valentine Rodolphe (1959), Chinese creeds & customs, vol. 1, South China Morning Post, ltd., p. 126. This theme, going back all the way to the Shang dynasty, is discussed in detail in Allan, Sarah (1991), The shape of the turtle: myth, art, and cosmos in early China, SUNY series in Chinese philosophy and culture, SUNY Press, ISBN 0791404609
^ de Groot, Jan Jakob Maria (1894), The Religious System of China, vol. II, Brill Archive, pp. 451–452, 娥
^ Smits, Gregory (1999), Visions of Ryukyu: identity and ideology in early-modern thought and politics, University of Hawaii Press, p. 83, ISBN 0824820371
^ Gladys Zabilka, ed. (1959), Customs and culture of Okinawa, Bridgeway Press, p. 145, ISBN 9780804801331
^ Gosamaru's tomb Archived 2015-03-07 at the Wayback Machine
^ Glacken, Clarence. The Great Loochoo: A Study of Okinawan Village Life. University of California Press, Berkeley, 1955. Page 246–247.
^ ^a ^b ^c Oshiro, Tatsuhiro (2000), "Turtleback Tombs", in Molasky, Michael S.; Rabson, Steve (eds.), Southern Exposure: Modern Japanese Literature from Okinawa, University of Hawaii Press, pp. 113–155, ISBN 0824823001
^ ^a ^b Molasky, Michael S.; Rabson, Steve (2000), "Introduction", in Molasky, Michael S.; Rabson, Steve (eds.), Southern Exposure: Modern Japanese Literature from Okinawa, University of Hawaii Press, p. 21, ISBN 0824823001
^ ^a ^b Paul E. Steiner (Apr 1947), "Okinawa and Its People—II", The Scientific Monthly, 64 (4): 306–312, Bibcode:1947SciMo..64..306S, JSTOR 19369 (p. 311)
^ Turtle-back tombs, a "scrap-book" based on photographs and letters of Corporal Joseph P. Pizzimenti, as well as various published articles.
^ See image 23 in 厦门集美游记 (Xiamen's Jimei trip notes)
^ The monument for Tan Kah Kee^{[permanent dead link‍]}

[deGroot1082-1] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f de Groot 1892, pp. 1082–1083

[kabira-2] Allan H. Smith (Apr 19, 1960), "The Culture of Kabira, Southern Ryūkyū Islands", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 104 (2): 134–171, JSTOR 985656 (pp. 170–171).

[deGroot941-3] Groot, Jan Jakob Maria (1892), The Religious System of China, vol. III, Brill Archive, pp. 941–942

[4] 李永球 (Li Yongqiu) (2010-03-07), 各籍貫墳墓造型 [In every land, its own kind of graves], Sin Chew Daily

[deGroot980-5] Groot 1892, pp. 980–981。 De Groot quotes and translates the legend from 補筆談 ("Additions to the Pencil Gossip"), Chapter (quan) 3. The location mentioned in the legend, Liangzhou (廉州) is near today's Beihai, Guangxi.

[watson-6] Watson, James L.; Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida (1990), Watson, James L.; Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida (eds.), Death ritual in late imperial and modern China, Volume 8 of Studies on China, University of California Press, pp. 105–106, ISBN 0520071298. On the shape of the turtle, Watson and Rawski quote Burkhardt, Valentine Rodolphe (1959), Chinese creeds & customs, vol. 1, South China Morning Post, ltd., p. 126. This theme, going back all the way to the Shang dynasty, is discussed in detail in Allan, Sarah (1991), The shape of the turtle: myth, art, and cosmos in early China, SUNY series in Chinese philosophy and culture, SUNY Press, ISBN 0791404609

[deGroot451-7] Groot, Jan Jakob Maria (1894), The Religious System of China, vol. II, Brill Archive, pp. 451–452, 娥

[8] Smits, Gregory (1999), Visions of Ryukyu: identity and ideology in early-modern thought and politics, University of Hawaii Press, p. 83, ISBN 0824820371

[9] Gladys Zabilka, ed. (1959), Customs and culture of Okinawa, Bridgeway Press, p. 145, ISBN 9780804801331

[10] Gosamaru's tomb Archived 2015-03-07 at the Wayback Machine

[11] Glacken, Clarence. The Great Loochoo: A Study of Okinawan Village Life. University of California Press, Berkeley, 1955. Page 246–247.

[oshiro-12] Oshiro, Tatsuhiro (2000), "Turtleback Tombs", in Molasky, Michael S.; Rabson, Steve (eds.), Southern Exposure: Modern Japanese Literature from Okinawa, University of Hawaii Press, pp. 113–155, ISBN 0824823001

[mm-13] Molasky, Michael S.; Rabson, Steve (2000), "Introduction", in Molasky, Michael S.; Rabson, Steve (eds.), Southern Exposure: Modern Japanese Literature from Okinawa, University of Hawaii Press, p. 21, ISBN 0824823001

[steiner-14] Paul E. Steiner (Apr 1947), "Okinawa and Its People—II", The Scientific Monthly, 64 (4): 306–312, Bibcode:1947SciMo..64..306S, JSTOR 19369 (p. 311)

[15] Turtle-back tombs, a "scrap-book" based on photographs and letters of Corporal Joseph P. Pizzimenti, as well as various published articles.

[16] See image 23 in 厦门集美游记 (Xiamen's Jimei trip notes)

[17] The monument for Tan Kah Kee^{[permanent dead link‍]}

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{Short description|Song Dynasty tomb}}
 [[File:Lingshan Islamic Cemetery - turtle tomb - DSCF8473.JPG|thumb|A typical turtle-back tomb, in Lingshan Islamic Cemetery, [[Quanzhou]]]]
-'''Turtle-back tombs''' or '''turtle shell tombs''' ({{zh|s=龟壳墓|t=龜殼墓|p=guī ké mù|poj=ku-khak-bōng}}; {{lang-ja|亀甲墓}}, ''kamekōbaka'') are a particular type of [[tomb]]s commonly found in some coastal areas of China's [[Fujian]] Province, and in Japan's [[Ryūkyū]] Islands.
+'''Turtleback''' or '''Turtle-back tombs''' or '''turtle shell tombs''' ({{zh|s=龟壳墓|t=龜殼墓|p=guī ké mù|poj=ku-khak-bōng}}; {{langx|ryu|カーミナクーバカ}}, ''kaaminakuubaka'') are a particular type of [[tomb]]s originating from the [[Song dynasty|Song Dynasty]]. They are commonly found in some coastal provinces of southern China ([[Zhejiang]], [[Fujian]], [[Guangdong]]), the [[Ryukyu Islands]] of Japan, and in [[Vietnam]]. They can also be found in countries with [[overseas Chinese]] populations like [[Malaysia]].
-In the Chinese version, the tomb itself is made to look like the [[carapace]] of a [[tortoise]], the vertical tombstone with the name of the deceased being put where the tortoise would have had its head, at the end of the grave where the feet of the buried body are.<ref name=deGroot1082/> The tomb is surrounded by an [[Omega|Ω]]-shaped ridge, with its opening on the side where the tortoise's head would have been, and where the tombstone is.<ref name=deGroot1082/>
+In the Chinese version, the tomb itself is made to look like the [[carapace]] of a [[tortoise]]; the vertical tombstone with the name of the deceased is put where the tortoise would have had its head, at the end of the grave where the feet of the buried body are.<ref name=deGroot1082/> The tomb is surrounded by an [[Omega|Ω]]-shaped ridge, with its opening on the side where the tortoise's head would have been and where the tombstone is.<ref name=deGroot1082/>
-The Ryūkyūan version has the same overall shape and layout, but on a much greater scale, the body of the "tortoise" serving as a family [[burial vault (tomb)|burial vault]].<ref name=kabira/>
+The Ryukyuan version has the same overall shape and layout, but on a much greater scale. The body of the "tortoise" serves as a family [[burial vault (tomb)|burial vault]].<ref name=kabira/>
 ==Significance==
 [[File:Kinmen - turtleback tomb - DSCF9723.JPG|thumb|A typical turtle-back tomb in [[Kinmen]] Island off Fujian coast]]
-According to [[Jan Jakob Maria de Groot|J.J.M. de Groot]], the main purpose of the horseshoe-shaped, or, more frequently, Ω-shaped ridge surrounding the tomb is to substitute for a range of hills ridge which, according to the principles of [[feng shui]], needs to protect the grave from the "noxious winds" from the three sides – the situation that is rarely naturally obtainable.<ref name=deGroot941>{{citation
+According to [[J. J. M. de Groot]], the main purpose of the horseshoe-shaped or, more frequently, [[omega]]-shaped ridge surrounding the tomb is to substitute for a range of hills ridge which, according to the principles of ''[[feng shui]]'', needs to protect the grave from the "noxious winds" from the three sides – the situation that is rarely naturally obtainable.<ref name=deGroot941>{{citation
 |publisher=Brill Archive |year=1892|first=Jan Jakob Maria |last=de Groot
 |title=The Religious System of China|volume=III
@@ Line 17: / Line 20: @@
 It is commonly said that the tomb imitates the shape of a tortoise due to those animals' longevity, thus promising long life to the descendants of the deceased.<ref name=deGroot1082/>
-It has been suggested (among others, by J.J.M. de Groot) that the custom of building turtle-shaped tombs may also have to do with the desire to place the grave under the influence of the heavenly warrior Xuanwu, whose symbol is the [[Black Tortoise]].<ref name=deGroot1082>{{harvnb|de Groot|1892|pp=1082–1083}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=http://news.sinchew.com.my/node/152069|title= 各籍貫墳墓造型 (In every land, its own kind of graves)
+It has been suggested (among others, by J.J.M. de Groot) that the custom of building turtle-shaped tombs may also have to do with the desire to place the grave under the influence of the heavenly warrior [[Xuanwu (god)|Xuanwu]], whose symbol is the [[Black Tortoise]].<ref name=deGroot1082>{{harvnb|de Groot|1892|pp=1082–1083}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=http://news.sinchew.com.my/node/152069|script-title=zh:各籍貫墳墓造型 |trans-title=In every land, its own kind of graves|author={{lang|zh|李永球}} (Li Yongqiu)|date= 2010-03-07|periodical=Sin Chew Daily}}</ref>
-|author=李永球 (Li Yongqiu)
-|date= 2010-03-07
-|periodical=Sin Chew Daily}}</ref>
-[[File:Kong Hongtai - view from S - bixi - P1060214.JPG|thumb|left|A typical 15th-century ''[[bixi (tortoise)|bixi]]'', near the tomb of [[Kong Hongtai]], 61st-generation [[Duke Yansheng]], in the [[Cemetery of Confucius]], [[Qufu]]. In this traditional layout, the ''bixi'' is at the beginning of the [[spirit way]], and the grave tumulus, at the end of it.]]
+[[File:Kong Hongtai - view from S - bixi - P1060214.JPG|thumb|left|A typical 15th-century ''[[bixi (tortoise)|bixi]]'', near the tomb of [[Kong Hongtai]], 61st-generation [[Duke Yansheng]], in the [[Cemetery of Confucius]], [[Qufu]]. In this traditional layout, the ''[[bixi]]'' is at the beginning of the [[spirit way]], and the grave tumulus, at the end of it.]]
+[[File:Mộ Mạc Cửu cùng vợ và con.JPG|thumb|Tomb of [[Mạc Cửu]] in [[Hà Tiên]], Vietnam.]]
-[[File:Kong Lin - 68th generation - tombstone with a turtle base - P1060046.JPG|thumb|upright|A rare example of a tombstone's foundation made to look like a turtle's carapace. The tomb of a 68th-generation descendant of Confucius, in the [[Cemetery of Confucius]]]]
-A legend has been recorded which ascribes to tortoises the ability to find an auspicious place for a burial. According to the legend, some time during the [[Emperor Zhenzong of Song|Xiangfu era]], a man in [[Guangdong]] who was looking for a suitable (in [[feng shui]] terms) place to bury one of his parents on a certain mountain learned that ten days prior several dozens of tortoises had brought a large dead tortoise to a certain spot and buried him there. The man found the tortoise's grave, reburied the reptile elsewhere, and used the spot to bury his own parent. Accordingly, he then had three sons born to him, two of whom earned the ''[[Imperial examinations|jinshi]]'' degrees, and all three were to occupy high positions in the [[Song Dynasty|Song]] establishment.<ref name=deGroot980>{{harvnb|de Groot|1892|pp=980–981}}。 De Groot quotes and translates the legend from [[:zh:s:補筆談|補筆談]] ("Additions to the Pencil Gossip"), Chapter (''quan'') 3. The location mentioned in the legend, Liangzhou ([[:zh:廉州|廉州]]) is near today's [[Beihai]], [[Guangxi]].</ref>
+A legend has been recorded which ascribes to tortoises the ability to find an auspicious place for a burial. According to the legend, some time during the Xiangfu era of [[Emperor Zhenzong]], a man in [[Guangdong]] who was looking for a suitable (in ''[[feng shui]]'' terms) place to bury one of his parents on a certain mountain learned that ten days prior several dozens of tortoises had brought a large dead tortoise to a certain spot and buried him there. The man found the tortoise's grave, reburied the reptile elsewhere, and used the spot to bury his own parent. Accordingly, he then had three sons born to him, two of whom earned the ''[[Imperial examinations|jinshi]]'' degrees, and all three were to occupy high positions in the [[Song dynasty|Song]] establishment.<ref name=deGroot980>{{harvnb|de Groot|1892|pp=980–981}}。 De Groot quotes and translates the legend from {{lang|zh|[[:zh:s:補筆談|補筆談]]}} ("Additions to the Pencil Gossip"), Chapter (''quan'') 3. The location mentioned in the legend, Liangzhou ({{lang|zh|[[:zh:廉州|廉州]]}}) is near today's [[Beihai]], [[Guangxi]].</ref>
 [[File:Gaotou - Jin Mountain - tomb - DSCF3291.JPG|thumb|A not uncommon "half-turtle" hillside tomb style in the interior of Fujian ([[Gaotou Township]], [[Yongding County]]), apparently related to the fully fledged turtleback tombs of the coastal Fujian]]
+When considering the turtle motif in tomb constructions, some authors link it with the general symbolism of a turtle in the ancient Chinese culture, with its flat [[plastron]] below and its domed [[carapace]] above, representing the shape of the universe.<ref name=watson>{{citation|first1=James L. |last1=Watson|first2= Evelyn Sakakida |last2=Rawski|editor-first=James L. |editor-last=Watson|editor2-first= Evelyn Sakakida |editor2-last=Rawski|publisher=University of California Press |year=1990|isbn=0520071298|title=Death ritual in late imperial and modern China|series=Volume 8 of Studies on China|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CgKtI7iHhQgC&pg=PA105|pages=105–106}}. On the shape of the turtle, Watson and Rawski quote {{citation|first=Valentine Rodolphe |last=Burkhardt|publisher=South China Morning Post, ltd. |year=1959|title=Chinese creeds & customs|volume= 1|page= 126}}. This theme, going back all the way to the [[Shang dynasty]], is discussed in detail in {{citation|first=Sarah |last=Allan|authorlink=Sarah Allan|publisher=SUNY Press |year=1991|isbn=0791404609|title=The shape of the turtle: myth, art, and cosmos in early China|series=SUNY series in Chinese philosophy and culture|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=QlEZd4x9LUAC}}</ref> Throughout China, for almost two millennia stone turtles, which became known as ''[[bixi]]'', have been holding memorial stelae near graves of emperors and dignitaries;<ref name=deGroot451>{{citation|publisher=Brill Archive |year=1894|first=Jan Jakob Maria |last=de Groot|title=The Religious System of China|volume=II|url=https://archive.org/stream/religioussystem01groogoog#page/n105/mode/1up |pages=451–452, {{lang|zh|娥}}}}</ref> however, unlike Fujian's turtle-back shaped tombs, ''bixi'' are not placed directly above the grave. Unlike ''bixi''s, turtle-back graves don't have tablets standing on top of them.
-When considering the turtle motif in tomb constructions, some authors link it with the general symbolism of a turtle in the ancient Chinese culture, with its flat [[plastron]] below and its domed [[carapace]] above, representing the shape of the universe.<ref name=watson>{{citation
-|first=James L. |last=Watson|first2= Evelyn Sakakida |last2=Rawski|editor-first=James L. |editor-last=Watson|editor2-first= Evelyn Sakakida |editor2-last=Rawski
-|publisher=University of California Press |year=1990
-|isbn=0520071298
-|title=Death ritual in late imperial and modern China
-|series=Volume 8 of Studies on China
-|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CgKtI7iHhQgC&pg=PA105
-|pages=105–106
-}}. On the shape of the turtle, Watson and Rawski quote
-{{citation
-|first=Valentine Rodolphe |last=Burkhardt
-|publisher=South China Morning Post, ltd. |year=1959
-|title=Chinese creeds & customs|volume= 1|page= 126}}. This theme, going back all the way to the [[Shang Dynasty]], is discussed in detail in
-{{citation|first=Sarah |last=Allan|authorlink=Sarah Allan
-|publisher=SUNY Press |year=1991|isbn=0791404609
-|title=The shape of the turtle: myth, art, and cosmos in early China
-|series=SUNY series in Chinese philosophy and culture
-|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=QlEZd4x9LUAC}}
-</ref> Throughout China, for almost two millennia stone turtles, which became known as ''[[bixi (tortoise)|bixi]]'', have been holding memorial stelae near graves of emperors and dignitaries;
-<ref name=deGroot451>{{citation
-|publisher=Brill Archive |year=1894|first=Jan Jakob Maria |last=de Groot
-|title=The Religious System of China|volume=II
-|url=https://archive.org/stream/religioussystem01groogoog#page/n105/mode/1up |pages=451–452
-}}</ref>
-however, unlike Fujian's turtle-back shaped tombs, ''bixi'' turtles are not placed directly above the grave. (And, unlike ''bixi''s, turtle-back graves don't have tablets standing on top of them).
-When discussing the connection between the turtle/tortoise symbolism and burial practices, some authors even mention the custom of eating a variety of the traditional sweets, the [[Red Tortoise Cake#Qing Ming Festival|red turtle cakes]], at funeral feasts.<ref name=watson/>
+When discussing the connection between the turtle/tortoise symbolism and burial practices, some authors even mention the custom of eating a variety of the traditional sweets, [[red tortoise cake#Qing Ming Festival|red tortoise cakes]], at funeral feasts.<ref name=watson/>
 {{gallery
@@ Line 67: / Line 44: @@
 ==In the Ryūkyū Islands==
-[[File:Okinawa turtle back tomb.JPG|thumb|A turtle-back tomb in [[Okinawa]]]]
+[[File:Okinawa turtle back tomb.JPG|thumb|A turtleback tomb in [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]]]]
 [[File:Tomb of gosamaru.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Gosamaru]]
-The turtle-back tombs are thought to have been introduced into the [[Ryūkyū Kingdom]] from Fujian in the late 17th or early 18th century ("in the interval between the careers of [[Shō Shōken]] and [[Sai On]]", according to [[Gregory Smits]]' monograph on the intellectual history of the Ryūkyū Kingdom.<ref>{{citation
-|first=Gregory|last=Smits|authorlink=Gregory Smits
-|publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1999
-|isbn=0824820371
-|title=Visions of Ryukyu: identity and ideology in early-modern thought and politics
-|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=37LxVhgIbJkC&pg=PA83
-|page=83
-}}</ref> Some authors give earlier dates; in particular, the tomb of [[Gosamaru]] (d. 1458) is often described as the first Ryūkyūan turtle-back tomb.<ref>{{citation|publisher=Bridgeway Press |year=1959|title=Customs and culture of Okinawa
-|editor=Gladys Zabilka|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=OmAbAAAAIAAJ|page=145}}</ref><ref>[http://www.okinawabbhi.com/spotinfo/index.php?itemid=124 Gosamaru's tomb]</ref> Okinawans believe that the shape of the tombs represent a woman's [[Uterus|womb]], so that the dead "return to the source".<ref>Glacken, Clarence. ''The Great Loochoo: A Study of Okinawan Village Life''. University of California Press, Berkley, 1955. Page 246–247.</ref>
+Turtleback tombs are thought to have been introduced into the [[Ryukyu Kingdom]] from Fujian in the late 17th or early 18th century ("in the interval between the careers of [[Shō Shōken]] and [[Sai On]]", according to [[Gregory Smits]]' monograph on the intellectual history of the Ryukyu Kingdom.<ref>{{citation|first=Gregory|last=Smits|authorlink=Gregory Smits|publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1999
-As of the mid-20th century, the turtleback tomb became the predominant tomb style in some parts of the Ryūkyū Islands. E.g., this was reported in [[Kabira, Okinawa|Kabira]] Village (near [[Kabira Bay]]) in [[Ishigaki Island]]. Unlike single-person turtleback tombs of Fujian, the turtleback tombs of Ryūkyū were more of a [[Burial vault (tomb)|burial vault]], where bones of many generations of a particular family could repose. Typically, the coffin with the body of a deceased member of the family would stay in one part of such a tomb for some years (3, 5, 7, or 9). After the body would have decomposed, the [[Excarnation|bones would be washed]] by young female relatives of the deceased, placed into a large [[earthenware]] jar,  and stored elsewhere in the tomb.<ref name=kabira>{{citation|title=The Culture of Kabira, Southern Ryūkyū Islands|author= Allan H. Smith|journal= Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society|volume=104|issue=2 |date=Apr 19, 1960|pages=134–171 |JSTOR=985656}} (pp. 170–171).</ref>
+|isbn=0824820371|title=Visions of Ryukyu: identity and ideology in early-modern thought and politics|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=37LxVhgIbJkC&pg=PA83|page=83}}</ref> Some authors give earlier dates; in particular, the tomb of [[Gosamaru]] (d. 1458) is often described as the first Ryūkyūan turtleback tomb.<ref>{{citation|publisher=Bridgeway Press |year=1959|title=Customs and culture of Okinawa
+|editor=Gladys Zabilka|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=OmAbAAAAIAAJ|page=145|isbn=9780804801331 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.okinawabbhi.com/spotinfo/index.php?itemid=124 Gosamaru's tomb] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307075138/http://www.okinawabbhi.com/spotinfo/index.php?itemid=124 |date=2015-03-07 }}</ref> Okinawans believe that the shape of the tombs represent a woman's [[Uterus|womb]], so that the dead "return to the source".<ref>Glacken, Clarence. ''The Great Loochoo: A Study of Okinawan Village Life''. University of California Press, Berkeley, 1955. Page 246–247.</ref>
+In the recent decades, several turtleback tombs in Okinawa Prefecture were designated cultural assets of cities, such as the [[Motobu Udun Tomb]] in Ganeko, Ginowan.
+[[File:Motobu Udun Tomb Inner Yard.jpg|thumb|Motobu Udun Tomb Inner Yard]]
-In a fictionalized description of a turtleback tomb in the eponymous novel by [[Tatsuhiro Oshiro]] (where much of the action happens inside such a tomb), the tomb's floor space is 150 square feet.<ref name=oshiro>{{citation
-|first=Tatsuhiro |last=Oshiro|contribution=Turtleback Tombs
-|editor-first=Michael S. |editor-last=Molasky|editor2-first= Steve |editor2-last=Rabson
-|publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=2000
-|isbn=0824823001
-|title=Southern Exposure: Modern Japanese Literature from Okinawa
-|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6xMuWmEsAcMC
-|pages=113–155
-}}</ref>
-Inside the tomb, urns with the bones of deceased ancestors stand on multiple rows of stone shelves, in the order of seniority. The doorway of the tomb is closed with a massive stone, serving as a door.<ref name=oshiro/>
+As of the mid-20th century, the turtleback tomb became the predominant tomb style in some parts of the Ryūkyū Islands. E.g., this was reported in [[Kabira, Okinawa|Kabira]] Village (near [[Kabira Bay]]) in [[Ishigaki Island]]. Unlike single-person turtleback tombs of Fujian, the turtleback tombs of Ryūkyū were more of a [[Burial vault (tomb)|burial vault]], where bones of many generations of a particular family could repose. Typically, the coffin with the body of a deceased member of the family would stay in one part of such a tomb for some years (3, 5, 7, or 9). After the body would have decomposed, the [[Excarnation|bones would be washed]] by young female relatives of the deceased, placed into a large [[earthenware]] jar,  and stored elsewhere in the tomb.<ref name=kabira>{{citation|title=The Culture of Kabira, Southern Ryūkyū Islands|author= Allan H. Smith|journal= Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society|volume=104|issue=2 |date=Apr 19, 1960|pages=134–171 |jstor=985656}} (pp. 170–171).</ref>
-In the spring of 1945, during the [[Battle of Okinawa]], many Okinawan civilians sought refuge from the naval bombardment of the island inside their ancestors' turtle-back tombs,<ref name=mm/><ref name=steiner>{{citation|title=Okinawa and Its People—II|author=Paul E. Steiner|journal=The Scientific Monthly |volume= 64|issue= 4|date=Apr 1947|pages= 306–312 |JSTOR=19369}} (p. 311)</ref> just like the characters of Oshiro's short novel.<ref name=oshiro/>
-Later, many of these tombs were also used by the Japanese defenders of the islands.<ref name=steiner/>
-The image became iconic enough for a local novelist, [[Tatsuhiro Oshiro]], to name a novel after these turtle-back tombs. (''Kame kōbaka'', 1966).<ref name=mm>{{citation
-|first=Michael S. |last=Molasky|first2= Steve |last2=Rabson|editor-first=Michael S. |editor-last=Molasky|editor2-first= Steve |editor2-last=Rabson
-|publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=2000
-|isbn=0824823001
-|title=Southern Exposure: Modern Japanese Literature from Okinawa
-|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6xMuWmEsAcMC
-|contribution=Introduction
-|page=21
-}}</ref>
+In a fictionalized description of a turtleback tomb in the eponymous novel by [[Tatsuhiro Ōshiro]] (where much of the action happens inside such a tomb), the tomb's floor space is 150 square feet.<ref name=oshiro>{{citation|first=Tatsuhiro |last=Oshiro|contribution=Turtleback Tombs|editor-first=Michael S. |editor-last=Molasky|editor2-first= Steve |editor2-last=Rabson|publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=2000|isbn=0824823001|title=Southern Exposure: Modern Japanese Literature from Okinawa|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6xMuWmEsAcMC|pages=113–155}}</ref> Inside the tomb, urns with the bones of deceased ancestors stand on multiple rows of stone shelves, in the order of seniority. The doorway of the tomb is closed with a massive stone, serving as a door.<ref name=oshiro/>
-Fighting for the turtle-back tombs is mentioned in the accounts of American soldiers as well.<ref>[http://mickmc.tripod.com/JoeP-TurtleBack.pdf Turtle-back tombs], a "scrap-book" based on photographs and letters of Corporal Joseph P. Pizzimenti, as well as various published articles.
+In the spring of 1945, during the [[Battle of Okinawa]], many Okinawan civilians sought refuge from the naval bombardment of the island inside their ancestors' turtleback tombs,<ref name=mm/><ref name=steiner>{{citation|title=Okinawa and Its People—II|author=Paul E. Steiner|journal=The Scientific Monthly |volume= 64|issue= 4|date=Apr 1947|pages= 306–312 |jstor=19369|bibcode=1947SciMo..64..306S }} (p. 311)</ref> just like the characters of Ōshiro's short novel.<ref name=oshiro/> Later, many of these tombs were also used by the Japanese defenders of the islands.<ref name=steiner/> The image became iconic enough for a local novelist, Tatsuhiro Ōshiro, to name a novel after these turtleback tombs. (''Kame kōbaka'', 1966).<ref name=mm>{{citation|first1=Michael S. |last1=Molasky|first2= Steve |last2=Rabson|editor-first=Michael S. |editor-last=Molasky|editor2-first= Steve |editor2-last=Rabson|publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=2000|isbn=0824823001|title=Southern Exposure: Modern Japanese Literature from Okinawa|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6xMuWmEsAcMC|contribution=Introduction|page=21}}</ref>
+Fighting for the turtleback tombs is mentioned in the accounts of American soldiers as well.<ref>[http://mickmc.tripod.com/JoeP-TurtleBack.pdf Turtle-back tombs], a "scrap-book" based on photographs and letters of Corporal Joseph P. Pizzimenti, as well as various published articles.
 </ref>
 ==Notable turtle-back tombs==
 [[File:Bukit-Cina-graves-2303.jpg|thumb|A tomb in [[Bukit Cina]] cemetery, [[Melaka]], Malaysia. The deceased are of Xiamen-area origin]]
-* The tomb of [[Tan Kah Kee]] in [[Jimei District]], [[Xiamen]].<ref>See image 23 in [http://www.onthetrip.com/pstory/pstory/ps/266 厦门集美游记] (Xiamen's Jimei trip notes)</ref><ref>[http://www.chinanewstone.com.cn/en/DatabaseView.asp?sortsid=2&id=116 The monument for Tan Kah Kee]</ref>
+* The tomb of [[Tan Kah Kee]] in [[Jimei District]], [[Xiamen]].<ref>See image 23 in [http://www.onthetrip.com/pstory/pstory/ps/266 {{lang|zh|厦门集美游记}}] (Xiamen's Jimei trip notes)</ref><ref>[http://www.chinanewstone.com.cn/en/DatabaseView.asp?sortsid=2&id=116 The monument for Tan Kah Kee]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
 * [[Gosamaru]]'s tomb
 ==See also==
 {{commons category|Turtle-back tombs}}
-* [[Bixi (tortoise)]]
 * [[Japanese funeral]]
 * [[Feng shui]]
 ==References==
-{{reflist|colwidth=33em}}
+{{reflist}}
 {{Fujian topics}}
@@ Line 127: / Line 83: @@
 [[Category:Ryukyuan culture]]
 [[Category:Buildings and structures in Fujian]]
+[[Category:Traditional sacrificial buildings in East Asia]]

v t e Fujian topics
Fuzhou (PRC capital) Jincheng (ROC capital)
General	History Politics Economy
Geography	Cities Jiulong River Min River Wuyi Mountains East China Sea South China Sea Taiwan Strait Haitan Island Jin River
Education	Huaqiao University Xiamen University Jimei University Xiamen University of Technology Longyan University Putian University
Culture	Hokkien culture Hoklo people Min Chinese language Written Hokkien Hokkien architecture Hokkien earthen buildings Fuzhou people Dehua porcelain Jian ware Shoushan stone carvings Music Glove puppetry Koa-á books Tale of the Lychee Mirror Gongfu tea ceremony Fujian White Crane Dog Kung Fu Mazu Poh Seng Tai Tay Hui'an maidens Narcissus Turtle-back tombs Hakka people Hakka architecture Koxinga Putian people
Cuisine	Fujian cuisine Hokkien mee Bak kut teh Banmian Buddha jumps over the wall Oolong tea
Visitor attractions	Sanfang Qixiang Fuzhou Confucian Temple Anping Bridge Fujian Tulou Guanghua Temple Nanshan Temple Matsu pilgrimage Kaiyuan Temple South Putuo Temple Zhushan Power Plant Juguang Tower
Category Commons