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{{Short description|Species of bird}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{Taxobox
{{Speciesbox
⚫
| image = BlackVentedShearwater.JPG
| status = NT
| status = NT
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN|id=22698246 |title=''Puffinus opisthomelas'' |assessor=BirdLife International |assessor-link=BirdLife International |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
| status_ref = <ref>{{cite iucn|author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year= 2022 |title= ''Puffinus opisthomelas'' |page= e.T22698246A117364166 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-2.RLTS.T22698246A117364166.en}}</ref>
⚫
| genus = Puffinus
⚫
| image = File:BlackVentedShearwater.JPG
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| species = opisthomelas
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| authority = [[Elliott Coues|Coues]], 1864
⚫
| range_map = Puffinus opisthomelas map.svg
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Procellariiformes]]
| familia =[[Procellariidae]]
⚫
| genus = ''[[Puffinus]]''
| species = '''''P. opisthomelas'''''
⚫
| binomial = ''Puffinus opisthomelas''
| binomial_authority = [[Elliott Coues|Coues]], 1864
}}
}}


The '''black-vented shearwater''' (''Puffinus opisthomelas'') is a [[species]] of [[seabird]]. The [[bird]] is 30–38&nbsp;cm in size, with a 76–89&nbsp;cm wingspan. Formerly considered a [[subspecies]] of the [[Manx shearwater]], its actual relationships are unresolved.<ref name=Austin/>
The '''black-vented shearwater''' ('''''Puffinus opisthomelas''''') is a [[species]] of [[seabird]] endemic to islands off of the Pacific coast of [[Mexico]] and the [[Gulf of California]]. It is a smaller shearwater, with a length of 30–38&nbsp;cm, 76–89&nbsp;cm wingspan and a mass of around 400 g. This species is pelagic and feeds mainly on small fish. It is [[Nocturnality|nocturnal]], and is most active in low light settings.


== Taxonomy and Origins ==
This species is [[pelagic]], occurring in the [[Pacific Ocean]] and the [[Gulf of California]]. It comes closer to land than most other [[shearwater]]s, so it sometimes can be seen from shore.<ref>E.g. "thousands upon thousands" of birds seen off [[San Quintín, Baja California]] at the end of June: Thayer & Bangs (1908)</ref> It predominantly nests on offshore islands off north and western [[Baja California]], namely [[Isla de Guadalupe]], [[Islas San Benito]] and [[Isla Natividad]]. It is fairly common off the United States [[coast]] of central and southern [[California]] during the country's colder months.
The name "puffin" is thought to originate from the Middle English term "pophyn," which was used in the Middle Ages to describe the fatty, preserved young shearwaters that were prepared as food. Since shearwaters and [[Atlantic puffin]]s (''Fratercula arctica'') often nest in close proximity, the name 'puffin' was mistakenly applied to the Atlantic puffin. Over time, the name stuck, and today it is used for the Atlantic puffin species. The name "puffin" also remained associated with the shearwaters and the genus ''[[Puffinus]].''<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Keitt |first1=Bradford S. |last2=Tershy |first2=Bernie R. |last3=Croll |first3=Donald A. |date=2020 |title=Black-vented Shearwater (Puffinus opisthomelas), version 1.0 |url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/bkvshe/1.0/introduction |journal=Birds of the World |language=en |doi=10.2173/bow.bkvshe.01species_shared.bow.project_name |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |issn=2771-3105}}</ref>


The black-vented shearwater is one of around 21 other species in the genus ''[[Puffinus]],'' eight of which reside in North and Middle America (see [[Christmas shearwater]], [[Galápagos shearwater]], [[Manx shearwater]], [[Townsend's shearwater|Townsend’s shearwater]], [[Newell's shearwater|Newell’s shearwater]], [[Bryan's shearwater|Bryan’s shearwater]], [[Sargasso shearwater]] and [[Barolo shearwater]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=AOU Checklist of North and Middle American Birds |url=https://checklist.americanornithology.org/taxa/ |access-date=2024-10-14 |website=checklist.americanornithology.org}}</ref> Previously considered a subspecies of the Manx shearwater (''Puffinus puffinus)'', the black-vented shearwater was officially deemed a species in 1983 by the [[American Ornithological Society|American Ornithologists Union]] .<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lawrence |first=Kan |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/50892 |title=Check-list of North American birds, sixth edition (review) |publisher=American Ornithologists' Union |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-943610-32-0 |edition=6th |doi=10.5962/bhl.title.50892}}</ref> It is considered a [[Monotypic taxon|monotypic]] species and it currently has no recognised subspecies.<ref name=":0" />
The black-vented shearwater is thought to feed on mainly small [[fish]]. This bird nests in [[Burrow nest|burrows]] and [[caves]]; it is a colonial nester.


== Identification ==
In the past, this bird had been threatened by [[feral cat]]s and other predators on its breeding islands,<ref name= Thayer/> but the problem seems to have been largely eliminated. There is some loss of birds from commercial [[gill net]]ting, and the species is classified as [[near threatened]] by the [[IUCN]] mainly due to the uncertain impact on it by the expanding fishing industry.
Black-vented shearwater adults are around 30–38&nbsp;cm in length, have a 76–89&nbsp;cm wingspan and weigh around 400 g.<ref name=":0" /> Males are generally slightly larger than females, though the size difference is minimal.<ref name=":0" />

=== Plumage ===
Chicks have grey down feathers, lighter around their throat and breast areas. These down feathers lighten slightly over time.<ref name=":0" /> Adults have dark brown heads, and dorsal plumages, with lighter ventral plumage (often white with specks and smudges of brown). This is like many other diving and marine bird species, which use [[countershading]] as a method of camouflage. Juvenile plumage is similar to adult plumage, however often darker and more contrasted compared to more worn adult plumages. This species is not sexually dimorphic, so plumage does not vary between sexes.<ref name=":0" />

=== Moulting ===
Individuals have their first [[Moulting|moult]] during the breeding season. It is theorized that this moult, which reduces wing surface area, may enhance diving efficiency. Since these birds forage much closer to shore than other pelagic birds, they do not need to have as effective wings for flight. This moult may also serve to increase dive efficiency during the chick-rearing period.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Keitt |first1=Bradford S. |last2=Croll |first2=Donald A. |last3=Tershy |first3=Bernie R. |date=2000-04-01 |title=Dive Depth and Diet of the Black-vented Shearwater (Puffinus opisthomelas) |url=https://academic.oup.com/auk/article/117/2/507/5561651 |journal=The Auk |volume=117 |issue=2 |pages=507–510 |doi=10.1093/auk/117.2.507 |issn=1938-4254}}</ref>

== Habitat and Distribution ==
This species is [[pelagic]], occurring in the [[Pacific Ocean]] and the [[Gulf of California]]. It comes closer to land than most other [[shearwater]]s<ref>E.g. "thousands upon thousands" of birds seen off [[San Quintín, Baja California]] at the end of June: Thayer & Bangs (1908)</ref> It nests predominantly on offshore islands off north and western [[Baja California]], Mexico, namely [[Isla Natividad]] (95% of the nesting population), [[Isla de Guadalupe]], and [[Islas San Benito]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Everett |first=William T. |year=1988 |title=Biology of the Black-Vented Shearwater |url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/wb/v19n03/p0089-p0104.pdf |journal=Western Birds |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=104}}</ref> It is relatively common along the central and southern California coast during the colder months. The species has recently been observed nesting on [[Isla Rasa]] and [[Isla Partida]] in the Gulf of California, showing an expansion to their previously known breeding range.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Velarde |first1=Enriqueta |last2=Ruiz |first2=Enrico |last3=Aguilar |first3=Andres |date=2015-10-01 |title=Black-vented Shearwater Puffinus opisthomelas nesting in the Gulf of California: A major extension of breeding range |url=http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/43_2/43_2_249-254.pdf |journal=Marine Ornithology |volume=43 |pages=249–254}}</ref> Black-vented shearwaters have been spotted as far north as [[British Columbia]], but it is considered an "accidental visitor".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Toochin |first1=Rick |url=https://ibis.geog.ubc.ca/biodiversity/efauna/documents/Black-vented_Shearwater-RT-MM.pdf |title=Status and Occurrence of Black-vented Shearwater (Puffinus opisthomelas) in British Columbia. |last2=Meredith |first2=Mitch |publisher=University of British Columbia |year=2016 |publication-date=January 4, 2016}}</ref>

Black-vented shearwaters prefer warmer waters, reportedly greater than 14&nbsp;°C, but the species is relatively plastic in terms of habitat choice and foraging strategies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ainley |first=David G |title=The occurrence of seabirds in the coastal region of California. |url=https://archive.westernfieldornithologists.org/archive/V07/7(2)-p0033-p0068.pdf |journal=Western Birds |publication-date=1978 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=33–68}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> The species primarily inhabits waters over the [[continental shelf]]. Near breeding colonies, the sea floor drops off significantly as one moves farther from the coast, and some individuals are believed to forage in waters that reach depths of over 2 kilometers.<ref name=":0" />

This species does not migrate far and tends to stay relatively close to its breeding colonies year-round.<ref>{{Cite book |last=American Ornithologists' Union |title=Check-list of North American Birds. |publisher=American Ornithologists' Union |year=1957 |edition=5th |location=Washington, D.C., USA}}</ref>

== Behaviour and Ecology ==
Black-vented shearwaters are [[Nocturnality|nocturnal]], with activity levels influenced by ambient light. This is theorized to be a strategy to avoid predation by diurnal predators such as the [[Western gull|Western Gull]] (''Larus occidentalis''), as they experience the highest predation rates during daylight hours.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Keitt |first1=Bradford S |last2=Tershy |first2=Bernie R |last3=Troll |first3=Donald A |date=2004 |title=NOCTURNAL BEHAVIOR REDUCES PREDATION PRESSURE ON BLACK-VENTED SHEARWATERS PUFFINUS OPISTHOMELAS |url=http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/32_2/32_2_173-178.pdf |journal=Marine Ornithology |volume=32 |pages=174–178 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref>

=== Vocalizations ===
Although there are few records of black-vented shearwater calls, their vocalizations have been likened to a moaning growl, similar to the sound of a dentist's drill and suction.<ref name=":0" /> The black-vented shearwater only calls at night, when there is little to no moon. Vocalizations are believed to play a significant role in mating, as the species lacks sexual dimorphism, akin to the Manx shearwater.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=de L. Brooke |first=M. |date=1978-05-01 |title=Sexual differences in the voice and individual vocal recognition in the Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus) |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/000334727890074X |journal=Animal Behaviour |volume=26 |pages=622–629 |doi=10.1016/0003-3472(78)90074-X |issn=0003-3472}}</ref>

=== Diet and Foraging ===
[[File:Puffinus opisthomelas 229637336.jpg|thumb|A black-vented shearwater flying over the water.]]
The black-vented shearwater is thought to feed mainly on small fish. Individuals have been recorded eating [[sardine]]s, [[herring]], [[Anchovy|anchovies]] and [[Whip-lash squid|Mastegoteuthid]] squid.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stephens |first=Frank |title=Early Spring Notes on Birds of Coronado Islands, Mexico. |url=https://academic.oup.com/condor/article/23/3/96/5285109 |journal=The Condor |publication-date=May 1, 1921 |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=96–97 |via=Oxford University Press}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anthony |first=A. W. |year=1896 |title=The Black-vented Shearwater (Puffinus opisthomelas) |url=https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/auk/vol13/iss3/4 |journal=The Auk |volume=13 |issue=3}}</ref> They are not attracted to chum, and don’t tend to follow ships for food live some other marine avian species.<ref name=":2" />

Black-vented shearwaters forage closer to shore than many other pelagic bird species and tend to avoid extended foraging trips.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ainley |first=David G. |year=1976 |title=The occurrence of seabirds in the coastal region of California. |url=https://archive.westernfieldornithologists.org/archive/V07/7(2)-p0033-p0068.pdf |journal=Western Birds |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=33–68}}</ref> Like other species in the ''Puffinus'' genus, black-vented shearwaters are free-divers. They are the best performing free-diver in the ''Puffinus'' genus, with a maximum dive duration of 88 seconds and maximum depth of 52 meters.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Soldatini |first1=Cecilia |last2=Rosas Hernandez |first2=Martha P. |last3=Albores-Barajas |first3=Yuri V. |last4=Catoni |first4=Carlo |last5=Ramos |first5=Alejandro |last6=Dell'Omo |first6=Giacomo |last7=Rattenborg |first7=Niels |last8=Chimienti |first8=Marianna |date=July 2003 |title=Individual variability in diving behavior of the Black-vented Shearwater in an ever-changing habitat |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0048969723019058 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=880 |pages=163286 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163286|pmid=37023816 }}</ref> These birds were also recoding diving deeper when foraging during their breeding season.<ref name=":1" />  

=== Reproduction ===
Black-vented shearwaters are colonial nesters. Although colony sizes have not been accurately estimated to date, about 95% of their breeding population has historically been found on Isla Natividad.<ref name=":2" />

During breeding, black-vented shearwaters construct burrows that they maintain throughout the breeding season. It is uncertain when they form burrows, but studies suggest that it is between late November and January.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jehl |first1=Joseph R |last2=Everett |first2=W T |title=History and status of the avifauna of Isla Guadalupe, Mexico |url=https://www.islapedia.com/images/d/d4/Jehl_and_Everett_1985.pdf |journal=Transactions of the San Diego Society of Natural History |date=1985 |volume=20 |pages=313–336|doi=10.5962/bhl.part.29009 }}</ref> These burrows tend to be formed in sandy soil in areas with low vegetation. On San Benito Island, shearwaters often form nests in pre-existing rock crevices.<ref name=":0" /> This species also uses artificial burrows when available.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Keitt |first=Bradford Seaver |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=59MExE5lIY8C |title=Ecology and conservation biology of the Black-vented Shearwater (Puffinus opisthomelas) on Natividad Island, Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve, Baja California Sur, Mexico |publisher=University of California, Santa Cruz |year=1998}}</ref>

Clutches usually have one egg. Occasionally 2 eggs have been found in nests, likely because of egg-dumping from another female or one of the eggs is from a previous season. Both parents spend roughly equal time incubating the egg. Incubation shifts lasts between three and five days on average. The total incubation period is around 49 days.<ref name=":0" />

Chicks that hatch are [[Precociality and altriciality|altricial]] and unable to [[Thermoregulation|thermoregulate]], and hence require significant parental care.<ref name=":0" />

== Status and Conservation ==
Historically, this species faced threats from [[feral cat]]s and other predators on its breeding islands; however, these issues appear to have been largely resolved.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Keitt |first1=B. S. |last2=Tershy |first2=B. R. |title=Cat eradication significantly decreases shearwater mortality |url=https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1017/S1367943003003378 |journal=Animal Conservation |language= |publication-date=October 29, 2003 |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=307–308 |doi=10.1017/S1367943003003378 |issn=1367-9430 |via=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> There is some loss of birds from commercial [[gill net]]ting, and the species is classified as [[near threatened]] by the [[IUCN]] mainly due to the uncertain impact on it by the expanding fishing industry.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Everett |first1=William T. |last2=Pitman |first2=Robert L. |year=1993 |editor-last=Vermeer |editor-first=Kees |editor2-last=Briggs |editor2-first=Kenneth T. |editor3-last=Morgan |editor3-first=Ken H. |editor4-last=Siegel-Causey |editor4-first=Douglas |title=Status and conservation of shearwaters of the North Pacific |url=https://swfsc-publications.fisheries.noaa.gov/publications/CR/1993/9332.PDF |journal=Canadian Wildlife Service |via=Environment Canada}}</ref>

All islands where they breed have permanent human inhabitants, and anthropogenic presence has consequently led to a decrease in their habitat size. On Isla Natividad, development has significantly impacted nesting habitats. The town and associated infrastructure have led to the loss of an estimated 26,532 burrows, about 15% of the total colony.<ref name=":4" /> Their expanded territory to other areas like Isla Rasa and other islands in the Gulf of California bodes well for this species' future conservation.<ref name=":3" />


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{reflist|refs=
⚫
<ref name=Austin>{{cite journal|author1=Austin, Jeremy J. |author2=Bretagnolle, Vincent |author3=Pasquet, Eric |lastauthoramp=yes |doi=10.1642/0004-8038(2004)121[0847:AGMPOT]2.0.CO;2|year=2004|volume=121|pages=847|title=A Global Molecular Phylogeny of the Small Puffinus Shearwaters and Implications for Systematics of the Little-Audubon's Shearwater Complex|journal=The Auk|issue=3}}</ref>
⚫
<ref name= Thayer>{{cite journal|author1=Thayer, John E. |author2=Bangs, Outram |lastauthoramp=yes |year=1908|title=The Present State of the Ornis of Guadaloupe Island|journal=[[Condor (journal)|Condor]]|volume=10|issue=3|pages= 101–106|doi=10.2307/1360977|url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/condor/v010n03/p0101-p0106.pdf}}</ref>
}}


==Further reading==
==Further reading==
⚫
*{{cite journal|author1=Austin, Jeremy J. |author2=Bretagnolle, Vincent |author3=Pasquet, Eric |name-list-style=amp|doi=10.1642/0004-8038(2004)121[0847:AGMPOT]2.0.CO;2|year=2004|volume=121|pages=847|title=A Global Molecular Phylogeny of the Small ''Puffinus'' Shearwaters and Implications for Systematics of the Little-Audubon's Shearwater Complex|journal=The Auk|issue=3|s2cid=86177092 }}
* Carboneras, Carles (1992): 65. Black-vented Shearwater. ''In'': del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew & Sargatal, Jordi (eds.): ''[[Handbook of Birds of the World]]'' (Volume 1: Ostrich to Ducks): 255–256, Plate 16. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. <small>{{ISBN|84-87334-10-5}}</small>
* Carboneras, Carles (1992): 65. Black-vented Shearwater. ''In'': del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew & Sargatal, Jordi (eds.): ''[[Handbook of Birds of the World]]'' (Volume 1: Ostrich to Ducks): 255–256, Plate 16. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. <small>{{ISBN|84-87334-10-5}}</small>
* Harrison, Peter (1983): ''Seabirds: An Identification Guide''. Croom Helm, Beckenham. <small>{{ISBN|0-7099-1207-2}}</small><!-- 1991 is reprint or new edition -->
* Harrison, Peter (1983): ''Seabirds: An Identification Guide''. Croom Helm, Beckenham. <small>{{ISBN|0-7099-1207-2}}</small><!-- 1991 is reprint or new edition -->
* [[National Geographic Society]] (2002): ''Field Guide to the Birds of North America''. National Geographic, Washington DC. <small>{{ISBN|0-7922-6877-6}}</small>
* [[National Geographic Society]] (2002): ''Field Guide to the Birds of North America''. National Geographic, Washington DC. <small>{{ISBN|0-7922-6877-6}}</small>
⚫
*{{cite journal|author1=Thayer, John E. |author2=Bangs, Outram |name-list-style=amp|year=1908|title=The Present State of the Ornis of Guadaloupe Island|journal=[[Condor (journal)|Condor]]|volume=10|issue=3|pages= 101–106|doi=10.2307/1360977|jstor=1360977 |hdl=2027/hvd.32044072250186 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/condor/v010n03/p0101-p0106.pdf|hdl-access=free}}


==External links==
==External links==
* [http://www.kiwifoto.com/galleries/birds/black_vented_shearwater/ Black-vented shearwater photos]
* [http://www.kiwifoto.com/galleries/birds/black_vented_shearwater/ Black-vented shearwater photos]
*[http://vireo.acnatsci.org/search.html?Form=Search&SEARCHBY=Common&KEYWORDS=black-vented+shearwater&showwhat=images&AGE=All&SEX=All&ACT=All&Search=Search&VIEW=All&ORIENTATION=All&RESULTS=24 Black-vented shearwater photo gallery] – VIREO
*[http://vireo.acnatsci.org/search.html?Form=Search&SEARCHBY=Common&KEYWORDS=black-vented+shearwater&showwhat=images&AGE=All&SEX=All&ACT=All&Search=Search&VIEW=All&ORIENTATION=All&RESULTS=24 Black-vented shearwater photo gallery] – VIREO
*[http://www.southwestbirders.com/SD010106/bvsh_sd010106_web.JPG Photo-High Res] – southwestbirders
*[http://www.southwestbirders.com/SD010106/bvsh_sd010106_web.JPG Photo-High Res] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210142146/http://www.southwestbirders.com/SD010106/bvsh_sd010106_web.JPG |date=10 February 2012 }} – southwestbirders

<!--see a good RangeMap/maps, lists, etc at: "www.natureserve.org"(then 'InfoNatura')...the 2 (two) categories shown on rangemap for the species: "Breeding Resident", "Non-Breeding Resident"...(Range centers on Baja Peninsula: Breeds west of North Baja)-->


{{Taxonbar|from=Q1268925}}
{{taxonbar}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Shearwater, black-vented}}
[[Category:Puffinus|black-vented shearwater]]
[[Category:Puffinus|black-vented shearwater]]
[[Category:Western North American coastal fauna]]
[[Category:Western North American coastal fauna]]
[[Category:Birds of Mexico]]
[[Category:Birds of Mexico]]
[[Category:Birds of the Gulf of California]]
[[Category:Native birds of the West Coast of the United States]]
[[Category:Native birds of the West Coast of the United States]]
[[Category:Endemic birds of Southwestern North America]]
[[Category:Endemic birds of Southwestern North America]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1864|black-vented shearwater]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1864|black-vented shearwater]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Elliott Coues|black-vented shearwater]]




Latest revision as of 05:53, 12 November 2024

Black-vented shearwater
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Procellariiformes
Family: Procellariidae
Genus: Puffinus
Species:
P. opisthomelas
Binomial name
Puffinus opisthomelas
Coues, 1864

The black-vented shearwater (Puffinus opisthomelas) is a species of seabird endemic to islands off of the Pacific coast of Mexico and the Gulf of California. It is a smaller shearwater, with a length of 30–38 cm, 76–89 cm wingspan and a mass of around 400 g. This species is pelagic and feeds mainly on small fish. It is nocturnal, and is most active in low light settings.

Taxonomy and Origins

[edit]

The name "puffin" is thought to originate from the Middle English term "pophyn," which was used in the Middle Ages to describe the fatty, preserved young shearwaters that were prepared as food. Since shearwaters and Atlantic puffins (Fratercula arctica) often nest in close proximity, the name 'puffin' was mistakenly applied to the Atlantic puffin. Over time, the name stuck, and today it is used for the Atlantic puffin species. The name "puffin" also remained associated with the shearwaters and the genus Puffinus.[2]

The black-vented shearwater is one of around 21 other species in the genus Puffinus, eight of which reside in North and Middle America (see Christmas shearwater, Galápagos shearwater, Manx shearwater, Townsend’s shearwater, Newell’s shearwater, Bryan’s shearwater, Sargasso shearwater and Barolo shearwater).[3] Previously considered a subspecies of the Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus), the black-vented shearwater was officially deemed a species in 1983 by the American Ornithologists Union .[4] It is considered a monotypic species and it currently has no recognised subspecies.[2]

Identification

[edit]

Black-vented shearwater adults are around 30–38 cm in length, have a 76–89 cm wingspan and weigh around 400 g.[2] Males are generally slightly larger than females, though the size difference is minimal.[2]

Plumage

[edit]

Chicks have grey down feathers, lighter around their throat and breast areas. These down feathers lighten slightly over time.[2] Adults have dark brown heads, and dorsal plumages, with lighter ventral plumage (often white with specks and smudges of brown). This is like many other diving and marine bird species, which use countershading as a method of camouflage. Juvenile plumage is similar to adult plumage, however often darker and more contrasted compared to more worn adult plumages. This species is not sexually dimorphic, so plumage does not vary between sexes.[2]

Moulting

[edit]

Individuals have their first moult during the breeding season. It is theorized that this moult, which reduces wing surface area, may enhance diving efficiency. Since these birds forage much closer to shore than other pelagic birds, they do not need to have as effective wings for flight. This moult may also serve to increase dive efficiency during the chick-rearing period.[5]

Habitat and Distribution

[edit]

This species is pelagic, occurring in the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California. It comes closer to land than most other shearwaters[6] It nests predominantly on offshore islands off north and western Baja California, Mexico, namely Isla Natividad (95% of the nesting population), Isla de Guadalupe, and Islas San Benito.[7] It is relatively common along the central and southern California coast during the colder months. The species has recently been observed nesting on Isla Rasa and Isla Partida in the Gulf of California, showing an expansion to their previously known breeding range.[8] Black-vented shearwaters have been spotted as far north as British Columbia, but it is considered an "accidental visitor".[9]

Black-vented shearwaters prefer warmer waters, reportedly greater than 14 °C, but the species is relatively plastic in terms of habitat choice and foraging strategies.[10][2] The species primarily inhabits waters over the continental shelf. Near breeding colonies, the sea floor drops off significantly as one moves farther from the coast, and some individuals are believed to forage in waters that reach depths of over 2 kilometers.[2]

This species does not migrate far and tends to stay relatively close to its breeding colonies year-round.[11]

Behaviour and Ecology

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Black-vented shearwaters are nocturnal, with activity levels influenced by ambient light. This is theorized to be a strategy to avoid predation by diurnal predators such as the Western Gull (Larus occidentalis), as they experience the highest predation rates during daylight hours.[12]

Vocalizations

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Although there are few records of black-vented shearwater calls, their vocalizations have been likened to a moaning growl, similar to the sound of a dentist's drill and suction.[2] The black-vented shearwater only calls at night, when there is little to no moon. Vocalizations are believed to play a significant role in mating, as the species lacks sexual dimorphism, akin to the Manx shearwater.[2][13]

Diet and Foraging

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A black-vented shearwater flying over the water.

The black-vented shearwater is thought to feed mainly on small fish. Individuals have been recorded eating sardines, herring, anchovies and Mastegoteuthid squid.[14][5][15] They are not attracted to chum, and don’t tend to follow ships for food live some other marine avian species.[7]

Black-vented shearwaters forage closer to shore than many other pelagic bird species and tend to avoid extended foraging trips.[16] Like other species in the Puffinus genus, black-vented shearwaters are free-divers. They are the best performing free-diver in the Puffinus genus, with a maximum dive duration of 88 seconds and maximum depth of 52 meters.[5][17] These birds were also recoding diving deeper when foraging during their breeding season.[5]  

Reproduction

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Black-vented shearwaters are colonial nesters. Although colony sizes have not been accurately estimated to date, about 95% of their breeding population has historically been found on Isla Natividad.[7]

During breeding, black-vented shearwaters construct burrows that they maintain throughout the breeding season. It is uncertain when they form burrows, but studies suggest that it is between late November and January.[2][18] These burrows tend to be formed in sandy soil in areas with low vegetation. On San Benito Island, shearwaters often form nests in pre-existing rock crevices.[2] This species also uses artificial burrows when available.[19]

Clutches usually have one egg. Occasionally 2 eggs have been found in nests, likely because of egg-dumping from another female or one of the eggs is from a previous season. Both parents spend roughly equal time incubating the egg. Incubation shifts lasts between three and five days on average. The total incubation period is around 49 days.[2]

Chicks that hatch are altricial and unable to thermoregulate, and hence require significant parental care.[2]

Status and Conservation

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Historically, this species faced threats from feral cats and other predators on its breeding islands; however, these issues appear to have been largely resolved.[20] There is some loss of birds from commercial gill netting, and the species is classified as near threatened by the IUCN mainly due to the uncertain impact on it by the expanding fishing industry.[21]

All islands where they breed have permanent human inhabitants, and anthropogenic presence has consequently led to a decrease in their habitat size. On Isla Natividad, development has significantly impacted nesting habitats. The town and associated infrastructure have led to the loss of an estimated 26,532 burrows, about 15% of the total colony.[19] Their expanded territory to other areas like Isla Rasa and other islands in the Gulf of California bodes well for this species' future conservation.[8]

References

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  1. ^ BirdLife International (2022). "Puffinus opisthomelas". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2022: e.T22698246A117364166. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-2.RLTS.T22698246A117364166.en.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Keitt, Bradford S.; Tershy, Bernie R.; Croll, Donald A. (2020). "Black-vented Shearwater (Puffinus opisthomelas), version 1.0". Birds of the World. doi:10.2173/bow.bkvshe.01species_shared.bow.project_name (inactive 1 November 2024). ISSN 2771-3105.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  3. ^ "AOU Checklist of North and Middle American Birds". checklist.americanornithology.org. Retrieved 14 October 2024.
  4. ^ Lawrence, Kan (1984). Check-list of North American birds, sixth edition (review) (6th ed.). American Ornithologists' Union. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.50892. ISBN 978-0-943610-32-0.
  5. ^ a b c d Keitt, Bradford S.; Croll, Donald A.; Tershy, Bernie R. (1 April 2000). "Dive Depth and Diet of the Black-vented Shearwater (Puffinus opisthomelas)". The Auk. 117 (2): 507–510. doi:10.1093/auk/117.2.507. ISSN 1938-4254.
  6. ^ E.g. "thousands upon thousands" of birds seen off San Quintín, Baja California at the end of June: Thayer & Bangs (1908)
  7. ^ a b c Everett, William T. (1988). "Biology of the Black-Vented Shearwater" (PDF). Western Birds. 19 (3): 104.
  8. ^ a b Velarde, Enriqueta; Ruiz, Enrico; Aguilar, Andres (1 October 2015). "Black-vented Shearwater Puffinus opisthomelas nesting in the Gulf of California: A major extension of breeding range" (PDF). Marine Ornithology. 43: 249–254.
  9. ^ Toochin, Rick; Meredith, Mitch (2016). Status and Occurrence of Black-vented Shearwater (Puffinus opisthomelas) in British Columbia (PDF). University of British Columbia (published 4 January 2016).
  10. ^ Ainley, David G (1978). "The occurrence of seabirds in the coastal region of California" (PDF). Western Birds. 7 (2): 33–68.
  11. ^ American Ornithologists' Union (1957). Check-list of North American Birds (5th ed.). Washington, D.C., USA: American Ornithologists' Union.
  12. ^ Keitt, Bradford S; Tershy, Bernie R; Troll, Donald A (2004). "NOCTURNAL BEHAVIOR REDUCES PREDATION PRESSURE ON BLACK-VENTED SHEARWATERS PUFFINUS OPISTHOMELAS" (PDF). Marine Ornithology. 32: 174–178 – via ResearchGate.
  13. ^ de L. Brooke, M. (1 May 1978). "Sexual differences in the voice and individual vocal recognition in the Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus)". Animal Behaviour. 26: 622–629. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(78)90074-X. ISSN 0003-3472.
  14. ^ Stephens, Frank (1 May 1921). "Early Spring Notes on Birds of Coronado Islands, Mexico". The Condor. 23 (3): 96–97 – via Oxford University Press.
  15. ^ Anthony, A. W. (1896). "The Black-vented Shearwater (Puffinus opisthomelas)". The Auk. 13 (3).
  16. ^ Ainley, David G. (1976). "The occurrence of seabirds in the coastal region of California" (PDF). Western Birds. 7 (2): 33–68.
  17. ^ Soldatini, Cecilia; Rosas Hernandez, Martha P.; Albores-Barajas, Yuri V.; Catoni, Carlo; Ramos, Alejandro; Dell'Omo, Giacomo; Rattenborg, Niels; Chimienti, Marianna (July 2003). "Individual variability in diving behavior of the Black-vented Shearwater in an ever-changing habitat". Science of the Total Environment. 880: 163286. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163286. PMID 37023816.
  18. ^ Jehl, Joseph R; Everett, W T (1985). "History and status of the avifauna of Isla Guadalupe, Mexico" (PDF). Transactions of the San Diego Society of Natural History. 20: 313–336. doi:10.5962/bhl.part.29009.
  19. ^ a b Keitt, Bradford Seaver (1998). Ecology and conservation biology of the Black-vented Shearwater (Puffinus opisthomelas) on Natividad Island, Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve, Baja California Sur, Mexico. University of California, Santa Cruz.
  20. ^ Keitt, B. S.; Tershy, B. R. (29 October 2003). "Cat eradication significantly decreases shearwater mortality". Animal Conservation. 6 (4): 307–308. doi:10.1017/S1367943003003378. ISSN 1367-9430 – via Cambridge University Press.
  21. ^ Everett, William T.; Pitman, Robert L. (1993). Vermeer, Kees; Briggs, Kenneth T.; Morgan, Ken H.; Siegel-Causey, Douglas (eds.). "Status and conservation of shearwaters of the North Pacific" (PDF). Canadian Wildlife Service – via Environment Canada.

Further reading

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