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An example paper printable bitcoin wallet consisting of one bitcoin address for receiving and the corresponding private key for spending

A cryptocurrency wallet is a device,^[1] physical medium,^[2] program or an online service which stores the public and/or private keys^[3] for cryptocurrency transactions. In addition to this basic function of storing the keys, a cryptocurrency wallet more often offers the functionality of encrypting and/or signing information.^[4] Signing can for example result in executing a smart contract, a cryptocurrency transaction (see "bitcoin transaction" image), identification, or legally signing a 'document' (see "application form" image).^[5]

History

In 2008 bitcoin was introduced as the first cryptocurrency following the principle outlined by Satoshi Nakamoto in the paper “Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System.”^[6] The project was described as an electronic payment system using cryptographic proof instead of trust. It also mentioned using cryptographic proof to verify and record transactions on a blockchain.^[7]^[8]

Software wallets

The first wallet program, simply named Bitcoin, and sometimes referred to as the Satoshi client, was released in January 2009 by Satoshi Nakamoto as open-source software.^[9] In version 0.5 the client moved from the wxWidgets user interface toolkit to Qt, and the whole bundle was referred to as Bitcoin-Qt.^[10] After the release of version 0.9, the software bundle was renamed Bitcoin Core to distinguish itself from the underlying network.^[11]^[12] Bitcoin Core is, perhaps, the best known implementation or client. Forks of Bitcoin Core exist, such as Bitcoin XT, Bitcoin Unlimited,^[13] and Parity Bitcoin.^[14]

There are several modes in which wallets can operate. They have an inverse relationship with regard to trustlessness and computational requirements.^[15]

Full clients verify transactions directly by downloading a full copy of the blockchain (over 150 GB as of January 2018^[update]).^[16] They do not require trust in any external parties. Full clients check the validity of mined blocks, preventing them from transacting on a chain that breaks or alters network rules.^[17]^{: ch. 1} Because of its size and complexity, downloading and verifying the entire blockchain is not suitable for all computing devices.^{[citation needed]}
Lightweight clients consult full nodes to send and receive transactions without requiring a local copy of the entire blockchain (see simplified payment verification – SPV). This makes lightweight clients much faster to set up and allows them to be used on low-power, low-bandwidth devices such as smartphones. When using a lightweight wallet, however, the user must trust full nodes, as it can report faulty values back to the user. Lightweight clients follow the longest blockchain and do not ensure it is valid, requiring trust in full nodes.^[18]

Third-party internet services called online wallets or webwallets offer similar functionality but may be easier to use. In this case, credentials to access funds are stored with the online wallet provider rather than on the user's hardware.^[19] As a result, the user must have complete trust in the online wallet provider. A malicious provider or a breach in server security may cause entrusted bitcoins to be stolen. An example of such a security breach occurred with Mt. Gox in 2011.^[20]

Cold storage

A paper wallet with a banknote-like design. Both the private key and the address are visible in text form and as 2D barcodes.

A paper wallet with the address visible for adding or checking stored funds. The part of the page containing the private key is folded over and sealed.

A brass token with a private key hidden beneath a tamper-evident security hologram. A part of the address is visible through a transparent part of the hologram.

A hardware wallet peripheral which processes bitcoin payments without exposing any credentials to the computer

Wallet software is targeted by hackers because of the lucrative potential for stealing bitcoins.^[21] "Cold storage" simply means keeping the private keys out of reach of hackers by storing or generating them on a device that is not connected to the internet.^[22]^[17]^{: ch. 4}^[23]^: 39 The credentials necessary to spend bitcoins can be stored offline in a number of different ways, from simple paper printouts of private keys, to specialized hardware wallets.^[17]^{: ch. 10}

Paper wallets

A paper wallet is created with a keypair generated on a computer with no internet connection; the private key is written or printed onto the paper and then erased from the computer.^[17]^{: ch. 4} The paper wallet can then be stored in a safe physical location for later retrieval.^[23]^: 39

Physical wallets can also take the form of metal token coins^[24] with a private key accessible under a security hologram in a recess struck on the reverse side.^[25]^: 38 The security hologram self-destructs when removed from the token, showing that the private key has been accessed.^[26] Originally, these tokens were struck in brass and other base metals, but later used precious metals as bitcoin grew in value and popularity.^[25]^: 80 Coins with stored face value as high as ₿1,000 have been struck in gold.^[25]^{: 102–104} The British Museum's coin collection includes four specimens from the earliest series^[25]^: 83 of funded bitcoin tokens; one is currently on display in the museum's money gallery.^[27] In 2013, a Utah manufacturer of these tokens was ordered by the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) to register as a money services business before producing any more funded bitcoin tokens.^[24]^[25]^: 80

Hardware wallets

A hardware wallet is a small and portable computer peripheral that signs transactions as requested by the user. These devices store private keys and carry out signing and encryption internally,^[22] and do not share any sensitive information with the host computer except already signed (and thus unalterable) transactions.^[28] Because hardware wallets never expose their private keys, even computers that may be compromised by malware do not have a vector to access or steal them.^[23]^: 42–45The user sets a passcode when setting up a hardware wallet.^[22] As hardware wallets are tamper-resistant,^[28]^[17]^{: ch. 10} without the passcode the assets cannot be accessed.^[28]

Technology

Private and public key generation

A cryptocurrency wallet works by a theoretical or random number being generated and used with a length that depends on the algorithm size of the cryptocurrency's technology requirements. The number is converted to a private key using the specific requirements of the cryptocurrency cryptography algorithm requirement. A public key is then generated from the private key using whichever cryptographic algorithm is required. The private key is used by the owner to access and send cryptocurrency and is private to the owner, whereas the public key is to be shared to any third party to receive cryptocurrency.^[29]

Up to this stage no computer or electronic device is required and all key pairs can be mathematically derived and written down by hand. The private key and public key pair (known as an address) are not known by the blockchain or anyone else. The blockchain will only record the transaction of the public address when cryptocurrency is sent to it, thus recording in the blockchain ledger the transaction of the public address.^[4]

Duplicate private keys

Collision (two or more wallets having the same private key) is theoretically possible, since keys can be generated without being used for transactions, and are therefore offline until recorded in the blockchain ledger. However, this possibility is effectively negated because the theoretical probability of two or more private keys being the same is extremely low. The number of possible wallets and thus private keys is extremely high,^[4]^[30]^[31] so duplicating or hacking a certain key would be inconceivable.^[32]^[33]

Seed phrases

In modern convention a seed phrase is now utilised which is a random 12 to 24 (or even greater) list of dictionary words which is an unencrypted form of the private key. (Words are easier to memorize than numerals). When online, exchange and hardware wallets are generated using random numbers, and the user is asked to supply a seed phrase. If the wallet is misplaced, damaged or compromised, the seed phrase can be used to re-access the wallet and associated keys and cryptocurrency in toto.^[34]

Wallets

A number of technologies known as wallets exist that store the key value pair of private and public key known as wallets. A wallet hosts the details of the key pair making cryptocurrency transactions possible. Multiple methods exist for storing keys or seeds in a wallet.^[35]

A brainwallet or brain wallet is a type of wallet in which one memorizes a passcode (a private key or seed phrase).^[36]^[37] Brainwallets may be attractive due to plausible deniability or protection against governmental seizure,^[38] but are vulnerable to password guessing (especially large-scale offline guessing).^[36]^[38] Several hundred brainwallets exist on the Bitcoin blockchain, but most of them have been drained, sometimes repeatedly.^[36]

Crypto wallets vis-à-vis DApp browsers

DApp browsers are specialized software that supports decentralized applications. DApp browsers are considered to be the browsers of Web3 and are the gateway to access the decentralized applications which are based on blockchain technology. That means all DApp browsers must have a unique code system to unify all the different codes of the DApps.^[39]

While crypto wallets are focused on the exchange, purchase, sale of digital assets and support narrowly targeted applications, the browsers support different kinds of applications of various formats, including exchange, games, NFTs marketplaces, etc.

Characteristics

In addition to the basic function of storing the keys, a cryptocurrency wallet may also have one or more of the following characteristics.

Simple cryptocurrency wallet

A simple cryptocurrency wallet contains pairs of public and private cryptographic keys. The keys can be used to track ownership, receipt or spend cryptocurrencies.^[40] A public key allows others to make payments to the address derived from it, whereas a private key enables the spending of cryptocurrency from that address.^[41]

The cryptocurrency itself is not in the wallet. In the case of bitcoin and cryptocurrencies derived from it, the cryptocurrency is decentrally stored and maintained in a publicly available distributed ledger called the blockchain.^[40]

Multi-chain cryptocurrency wallet

Multi-chain wallets are designed to support multiple blockchain networks, enabling users to store, manage, and transact different types of cryptocurrencies from a single interface. Unlike single-chain wallets, which are limited to a specific blockchain, multi-chain wallets provide a unified experience for handling various assets. These wallets enhance convenience and security by reducing the need for multiple wallet applications and providing integrated features for multiple digital assets.

Features of a multi-chain wallet:

Support for Multiple Blockchains: Users can hold and manage various blockchains such as Bitcoin, Ethereum, Klever Blockchain, Binance Smart Chain, and more within one wallet.
Enhanced Security: Typically incorporate advanced security measures including two-factor authentication and seed phrase backup.
Interoperability: Facilitates seamless transactions across different blockchain networks.
User-friendly Interface: Designed to be accessible and intuitive, making it easier for users to navigate and manage their assets.

Popular multi-chain wallets include Trust Wallet, Klever Wallet and Exodus, each offering unique features and support for multiple blockchains, therefore, hundreds of cryptocurrencies.

eID wallet

Some wallets are specifically designed to be compatible with a framework. The European Union is creating an eIDAS compatible European Self-Sovereign Identity Framework (ESSIF) which runs on the European Blockchain Services Infrastructure (EBSI). The EBSI wallet is designed to (securely) provide information, an eID and to sign 'transactions'.^[5]

Multisignature wallet

In contrast to simple cryptocurrency wallets requiring just one party to sign a transaction, multi-sig wallets require multiple parties to sign a transaction.^[42] Multisignature wallets are designed for increased security.^[43] Usually, a multisignature algorithm produces a joint signature that is more compact than a collection of distinct signatures from all users.^[44]

Smart contract

In the cryptocurrency space, smart contracts are digitally signed in the same way a cryptocurrency transaction is signed. The signing keys are held in a cryptocurrency wallet.

Key derivation

Sequential deterministic wallet

A sequential deterministic wallet utilizes a simple method of generating addresses from a known starting string or "seed". This would utilize a cryptographic hash function, e.g. SHA-256 (seed + n), where n is an ASCII-coded number that starts from 1 and increments as additional keys are needed.^[45]

Hierarchical deterministic wallet

The hierarchical deterministic (HD) wallet was publicly described in BIP32.^[46] As a deterministic wallet, it also derives keys from a single master root seed, but instead of having a single "chain" of keypairs, an HD wallet supports multiple key pair chains.

This allows a single key string to be used to generate an entire tree of key pairs with a stratified structure.^[47]

BIP39 proposed the use of a set of human-readable words to derive the master private key of a wallet.^{[citation needed]} This mnemonic phrase allows for easier wallet backup and recovery, due to all the keys of a wallet being derivable from a single plaintext string.^[how?]

Non-deterministic wallet

In a non-deterministic wallet, each key is randomly generated on its own accord, and they are not seeded from a common key. Therefore, any backups of the wallet must store each and every single private key used as an address, as well as a buffer of 100 or so future keys that may have already been given out as addresses but not received payments yet.^[48]^[40]^: 94

Concerns

A wallet can also have known or unknown vulnerabilities. A supply chain attack or side-channel attack are ways of introducing vulnerabilities. In extreme cases even a computer which is not connected to any network can be hacked.^[49]

To mitigate the risk of crypto wallet hacking, one can choose for a cold wallet, which remains offline and disconnected from the internet. A cold wallet refers to a physical device, such as a pen drive, that is utilized as a secure storage medium for transferring money from a hot wallet.^[50]

Security

When using a merchant site that accepts server-side digital wallets, customers enter their name, payment, and delivery information. Following the purchase, the customer is requested to register for a wallet with a user name and password for future purchases.^[51]

Digital wallets can be dedicated to a single cryptocurrency (examples: Bitcoin, Etherium, Ripple, Litecoin), or they can be multi-currency (Coinomi, CoinSpot, CoinVault, Cryptonator multi-cryptocurrency wallet, Exodus, Gatehub, Holy Transaction, Jaxx Wallet, UberPay Wallet, AnCrypto Wallet, Klever Wallet.

Wallets are free for consumers but cost retailers. Wallet sellers may receive a portion of merchant purchases made through their wallets. In other circumstances, digital wallet vendors conduct cardholder-merchant transactions for a set fee.^[52]

References

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[1] Roberts, Daniel (15 December 2017). "How to send bitcoin to a hardware wallet". Yahoo! Finance. Archived from the original on 17 February 2018. Retrieved 11 March 2019.

[2] Divine, John (1 February 2019). "What's the Best Bitcoin Wallet?". U.S. News & World Report. Archived from the original on 27 October 2021. Retrieved 12 March 2019.

[3] Newman, Lily Hay (2017-11-05). "How to Keep Your Bitcoin Safe and Secure". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Archived from the original on 2021-03-04. Retrieved 2019-03-10.

[:2-4] Levine, Matt. "The Crypto Story". Bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on 2023-12-15. Retrieved 2023-12-03.

[EBSI-5] "European Blockchain Services Infrastructure (EBSI)". 2020-12-31. Archived from the original on 2022-10-19.

[6] Nakamoto, Satoshi. "Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-03-20. Retrieved 2023-02-26.

[7] "What are blockchain and cryptocurrency?", Blockchain and Cryptocurrency: International Legal and Regulatory Challenges, Bloomsbury Professional, 2022, doi:10.5040/9781526521682.chapter-002, ISBN 978-1-5265-2165-1, retrieved 2023-02-26

[8] "Soon You'll Be Saying, 'There's a Blockchain App for That'". Bloomberg.com. 2021-11-16. Archived from the original on 2022-05-12. Retrieved 2023-12-03.

[NY2011-9] Davis, Joshua (10 October 2011). "The Crypto-Currency: Bitcoin and its mysterious inventor". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 1 November 2014. Retrieved 31 October 2014.

[Bitcoin_Clients-10] Skudnov, Rostislav (2012). Bitcoin Clients (PDF) (Bachelor's Thesis). Turku University of Applied Sciences. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 January 2014. Retrieved 16 January 2014.

[11] "Bitcoin Core version 0.9.0 released". bitcoin.org. Archived from the original on 27 February 2015. Retrieved 8 January 2015.

[12] Metz, Cade (19 August 2015). "The Bitcoin Schism Shows the Genius of Open Source". Wired. Condé Nast. Archived from the original on 30 June 2016. Retrieved 3 July 2016.

[breakingup-13] Vigna, Paul (17 January 2016). "Is Bitcoin Breaking Up?". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 20 August 2016. Retrieved 8 November 2016.

[14] Allison, Ian (28 April 2017). "Ethereum co-founder Dr Gavin Wood and company release Parity Bitcoin". International Business Times. Archived from the original on 28 April 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2017.

[15] Truong, Nguyen; Lee, Gyu Myoung; Sun, Kai; Guitton, Florian; Guo, YiKe (2021-11-01). "A blockchain-based trust system for decentralised applications: When trustless needs trust". Future Generation Computer Systems. 124: 68–79. arXiv:2101.10920. doi:10.1016/j.future.2021.05.025. ISSN 0167-739X. Archived from the original on 2024-05-18. Retrieved 2024-05-18.

[16] "Bitcoin blockchain size 2009-2024". Statista. Archived from the original on 2024-05-18. Retrieved 2024-05-18.

[Antonopoulos2014-17] Antonopoulos, Andreas M. (2014). Mastering Bitcoin: Unlocking Digital Crypto-Currencies. O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-1-4493-7404-4.

[LBC-18] Gervais, Arthur; O. Karame, Ghassan; Gruber, Damian; Capkun, Srdjan. "On the Privacy Provisions of Bloom Filters in Lightweight Bitcoin Clients" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 October 2016. Retrieved 3 September 2016.

[19] Bill Barhydt (4 June 2014). "3 reasons Wall Street can't stay away from bitcoin". NBCUniversal. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 2 April 2015.

[mtgoxdetails-20] "MtGox gives bankruptcy details". bbc.com. BBC. 4 March 2014. Archived from the original on 12 March 2014. Retrieved 13 March 2014.

[Jeffries-21] Jeffries, Adrianne (19 December 2013). "How to steal Bitcoin in three easy steps". The Verge. Archived from the original on 27 July 2019. Retrieved 17 January 2014.

[Roberts-22] Roberts, Daniel (15 December 2017). "How to send bitcoin to a hardware wallet". Yahoo Finance. Archived from the original on 17 February 2018. Retrieved 17 February 2018.

[befuddled-23] Barski, Conrad; Wilmer, Chris (2015). Bitcoin for the Befuddled. No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-573-0.

[theverge-24] Staff, Verge (13 December 2013). "Casascius, maker of shiny physical bitcoins, shut down by Treasury Department". The Verge. Archived from the original on 10 January 2014. Retrieved 10 January 2014.

[Ahonen2016-25] Ahonen, Elias; Rippon, Matthew J.; Kesselman, Howard (2016). Encyclopedia of Physical Bitcoins and Crypto-Currencies. Elias Ahonen. ISBN 978-0-9950-8990-7.

[26] Mack, Eric (25 October 2011). "Are physical Bitcoins legal?". CNET. Archived from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 19 May 2019.

[27] British Museum (2012). "Bitcoin token with digital code for bitcoin currency". Archived from the original on 2019-10-10. Retrieved 17 May 2019.

[iohk-28] Arapinis, Myrto; Gkaniatsou, Adriana; Karakostas, Dimitris; Kiayias, Aggelos (2019). A Formal Treatment of Hardware Wallets (PDF) (Technical report). University of Edinburgh, IOHK.

[29] Baloian, Artiom (2021-12-18). "How To Generate Public and Private Keys for the Blockchain". Medium. Archived from the original on 2023-09-27. Retrieved 2023-09-27.

[30] Singer, David; Singer, Ari (2018). "Big Numbers: The Role Played by Mathematics in Internet Commerce" (PDF).

[31] Kraft, James S. (2018). An introduction to number theory with cryptography. Lawrence C. Washington (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL. ISBN 978-1-315-16100-6. OCLC 1023861398.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

[32] "Yadav, Nagendra Singh & Goar, Vishal & Kuri, Manoj. (2020). Crypto Wallet: A Perfect Combination with Blockchain and Security Solution for Banking. International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation. 24. 6056-6066. 10.37200/IJPR/V24I2/PR2021078". Archived from the original on 2021-09-16. Retrieved 2021-09-16.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Short description|Medium to store keys for signing cryptocurrency transactions}}
-{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
+{{pp|small=yes}}
+{{Multiple issues|
+{{unreliable sources|date=January 2023}}
+{{primary sources|date=January 2023}}
+}}
 [[File:A paper printable Bitcoin wallet consisting of one bitcoin address for receiving and the corresponding private key for spending.png|200px|thumb|An example paper printable [[Bitcoin#Wallets|bitcoin wallet]] consisting of one bitcoin address for receiving and the corresponding private key for spending]]
-A '''cryptocurrency wallet''' is a device,<ref>{{cite news|last1= Roberts |first1=Daniel |title=How to send bitcoin to a hardware wallet |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/send-bitcoin-hardware-wallet-140141385.html |work=Yahoo! Finance |date=15 December 2017}}</ref> physical medium,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Divine |first1=John |title=What's the Best Bitcoin Wallet? |url=https://money.usnews.com/investing/cryptocurrency/articles/best-bitcoin-wallet |access-date=12 March 2019 |work=[[U.S. News & World Report]] |date=1 February 2019}}</ref> program or a service which stores the [[Public-key cryptography|public and/or private keys]]<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/how-to-keep-bitcoin-safe-and-secure/|title=How to Keep Your Bitcoin Safe and Secure|last=Newman|first=Lily Hay|date=2017-11-05|magazine=Wired|access-date=2019-03-10|issn=1059-1028}}</ref> for [[cryptocurrency]] transactions. In addition to this basic function of storing the keys, a cryptocurrency wallet more often also offers the functionality of [[encrypting]] and/or [[Digital signature|signing]] information. Signing can for example result in executing a [[smart contract]], a cryptocurrency transaction (see "bitcoin transaction" image), [[Digital signature#Authentication|identification]] or [[Electronic signature|legally signing]] a 'document' (see "application form" image).<ref name="EBSI">{{cite web |title=European Blockchain Services Infrastructure (EBSI) |url=https://ec.europa.eu/cefdigital/ebsi |website=[[European Commission]] |access-date=24 July 2020 |quote=""}}</ref>
+A '''cryptocurrency wallet''' is a device,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Roberts |first1=Daniel |title=How to send bitcoin to a hardware wallet |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/send-bitcoin-hardware-wallet-140141385.html |work=Yahoo! Finance |date=15 December 2017 |access-date=11 March 2019 |archive-date=17 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180217142235/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/send-bitcoin-hardware-wallet-140141385.html |url-status=live }}</ref> physical medium,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Divine |first1=John |title=What's the Best Bitcoin Wallet? |url=https://money.usnews.com/investing/cryptocurrency/articles/best-bitcoin-wallet |access-date=12 March 2019 |work=[[U.S. News & World Report]] |date=1 February 2019 |archive-date=27 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027185641/https://money.usnews.com/investing/cryptocurrency/articles/best-bitcoin-wallet |url-status=live }}</ref> program or an online service which stores the [[Public-key cryptography|public and/or private keys]]<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/how-to-keep-bitcoin-safe-and-secure/|title=How to Keep Your Bitcoin Safe and Secure|last=Newman|first=Lily Hay|date=2017-11-05|magazine=Wired|access-date=2019-03-10|issn=1059-1028|archive-date=2021-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304035145/https://www.wired.com/story/how-to-keep-bitcoin-safe-and-secure/|url-status=live}}</ref> for [[cryptocurrency]] transactions. In addition to this basic function of storing the keys, a cryptocurrency wallet more often offers the functionality of [[encrypting]] and/or [[Digital signature|signing]] information.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last=Levine |first=Matt |title=The Crypto Story |language=en |work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/features/2022-the-crypto-story/ |access-date=2023-12-03 |archive-date=2023-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231215223940/https://www.bloomberg.com/features/2022-the-crypto-story/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Signing can for example result in executing a [[smart contract]], a cryptocurrency transaction (see "bitcoin transaction" image), [[Digital signature#Authentication|identification]], or [[Electronic signature|legally signing]] a 'document' (see "application form" image).<ref name="EBSI">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2020-12-31|title=European Blockchain Services Infrastructure (EBSI)|url=https://ec.europa.eu/cefdigital/ebsi|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221019102616/https://ec.europa.eu/cefdigital/wiki/display/CEFDIGITAL/EBSI |archive-date=2022-10-19}}</ref>
+== History ==
+In 2008 bitcoin was introduced as the first cryptocurrency following the principle outlined by [[Satoshi Nakamoto]] in the paper “Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System.”<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nakamoto |first=Satoshi |title=Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System |url=https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf |access-date=2023-02-26 |archive-date=2014-03-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320135003/https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The project was described as an electronic payment system using cryptographic proof instead of trust. It also mentioned using cryptographic proof to verify and record transactions on a [[blockchain]].<ref>{{Citation |title=What are blockchain and cryptocurrency? |date=2022 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781526521682.chapter-002 |work=Blockchain and Cryptocurrency: International Legal and Regulatory Challenges |publisher=Bloomsbury Professional |doi=10.5040/9781526521682.chapter-002 |isbn=978-1-5265-2165-1 |access-date=2023-02-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-11-16 |title=Soon You'll Be Saying, 'There's a Blockchain App for That' |language=en |work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-11-16/what-is-blockchain-how-the-technology-transforms-daily-life |access-date=2023-12-03 |archive-date=2022-05-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512184548/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-11-16/what-is-blockchain-how-the-technology-transforms-daily-life |url-status=live }}</ref>
+=== Software wallets ===
+The first wallet program, simply named ''Bitcoin'', and sometimes referred to as the ''Satoshi client'', was released in January 2009 by Satoshi Nakamoto as [[open-source software]].<ref name="NY2011">{{Cite magazine |last=Davis |first=Joshua |date=10 October 2011 |title=The Crypto-Currency: Bitcoin and its mysterious inventor |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/10/10/the-crypto-currency |url-status=live |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101014157/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/10/10/the-crypto-currency |archive-date=1 November 2014 |access-date=31 October 2014}}</ref> In version 0.5 the client moved from the [[wxWidgets]] user interface toolkit to [[Qt (software)|Qt]], and the whole bundle was referred to as ''Bitcoin-Qt''.<ref name="Bitcoin Clients">{{Cite thesis |last=Skudnov |first=Rostislav |title=Bitcoin Clients |publisher=[[Turku University of Applied Sciences]] |url=http://publications.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/47166/Skudnov_Rostislav.pdf?sequence=1 |type=Bachelor's Thesis |year=2012 |access-date=16 January 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140118104507/http://publications.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/47166/Skudnov_Rostislav.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-date=18 January 2014}}</ref> After the release of version 0.9, the software bundle was renamed ''Bitcoin Core'' to distinguish itself from the underlying network.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bitcoin Core version 0.9.0 released |url=https://bitcoin.org/en/release/v0.9.0 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227213613/https://bitcoin.org/en/release/v0.9.0 |archive-date=27 February 2015 |access-date=8 January 2015 |website=bitcoin.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Metz |first=Cade |date=19 August 2015 |title=The Bitcoin Schism Shows the Genius of Open Source |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |publisher=Condé Nast |url=https://www.wired.com/2015/08/bitcoin-schism-shows-genius-open-source/ |url-status=live |access-date=3 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630230101/http://www.wired.com/2015/08/bitcoin-schism-shows-genius-open-source |archive-date=30 June 2016}}</ref> [[Bitcoin Core]] is, perhaps, the best known implementation or client. [[Fork (software development)|Forks]] of Bitcoin Core exist, such as [[Bitcoin XT]], [[Bitcoin Unlimited]],<ref name="breakingup">{{Cite news |last=Vigna |first=Paul |date=17 January 2016 |title=Is Bitcoin Breaking Up? |work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/is-bitcoin-breaking-up-1453044493 |url-status=live |access-date=8 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820144312/http://www.wsj.com/articles/is-bitcoin-breaking-up-1453044493 |archive-date=20 August 2016}}</ref> and Parity Bitcoin.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Allison |first=Ian |date=28 April 2017 |title=Ethereum co-founder Dr Gavin Wood and company release Parity Bitcoin |work=[[International Business Times]] |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/ethereum-co-founder-dr-gavin-wood-company-release-parity-bitcoin-1619025 |url-status=live |access-date=28 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428032027/http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/ethereum-co-founder-dr-gavin-wood-company-release-parity-bitcoin-1619025 |archive-date=28 April 2017}}</ref>
+There are several modes in which wallets can operate. They have an inverse relationship with regard to trustlessness and computational requirements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Truong |first1=Nguyen |last2=Lee |first2=Gyu Myoung |last3=Sun |first3=Kai |last4=Guitton |first4=Florian |last5=Guo |first5=YiKe |date=2021-11-01 |title=A blockchain-based trust system for decentralised applications: When trustless needs trust |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167739X21001758 |journal=Future Generation Computer Systems |volume=124 |pages=68–79 |doi=10.1016/j.future.2021.05.025 |issn=0167-739X |arxiv=2101.10920 |access-date=2024-05-18 |archive-date=2024-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518201658/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167739X21001758 |url-status=live }}</ref>
+* ''Full clients'' verify transactions directly by downloading a full copy of the blockchain (over 150&nbsp;GB {{as of|2018|January|lc=y}}).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bitcoin blockchain size 2009-2024 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/647523/worldwide-bitcoin-blockchain-size/ |access-date=2024-05-18 |website=Statista |language=en |archive-date=2024-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518204356/https://www.statista.com/statistics/647523/worldwide-bitcoin-blockchain-size/ |url-status=live }}</ref> They do not require trust in any external parties. Full clients check the validity of mined blocks, preventing them from transacting on a chain that breaks or alters network rules.{{r|Antonopoulos2014|p=ch. 1}} Because of its size and complexity, downloading and verifying the entire blockchain is not suitable for all computing devices.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}
+* ''Lightweight clients'' consult full nodes to send and receive transactions without requiring a local copy of the entire blockchain (see ''[[Bitcoin network#Payment verification|simplified payment verification]]'' – ''SPV''). This makes lightweight clients much faster to set up and allows them to be used on low-power, low-bandwidth devices such as smartphones. When using a lightweight wallet, however, the user must trust full nodes, as it can report faulty values back to the user. Lightweight clients follow the longest blockchain and do not ensure it is valid, requiring trust in full nodes.<ref name="LBC">{{cite web |last1=Gervais |first1=Arthur |last2=O. Karame |first2=Ghassan |last3=Gruber |first3=Damian |last4=Capkun |first4=Srdjan |title=On the Privacy Provisions of Bloom Filters in Lightweight Bitcoin Clients |url=https://eprint.iacr.org/2014/763.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005045518/https://eprint.iacr.org/2014/763.pdf |archive-date=5 October 2016 |access-date=3 September 2016}}</ref>
+Third-party internet services called ''online wallets'' or ''webwallets'' offer similar functionality but may be easier to use. In this case, credentials to access funds are stored with the online wallet provider rather than on the user's hardware.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bill Barhydt |date=4 June 2014 |title=3 reasons Wall Street can't stay away from bitcoin |publisher=NBCUniversal |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2014/06/04/3-reasons-wall-street-cant-stay-away-from-bitcoin.html |url-status=live |access-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403052101/https://www.cnbc.com/id/101711220 |archive-date=3 April 2015}}</ref> As a result, the user must have complete trust in the online wallet provider. A malicious provider or a breach in server security may cause entrusted bitcoins to be stolen. An example of such a security breach occurred with Mt. Gox in 2011.<ref name="mtgoxdetails">{{cite web |date=4 March 2014 |title=MtGox gives bankruptcy details |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-26420932 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312001338/http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-26420932 |archive-date=12 March 2014 |access-date=13 March 2014 |website=bbc.com |publisher=BBC}}</ref>
+=== Cold storage ===
+{{multiple image
+| total_width       = 416
+| perrow            = 2
+| image1            = Bitcoin paper wallet generated at bitaddress.jpg
+| caption1          = A paper wallet with a [[banknote]]-like design. Both the private key and the address are visible in [[human-readable medium|text form]] and as [[2D barcode]]s.
+| image2            = Sample Bitcoin paper wallet.png
+| caption2          = A paper wallet with the address visible for adding or checking stored funds. The part of the page containing the private key is folded over and sealed.
+| image3            = Casascius_coin.jpg
+| caption3          = A brass [[token coin|token]] with a private key hidden beneath a [[tamper-evident technology|tamper-evident]] [[security hologram]]. A part of the address is visible through a transparent part of the hologram.
+| image4            = 10elqpi.jpg
+| caption4          = A hardware wallet [[peripheral]] which processes bitcoin payments without exposing any credentials to the computer
+}}
+Wallet software is targeted by [[Security hacker|hackers]] because of the lucrative potential for [[Cryptocurrency and crime|stealing bitcoins]].<ref name="Jeffries">{{Cite news |last=Jeffries |first=Adrianne |date=19 December 2013 |title=How to steal Bitcoin in three easy steps |work=The Verge |url=https://www.theverge.com/2013/12/19/5183356/how-to-steal-bitcoin-in-three-easy-steps |url-status=live |access-date=17 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727141228/https://www.theverge.com/2013/12/19/5183356/how-to-steal-bitcoin-in-three-easy-steps |archive-date=27 July 2019}}</ref> "Cold storage" simply means keeping the private keys out of reach of hackers by storing or generating them on a device that is [[Air gap (networking)|not connected to the internet]].<ref name="Roberts">{{Cite news |last=Roberts |first=Daniel |date=15 December 2017 |title=How to send bitcoin to a hardware wallet |work=Yahoo Finance |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/send-bitcoin-hardware-wallet-140141385.html |url-status=live |access-date=17 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180217142235/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/send-bitcoin-hardware-wallet-140141385.html |archive-date=17 February 2018}}</ref><ref name="Antonopoulos2014">{{Cite book |last=Antonopoulos |first=Andreas M. |title=Mastering Bitcoin: Unlocking Digital Crypto-Currencies |publisher=O'Reilly Media |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4493-7404-4 |author-link=Andreas Antonopoulos}}</ref>{{rp|ch. 4}}<ref name="befuddled">{{Cite book |last1=Barski |first1=Conrad |title=Bitcoin for the Befuddled |last2=Wilmer |first2=Chris |publisher=[[No Starch Press]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-59327-573-0}}</ref>{{rp|39}} The credentials necessary to spend bitcoins can be stored offline in a number of different ways, from simple paper printouts of private keys, to specialized hardware wallets.{{r|Antonopoulos2014|page=ch. 10}}
+==== Paper wallets ====
+A paper wallet is created with a keypair generated on a [[Air gap (networking)|computer with no internet connection]]; the private key is written or printed onto the paper and then erased from the computer.<ref name="Antonopoulos2014" />{{rp|ch. 4}} The paper wallet can then be stored in a safe physical location for later retrieval.{{r|befuddled|page=39}}
+Physical wallets can also take the form of metal [[token coin]]s<ref name="theverge">{{cite web |last=Staff |first=Verge |date=13 December 2013 |title=Casascius, maker of shiny physical bitcoins, shut down by Treasury Department |url=https://www.theverge.com/2013/12/13/5207256/casascius-maker-of-shiny-physical-bitcoins-shut-down-by-treasury |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110010445/http://www.theverge.com/2013/12/13/5207256/casascius-maker-of-shiny-physical-bitcoins-shut-down-by-treasury |archive-date=10 January 2014 |access-date=10 January 2014 |website=The Verge}}</ref> with a private key accessible under a [[security hologram]] in a recess struck on the [[Obverse and reverse|reverse side]].<ref name="Ahonen2016">{{Cite book |last1=Ahonen |first1=Elias |title=Encyclopedia of Physical Bitcoins and Crypto-Currencies |last2=Rippon |first2=Matthew J. |last3=Kesselman |first3=Howard |publisher=Elias Ahonen |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-9950-8990-7}}</ref>{{rp|38}} The security hologram [[Tamper-evident technology|self-destructs when removed]] from the token, showing that the private key has been accessed.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mack |first=Eric |date=25 October 2011 |title=Are physical Bitcoins legal? |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/are-physical-bitcoins-legal/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626215256/https://www.cnet.com/news/are-physical-bitcoins-legal/ |archive-date=26 June 2019 |access-date=19 May 2019 |website=[[CNET]]}}</ref> Originally, these tokens were struck in brass and other [[base metal]]s, but later used [[precious metal]]s as bitcoin grew in value and popularity.{{r|Ahonen2016|page=80}} Coins with stored face value as high as ₿1,000 have been struck in gold.{{r|Ahonen2016|page=102–104}} The [[British Museum]]'s [[British Museum Department of Coins and Medals|coin collection]] includes four specimens from the earliest series{{r|Ahonen2016|page=83}} of funded bitcoin tokens; one is currently on display in the museum's money gallery.<ref>{{cite web |last=British Museum |author-link=British Museum |year=2012 |title=Bitcoin token with digital code for bitcoin currency |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=3451294&partId=1&people=185966&peoA=185966-3-9&page=1 |access-date=17 May 2019 |archive-date=2019-10-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010014657/https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=3451294&partId=1&people=185966&peoA=185966-3-9&page=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2013, a [[Utah]] manufacturer of these tokens was ordered by the [[Financial Crimes Enforcement Network]] (FinCEN) to register as a [[money services business]] before producing any more funded bitcoin tokens.<ref name="theverge" />{{r|Ahonen2016|page=80}}
+==== Hardware wallets ====
+A hardware wallet is a small and portable computer [[peripheral]] that signs transactions as requested by the user. These devices store private keys and carry out signing and encryption internally,<ref name="Roberts" /> and do not share any sensitive information with the host computer except already signed (and thus unalterable) transactions.<ref name="iohk">{{cite tech report|first=Myrto|last=Arapinis|first2=Adriana|last2=Gkaniatsou|first3=Dimitris|last3=Karakostas|first4=Aggelos|last4=Kiayias|title=A Formal Treatment of Hardware Wallets|institution=[[University of Edinburgh]], IOHK|year=2019|url=https://eprint.iacr.org/2019/034.pdf}}</ref> Because hardware wallets never expose their private keys, even computers that may be compromised by malware do not have a vector to access or steal them.{{r|befuddled|page=42–45}}The user sets a passcode when setting up a hardware wallet.<ref name="Roberts" /> As hardware wallets are [[Tamperproofing|tamper-resistant]],<ref name="iohk" /><ref name="Antonopoulos2014" />{{rp|ch. 10}} without the passcode the assets cannot be accessed.<ref name="iohk" />
 == Technology ==
 === Private and public key generation ===
-A cryptocurrency wallet works by a theoretical or random number being generated and used with a length that depends on the algorithm size of the cryptocurrency's technology requirements. The number is then converted to a private key using the specific requirements of the cryptocurrency cryptography algorithm requirement. A public key is then generated from the private key using whichever cryptographic algorithm requirements are required. The private key is utilised by the owner to access and send cryptocurrency and is private to the owner, whereas the public key is to be shared to any third party to receive cryptocurrency.
+A cryptocurrency wallet works by a theoretical or random number being generated and used with a length that depends on the algorithm size of the cryptocurrency's technology requirements. The number is converted to a private key using the specific requirements of the cryptocurrency cryptography algorithm requirement. A public key is then generated from the private key using whichever cryptographic algorithm is required. The private key is used by the owner to access and send cryptocurrency and is private to the owner, whereas the public key is to be shared to any third party to receive cryptocurrency.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Baloian |first=Artiom |date=2021-12-18 |title=How To Generate Public and Private Keys for the Blockchain |url=https://baloian.medium.com/how-to-generate-public-and-private-keys-for-the-blockchain-db6d057432fb |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=Medium |language=en |archive-date=2023-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927133243/https://baloian.medium.com/how-to-generate-public-and-private-keys-for-the-blockchain-db6d057432fb |url-status=live }}</ref>
-Up to this stage no computer or electronic device is required and all key pairs can be mathematically derived and written down by hand. The private key and public key pair (known as an address) are not known by the blockchain or anyone else. The blockchain will only record the transaction of the public address when cryptocurrency is sent to it, thus recording in the blockchain ledger the transaction of the public address.
+Up to this stage no computer or electronic device is required and all key pairs can be mathematically derived and written down by hand. The private key and public key pair (known as an address) are not known by the blockchain or anyone else. The blockchain will only record the transaction of the public address when cryptocurrency is sent to it, thus recording in the blockchain ledger the transaction of the public address.<ref name=":2" />
 === Duplicate private keys ===
-Collision (two or more wallets having the same private key) is theoretically possible, since keys can be generated without being used for transactions, and are therefore offline until recorded in the blockchain ledger. However, this possibility is negated because the theoretical probability of two or more private keys being the same is extremely low. The number of possible wallets and thus private keys is extremely high, so duplicating or hacking a certain key would be inconceivable.<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342801641_Crypto_Wallet_A_Perfect_Combination_with_Blockchain_and_Security_Solution_for_Banking Yadav, Nagendra Singh & Goar, Vishal & Kuri, Manoj. (2020). Crypto Wallet: A Perfect Combination with Blockchain and Security Solution for Banking. International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation. 24. 6056-6066. 10.37200/IJPR/V24I2/PR2021078.]</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Guler|first=Sevil|date=2015|title=Secure Bitcoin Wallet|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/83597444.pdf|journal=UNIVERSITY OF TARTU FACULTY OF MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTER SCIENCE Institute of Computer Science Computer Science Curriculum|pages=48|via=core.ac.uk}}</ref>
+Collision (two or more wallets having the same private key) is theoretically possible, since keys can be generated without being used for transactions, and are therefore offline until recorded in the blockchain ledger. However, this possibility is effectively negated because the theoretical probability of two or more private keys being the same is extremely low. The number of possible wallets and thus private keys is extremely high,<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Singer |first1=David |last2=Singer |first2=Ari |date=2018 |title=Big Numbers: The Role Played by Mathematics in Internet Commerce |url=https://case.edu/affil/sigmaxi/files/CryptoslidesSinger.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kraft |first=James S. |url= |title=An introduction to number theory with cryptography |date=2018 |others=Lawrence C. Washington |isbn=978-1-315-16100-6 |edition=2nd |location=Boca Raton, FL |oclc=1023861398}}</ref> so duplicating or hacking a certain key would be inconceivable.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342801641 |title=Yadav, Nagendra Singh & Goar, Vishal & Kuri, Manoj. (2020). Crypto Wallet: A Perfect Combination with Blockchain and Security Solution for Banking. International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation. 24. 6056-6066. 10.37200/IJPR/V24I2/PR2021078. |access-date=2021-09-16 |archive-date=2021-09-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210916193515/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342801641_Crypto_Wallet_A_Perfect_Combination_with_Blockchain_and_Security_Solution_for_Banking |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Guler|first=Sevil|date=2015|title=Secure Bitcoin Wallet|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/83597444.pdf|journal=UNIVERSITY OF TARTU FACULTY OF MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTER SCIENCE Institute of Computer Science Computer Science Curriculum|pages=48|via=core.ac.uk|access-date=2021-04-25|archive-date=2021-06-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628174815/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/83597444.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
 === Seed phrases ===
-In modern convention a seed phrase is now utilised which is a random 12 to 24 (or even greater) list of dictionary words which is an unencrypted form of the private key. (Words are easier to [[memorization|memorize]] than numerals.) When online, exchange and hardware wallets are generated using random numbers, and a seed phrase is asked to be recorded by the user, hence when access to the wallet becomes misplaced, damaged or compromised, the seed phrase can be used to re-access the wallet and associated keys and cryptocurrency <i>in toto</i>.<ref>Shaik, Cheman. (2020). Securing Cryptocurrency Wallet Seed Phrase Digitally with Blind Key Encryption. International Journal on Cryptography and Information Security. 10. 1-10. 10.5121/ijcis.2020.10401.</ref>
+In modern convention a seed phrase is now utilised which is a random 12 to 24 (or even greater) list of dictionary words which is an unencrypted form of the private key. (Words are easier to [[memorization|memorize]] than numerals). When online, exchange and hardware wallets are generated using random numbers, and the user is asked to supply a seed phrase. If the wallet is misplaced, damaged or compromised, the seed phrase can be used to re-access the wallet and associated keys and cryptocurrency ''in toto''.<ref>Shaik, Cheman. (2020). Securing Cryptocurrency Wallet Seed Phrase Digitally with Blind Key Encryption. International Journal on Cryptography and Information Security. 10. 1-10. 10.5121/ijcis.2020.10401.</ref>
 === Wallets ===
-A number of technologies known as wallets exist that store the key value pair of private and public key known as wallets. A wallet hosts the details of the key pair making transacting cryptocurrency possible. Multiple methods exist for storing keys or seeds in a wallet.<ref>Jokić, Stevo & Cvetković, Aleksandar Sandro & Adamović, Saša & Ristić, Nenad & Spalević, Petar. (2019). Comparative analysis of cryptocurrency wallets vs traditional wallets. Ekonomika. 65. 10.5937/ekonomika1903065J.</ref>
+A number of technologies known as wallets exist that store the key value pair of private and public key known as wallets. A wallet hosts the details of the key pair making cryptocurrency transactions possible. Multiple methods exist for storing keys or seeds in a wallet.<ref>Jokić, Stevo & Cvetković, Aleksandar Sandro & Adamović, Saša & Ristić, Nenad & Spalević, Petar. (2019). Comparative analysis of cryptocurrency wallets vs traditional wallets. Ekonomika. 65. 10.5937/ekonomika1903065J.</ref>
+A ''brainwallet'' or ''brain wallet'' is a type of wallet in which one memorizes a [[passcode]] (a private key or seed phrase).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Vasek |first1=Marie |last2=Bonneau |first2=Joseph |last3=Castellucci |first3=Ryan |last4=Keith |first4=Cameron |last5=Moore |first5=Tyler |title=Financial Cryptography and Data Security |chapter=The Bitcoin Brain Drain: Examining the Use and Abuse of Bitcoin Brain Wallets |date=2017 |editor-last=Grossklags |editor-first=Jens |editor2-last=Preneel |editor2-first=Bart |editor2-link=Bart Preneel |chapter-url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10154816/ |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |volume=9603 |language=en |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer |pages=609–618 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-54970-4_36 |isbn=978-3-662-54970-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ch6EAAAQBAJ&dq=%22brain+wallet%22&pg=PA101 |title=Bitcoin For Dummies |last2=Bain |first2=Tyler |date=2022 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-60213-2 |pages=102 |language=en |access-date=2023-02-22 |archive-date=2023-04-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408102737/https://books.google.com/books?id=8ch6EAAAQBAJ&dq=%22brain+wallet%22&pg=PA101 |url-status=live }}</ref> Brainwallets may be attractive due to [[plausible deniability]] or protection against [[Asset seizure|governmental seizure]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Castellucci |first=Ryan |title=Cracking Cryptocurrency Brainwallets |url=https://rya.nc/files/cracking_cryptocurrency_brainwallets.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108140408/https://rya.nc/files/cracking_cryptocurrency_brainwallets.pdf |archive-date=8 November 2020 |access-date=28 December 2022 |website=rya.nc}}</ref> but are vulnerable to [[Password cracking|password guessing]] (especially large-scale offline guessing).<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Several hundred brainwallets exist on the [[Bitcoin network|Bitcoin blockchain]], but most of them have been drained, sometimes repeatedly.<ref name=":0" />
-=== Crypto wallets vis-à-vis dapp browsers ===
-[[Decentralized application|Dapp]] browsers are specialized software that supports decentralized applications. Dapp browsers are considered to be the browsers of [[Web3]] and are the gateway to access the decentralized applications which are working based on [[blockchain technology]]. That means all dapp browsers must have a unique code system to unify all the different codes of the dapps.
+=== Crypto wallets vis-à-vis DApp browsers ===
-While crypto wallets are focused on the exchange, purchase, sale of digital assets<ref>{{Cite web|last=Frankenfield|first=Jake|date=2021-08-16|title=Blockchain Wallet|url=https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/blockchain-wallet.asp|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727075205/https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/blockchain-wallet.asp |archive-date=2020-07-27 }}</ref> and support narrowly targeted applications, the browsers support different kinds of applications of various formats, including exchange, games, NFTs marketplaces, etc.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Deepanshu|first=Bhatt|date=2019|title=Best DApp Browsers to use in 2019|url=https://www.cryptochainwire.com/best-dapp-browsers-to-use-in-2019/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021104334/https://cryptochainwire.com/best-dapp-browsers-to-use-in-2019/ |archive-date=2020-10-21 }}</ref>
+[[Decentralized application|DApp]] browsers are specialized software that supports decentralized applications. DApp browsers are considered to be the browsers of [[Web3]] and are the gateway to access the decentralized applications which are based on [[blockchain technology]]. That means all DApp browsers must have a unique code system to unify all the different codes of the DApps.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The New Frontier: Cryptocurrency Wallets and DApp Browsers Redefining Access {{!}} SimpleSwap |url=https://simpleswap.io/blog/crypto-wallets-and-dapp-browsers |access-date=2024-05-18 |website=SimpleSwap {{!}} Cryptocurrency exchange blog |language=en |archive-date=2024-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518214603/https://simpleswap.io/blog/crypto-wallets-and-dapp-browsers |url-status=live }}</ref>
+While crypto wallets are focused on the exchange, purchase, sale of digital assets and support narrowly targeted applications, the browsers support different kinds of applications of various formats, including exchange, games, [[Nfts|NFTs]] marketplaces, etc.
-Technical specifications of different browsers may or may not include features such as:
-*Full support for all modern Web2.0 technologies;
-*Built-in Ethereum mainnet/testnet RPC, fully compatible with Web3.0;
-*Built-in Ethereum wallet (using smart contracts);
-* Dapp naming support
 == Characteristics ==
@@ Line 37: / Line 74: @@
 ===Simple cryptocurrency wallet===
 [[File:An actual Bitcoin transaction from the Kraken cryptocurrency exchange to a hardware LedgerWallet.jpg|200px|thumb|An actual bitcoin transaction from a web based cryptocurrency exchange to a hardware cryptocurrency wallet]]
-A simple cryptocurrency wallet contains pairs of public and private cryptographic keys. The keys can be used to track ownership, receive or spend [[cryptocurrency|cryptocurrencies]].<ref name="MBPOB">{{cite book|last1= Antonopoulos |first1= Andreas |title=Mastering Bitcoin: Programming the Open Blockchain|date=12 July 2017|publisher=O'Reilly Media, Inc.|access-date=14 September 2017|isbn=9781491954386 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=MpwnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93}}</ref> A public key allows others to make payments to the address derived from it, whereas a private key enables the spending of cryptocurrency from that address.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailydot.com/debug/bitcoin-wallets-cryptocurrency-hardware/|title=Bitcoin Wallets: What You Need to Know About the Hardware|date=2018-11-20|website=The Daily Dot|language=en|access-date=2019-03-10}}</ref>
+A simple cryptocurrency wallet contains pairs of public and private cryptographic keys. The keys can be used to track ownership, receipt or spend [[cryptocurrency|cryptocurrencies]].<ref name="MBPOB">{{cite book|last1= Antonopoulos |first1= Andreas |title=Mastering Bitcoin: Programming the Open Blockchain|date=12 July 2017|publisher=O'Reilly Media, Inc.|access-date=14 September 2017|isbn=9781491954386 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=MpwnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93}}</ref> A public key allows others to make payments to the address derived from it, whereas a private key enables the spending of cryptocurrency from that address.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailydot.com/debug/bitcoin-wallets-cryptocurrency-hardware/|title=Bitcoin Wallets: What You Need to Know About the Hardware|date=2018-11-20|website=The Daily Dot|language=en|access-date=2019-03-10|archive-date=2021-03-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210322064351/https://www.dailydot.com/debug/bitcoin-wallets-cryptocurrency-hardware/|url-status=live}}</ref>
 The cryptocurrency itself is not in the wallet. In the case of [[bitcoin]] and cryptocurrencies derived from it, the cryptocurrency is decentrally stored and maintained in a publicly available [[distributed ledger]] called the ''[[blockchain]]''.<ref name="MBPOB" />
+=== Multi-chain cryptocurrency wallet ===
+Multi-chain wallets are designed to support multiple blockchain networks, enabling users to store, manage, and transact different types of cryptocurrencies from a single interface. Unlike single-chain wallets, which are limited to a specific blockchain, multi-chain wallets provide a unified experience for handling various assets. These wallets enhance convenience and security by reducing the need for multiple wallet applications and providing integrated features for multiple digital assets.
+Features of a multi-chain wallet:
+* '''Support for Multiple Blockchains:''' Users can hold and manage various blockchains such as [[Bitcoin]], [[Ethereum]], [[Klever Blockchain]], [[Binance Smart Chain]], and more within one wallet.
+* '''Enhanced Security:''' Typically incorporate advanced security measures including [[two-factor authentication]] and [[seed phrase]] backup.
+* '''Interoperability:''' Facilitates seamless transactions across different blockchain networks.
+* '''User-friendly Interface:''' Designed to be accessible and intuitive, making it easier for users to navigate and manage their assets.
+Popular multi-chain wallets include [[Trust Wallet]], [[Klever wallet|Klever Wallet]] and [[Exodus wallet|Exodus]], each offering unique features and support for multiple blockchains, therefore, hundreds of cryptocurrencies.
 ===eID wallet===
 [[File:European Blockchain Services Infrastructure EBSI wallet.jpg|200px|thumb|Providing an eID and a diploma and digitally signing the 'application form' with a crypto wallet app]]
-Some wallets are specifically designed to be compatible with a framework. The European Union is creating an eIDAS compatible [[Self-sovereign identity#European Union SSI|European Self-Sovereign Identity Framework]] (ESSIF) which runs on the European Blockchain Services Infrastructure (EBSI). The EBSI wallet is designed to (securely) provide information, an eID and to sign 'transactions'.<ref name="EBSI"/>
+Some wallets are specifically designed to be compatible with a framework. The European Union is creating an [[eIDAS]] compatible [[Self-sovereign identity#European Union|European Self-Sovereign Identity Framework]] (ESSIF) which runs on the European Blockchain Services Infrastructure (EBSI). The EBSI wallet is designed to (securely) provide information, an eID and to sign 'transactions'.<ref name="EBSI"/>
 ===Multisignature wallet===
-In contrast to simple cryptocurrency wallets requiring just one party to sign a transaction, [[multisignature]] wallets require multiple parties to sign a transaction.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://fortune.com/2017/12/11/bitcoin-price-btc-ethereum-cryptocurrency-wallet/|title=Bitcoin Startup Predicts Cryptocurrency Market Will Grow By $100 Billion in 2018|website=Fortune|language=en|access-date=2019-02-15}}</ref> Multisignature wallets are designed for increased security.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/07/20/32-million-worth-of-digital-currency-ether-stolen-by-hackers.html|title=$32 million worth of digital currency ether stolen by hackers|last=Graham|first=Luke|date=2017-07-20|website=www.cnbc.com|access-date=2019-02-15}}</ref> Usually, a multisignature algorithm produces a joint signature that is more compact than a collection of distinct signatures from all users.<ref name=bellareneven>{{cite book|last1=Bellare|author-link=Mihir Bellare|first1=Mihir|last2=Neven|first2=Gregory|title=Identity-Based Multi-signatures from RSA|journal=Topics in Cryptology – CT-RSA|date=2006|volume=4377|pages=145–162|doi=10.1007/11967668_10|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science|isbn=978-3-540-69327-7|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.2329}}</ref>
+In contrast to simple cryptocurrency wallets requiring just one party to sign a transaction, multi-sig wallets require multiple parties to sign a transaction.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://fortune.com/2017/12/11/bitcoin-price-btc-ethereum-cryptocurrency-wallet/|title=Bitcoin Startup Predicts Cryptocurrency Market Will Grow By $100 Billion in 2018|website=Fortune|language=en|access-date=2019-02-15|archive-date=2020-12-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204214206/https://fortune.com/2017/12/11/bitcoin-price-btc-ethereum-cryptocurrency-wallet/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Multisignature wallets are designed for increased security.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/07/20/32-million-worth-of-digital-currency-ether-stolen-by-hackers.html|title=$32 million worth of digital currency ether stolen by hackers|last=Graham|first=Luke|date=2017-07-20|website=[[CNBC]]|access-date=2019-02-15|archive-date=2021-03-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308053524/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/07/20/32-million-worth-of-digital-currency-ether-stolen-by-hackers.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Usually, a multisignature algorithm produces a joint signature that is more compact than a collection of distinct signatures from all users.<ref name=bellareneven>{{cite book|last1=Bellare|author-link=Mihir Bellare|first1=Mihir|last2=Neven|first2=Gregory|title=Topics in Cryptology – CT-RSA 2007 |chapter=Identity-Based Multi-signatures from RSA |journal=Topics in Cryptology – CT-RSA|date=2006|volume=4377|pages=145–162|doi=10.1007/11967668_10|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science|isbn=978-3-540-69327-7|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.2329}}</ref>
 ===Smart contract===
@@ Line 54: / Line 102: @@
 ====Sequential deterministic wallet====
 [[File:Creating-Atala_PRISM-crypto_wallet-seed_phrase.png|200px|thumb|A deterministic wallet seed phrase of a crypto wallet]]
-A sequential deterministic wallet utilizes a simple method of generating addresses from a known starting string or "seed". This would utilize a [[cryptographic hash function]], e.g. [[SHA-256]] (seed + n), where n is an [[ASCII]]-coded number that starts from 1 and increments as additional keys are needed.{{cn|date=November 2021}}
+A sequential deterministic wallet utilizes a simple method of generating addresses from a known starting string or "seed". This would utilize a [[cryptographic hash function]], e.g. [[SHA-256]] (seed + n), where n is an [[ASCII]]-coded number that starts from 1 and increments as additional keys are needed.<ref>{{Citation |title=Cryptographic Theory and Decentralized Finance |date=2022 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/history-of-financial-technology-and-regulation/cryptographic-theory-and-decentralized-finance/1B681294E33D542AF79168FD2CA98F03 |work=A History of Financial Technology and Regulation: From American Incorporation to Cryptocurrency and Crowdfunding |pages=112–128 |editor-last=Oranburg |editor-first=Seth C. |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781316597736.010 |isbn=978-1-107-15340-0 |access-date=2023-02-26}}</ref>
 ====Hierarchical deterministic wallet====
-The hierarchical deterministic (HD) wallet was publicly described in [[BIP32]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Bip32 |url=https://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/moore/acl2/manuals/current/manual/index-seo.php/BITCOIN____BIP32 |publisher=[[University of Texas at Austin]] |access-date=17 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How does Add Account Work |url=https://docs.binance.org/smart-chain/wallet/extension/add-account.html |website=[[Binance.org]] |access-date=17 October 2021}}</ref> As a deterministic wallet, it also derives keys from a single master root seed, but instead of having a single "chain" of keypairs, an HD wallet supports multiple key pair chains.
+The hierarchical deterministic (HD) wallet was publicly described in BIP32.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bip32 |url=https://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/moore/acl2/manuals/current/manual/index-seo.php/BITCOIN____BIP32 |publisher=[[University of Texas at Austin]] |access-date=17 October 2021 |archive-date=17 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017180614/https://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/moore/acl2/manuals/current/manual/index-seo.php/BITCOIN____BIP32 |url-status=live }}</ref> As a deterministic wallet, it also derives keys from a single master root seed, but instead of having a single "chain" of keypairs, an HD wallet supports multiple key pair chains.
-This allows a single key string to be used to generate an entire [[Tree (graph theory)|tree]] of key pairs with a stratified structure.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gutoski |first1=Gus |last2=Stebila |first2= Douglas |title=Hierarchical deterministic Bitcoin wallets that tolerate key leakage |url=https://eprint.iacr.org/2014/998.pdf |website=iacr.org |publisher=International Association for Cryptologic Research |access-date=2 November 2018}}</ref> The single master string serves as the [[Tree (graph theory)#Rooted tree|root]] of the tree, and the hierarchy scheme allows the private keys generated from a master private key to be themselves master private keys, which can in turn be treated as deterministic wallets in their own right.<ref name=BTCmag>{{cite web |last1=Buterin |first1=Vitalik |author1-link=Vitalik Buterin |title=Deterministic Wallets, Their Advantages and their Understated Flaws |url=https://bitcoinmagazine.com/technical/deterministic-wallets-advantages-flaw-1385450276 |website=[[Bitcoin Magazine]] |access-date=17 October 2021 |date=26 November 2013}}</ref>
+This allows a single key string to be used to generate an entire [[Tree (graph theory)|tree]] of key pairs with a stratified structure.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gutoski |first1=Gus |last2=Stebila |first2=Douglas |title=Hierarchical deterministic Bitcoin wallets that tolerate key leakage |url=https://eprint.iacr.org/2014/998.pdf |website=iacr.org |publisher=International Association for Cryptologic Research |access-date=2 November 2018 |archive-date=25 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925020039/https://eprint.iacr.org/2014/998.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
-[[BIP39]] proposed the use of a set of human-readable words to derive the master private key of a wallet. This [[mnemonic]] phrase allows for easier wallet backup and recovery, due to all the keys of a wallet being derivable from a single plaintext string.
+BIP39 proposed the use of a set of human-readable words to derive the master private key of a wallet.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}} This [[mnemonic]] phrase allows for easier wallet backup and recovery, due to all the keys of a wallet being derivable from a single plaintext string.{{how|date=April 2023}}
-====Armory deterministic wallet====
-Bitcoin Armory, an [[open source]], [[Python (programming language)|Python]]-based, wallet-management application for the Bitcoin network, utilized its own implementation the hierarchical deterministic scheme and served as inspiration for the BIP32 standard.<ref name=BIP32>{{cite web |last1=Wuille |first1=Pieter |title=BIP-0032: Hierarchical Deterministic Wallets |url=https://github.com/bitcoin/bips/blob/master/bip-0032.mediawiki |website=[[GitHub]] |access-date=17 October 2021 |date=11 February 2012}}</ref>
 ====Non-deterministic wallet====
-In a non-deterministic wallet, each key is randomly generated on its own accord, and they are not seeded from a common key. Therefore, any backups of the wallet must store each and every single private key used as an address, as well as a buffer of 100 or so future keys that may have already been given out as addresses but not received payments yet.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Acharya |first1=Vivek |title=How Ethereum Non-Deterministic and Deterministic Wallets Work |url=https://blogs.oracle.com/acharyavivek/how-ethereum-non-deterministic-and-deterministic-wallets-work |publisher=[[Oracle Corporation]] |access-date=17 October 2021 |date=30 June 2021}}</ref><ref name="MBPOB" />{{rp|94}}
+In a non-deterministic wallet, each key is randomly generated on its own accord, and they are not seeded from a common key. Therefore, any backups of the wallet must store each and every single private key used as an address, as well as a buffer of 100 or so future keys that may have already been given out as addresses but not received payments yet.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Acharya |first1=Vivek |title=How Ethereum Non-Deterministic and Deterministic Wallets Work |url=https://blogs.oracle.com/acharyavivek/how-ethereum-non-deterministic-and-deterministic-wallets-work |publisher=[[Oracle Corporation]] |access-date=17 October 2021 |date=30 June 2021 |archive-date=17 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017180606/https://blogs.oracle.com/acharyavivek/how-ethereum-non-deterministic-and-deterministic-wallets-work |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="MBPOB" />{{rp|94}}
 ==Concerns==
+A wallet can also have known or unknown [[vulnerability (computing)|vulnerabilities]]. A [[supply chain attack]] or [[side-channel attack]] are ways of introducing vulnerabilities. In extreme cases even a computer which is [[Air gap (networking)|not connected to any network]] can be hacked.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://cyber.bgu.ac.il/advanced-cyber/airgap |title=Air-gap jumpers on cyber.bgu.ac.il |access-date=2018-10-17 |archive-date=2019-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819092929/https://cyber.bgu.ac.il/advanced-cyber/airgap |url-status=dead }}</ref>
-=== Wallet access permissions ===
-When choosing a wallet, the owner must keep in mind who is supposed to have access to (a copy of) the private keys and thus potentially has signing capabilities. In case of cryptocurrency the user needs to trust the provider to keep the cryptocurrency safe, just like with a [[bank]]. Trust was misplaced in the case of the [[Mt. Gox]] exchange, which 'lost' most of their clients' bitcoins. Downloading a cryptocurrency wallet from a wallet provider to a computer or phone does not automatically mean that the owner is the only one who has a copy of the private keys. For example, with [[Coinbase]], it is possible to install a wallet on a phone and to also have access to the same wallet through their website.
+To mitigate the risk of crypto wallet hacking, one can choose for a [[cold wallet]], which remains offline and disconnected from the internet. A cold wallet refers to a physical device, such as a pen drive, that is utilized as a secure storage medium for transferring money from a [[hot wallet]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sigalos |first=MacKenzie |date=2022-11-12 |title=FTX says it's removing trading and withdrawals, moving digital assets to a cold wallet after a $477 million suspected hack |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/11/12/ftx-says-its-removing-trading-and-withdrawals-moving-digital-assets-to-a-cold-wallet-after-a-477-million-suspected-hack.html |access-date=2023-12-03 |website=CNBC |language=en |archive-date=2022-11-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119155230/https://www.cnbc.com/2022/11/12/ftx-says-its-removing-trading-and-withdrawals-moving-digital-assets-to-a-cold-wallet-after-a-477-million-suspected-hack.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
+== Security ==
+When using a merchant site that accepts server-side digital wallets, customers enter their name, payment, and delivery information. Following the purchase, the customer is requested to register for a wallet with a user name and password for future purchases.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Budgar |first=Laurie |date=2021-01-04 |title=What Is a Digital Wallet, and How Does It Work? |url=https://www.rd.com/article/what-is-digital-wallet/ |access-date=2024-05-18 |website=Reader's Digest |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518212156/https://www.rd.com/article/what-is-digital-wallet/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
+Digital wallets can be dedicated to a single cryptocurrency (examples: Bitcoin, Etherium, Ripple, Litecoin), or they can be multi-currency (Coinomi, CoinSpot, CoinVault, Cryptonator multi-cryptocurrency wallet, Exodus, Gatehub, Holy Transaction, Jaxx Wallet, UberPay Wallet, AnCrypto Wallet, Klever Wallet.
-=== Vulnerabilities ===
-A wallet can also have known or unknown [[vulnerability (computing)|vulnerabilities]]. A [[supply chain attack]] or [[side-channel attack]] are ways of a vulnerability introduction. In extreme cases even a computer which is [[Air gap (networking)|not connected to any network]] can be hacked.<ref>[https://cyber.bgu.ac.il/advanced-cyber/airgap Air-gap jumpers on cyber.bgu.ac.il]</ref>
+Wallets are free for consumers but cost retailers. Wallet sellers may receive a portion of merchant purchases made through their wallets. In other circumstances, digital wallet vendors conduct cardholder-merchant transactions for a set fee.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vittorio |first=Andrea |title=Virtual Green Cards Offer Path for Digital Wallets' Data Privacy |url=https://news.bloomberglaw.com/privacy-and-data-security/virtual-green-cards-offer-path-for-digital-wallets-data-privacy |access-date=2023-12-03 |website=news.bloomberglaw.com |language=en |archive-date=2023-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203120928/https://news.bloomberglaw.com/privacy-and-data-security/virtual-green-cards-offer-path-for-digital-wallets-data-privacy |url-status=live }}</ref>
-When using a software wallet for receiving cryptocurrency, access to the receiving wallet is not needed—the sending party only need know the destination address, thus anyone can send cryptocurrency to an address. Only the one who has the private key of the corresponding (public key) address otherwise has access.
 ==See also==
 * [[Cryptocurrency]]
-*[[Cryptocurrency and security]]
+* [[Cryptocurrency exchange]]
+* [[Bitcoin]]
-*[[Public-key cryptography|Private and Public key cryptography]]
+* [[List of bitcoin companies]]
+* [[Cryptography]]
+* [[Cryptocurrency and security]]
+* [[Medium of exchange]]
+* [[Public-key cryptography|Private and Public key cryptography]]
 * [[Mobile payment]]
+* [[Digital gold currency]]
 == References ==
@@ Line 89: / Line 143: @@
 {{Cryptocurrencies|state=collapsed}}
+{{Portal bar|Internet|Economics|Money|Free and open-source software|Numismatics}}
+{{Authority control}}
 [[Category:Bitcoin]]
 [[Category:Cryptocurrencies|Wallet]]
+[[Category:Private currencies]]
+[[Category:Cryptocurrency exchanges]]