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Coordinates: 18°00′N 105°00′E / 18.000°N 105.000°E / 18.000; 105.000
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{{Short description|none}}
{{coord|18|00|N|105|00|E|display=title}}
{{Country geography
| name = Laos
| image name = Satellite-laos.jpg
| image caption = Satellite view of Laos
| image alt = Satellite image of Laos
| continent = [[Asia]]
| region = [[Southeast Asia]]
| coordinates = {{coord|18|00|N|105|00|E|display=title}}
| area ranking = 82nd
| km area = 236,800
| percent land = 97.47
| km coastline =
| borders = Total:<br> {{convert|5,274|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} <br> [[Vietnam]]:<br> {{convert|2,161|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} <br> [[Thailand]]:<br> {{convert|1,845|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} <br> [[Cambodia]]:<br> {{convert|555|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} <br> [[China]]:<br> {{convert|475|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} <br> [[Myanmar]]:<br> {{convert|238|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}
| highest point = [[Phou Bia]] <br> {{convert|2,817|m|abbr=on}}
| lowest point = [[Mekong]]<br> {{convert|70|m|abbr=on}}
| longest river = [[Mekong River]]<br> {{convert|1,835|km|abbr=on}}
| largest lake= [[Nam Ngum Dam|Nam Ngum Lake]]<br> {{convert|370|km2|abbr=on}}
| climate = Mostly tropical
| terrain = High mountains, and an upland plateau
| natural hazards = Droughts, soil erosion
| exclusive economic zone=
}}
[[Image:La-map.png|right|thumb]]
[[Image:La-map.png|right|thumb]]
[[Image:Laos 2003 CIA map.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Detailed map of Laos]]
[[Image:Laos 2003 CIA map.jpg|thumb|right]]
'''Laos''' is an independent republic, and the only landlocked nation in [[Southeast Asia]], northeast of [[Thailand]], west of [[Vietnam]]. It covers 236,800 square kilometers in the center of the Southeast Asian peninsula and it is surrounded by [[Myanmar]] (Burma), [[Cambodia]], the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Thailand]], and [[Vietnam]]. About seventy percent of its geographic area is made up of mountain ranges, highlands, plateaux, and rivers cut through.
[[Laos]] is a country in and the only landlocked nation in [[mainland Southeast Asia]], northeast of [[Thailand]] and west of [[Vietnam]]. It covers approximately 236,800 square kilometers in the center of the Southeast Asian peninsula and it is surrounded by [[Myanmar]] (Burma), [[Cambodia]], the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Thailand]], and [[Vietnam]].


Its location has often made it a [[buffer state]] between more powerful neighboring states, as well as a crossroads for trade and communication. Migration and international conflict have contributed to the present ethnic composition of the country and to the geographic distribution of its ethnic groups.
About seventy percent of its geographic area is made up of mountain ranges, highlands, plateaux, and rivers cut through. Historically, its location has often made it a [[buffer state]] between more powerful neighboring states, particularly for the ancestral rulers of the modern-day Burmese, Vietnamese and Thais, as well as a crossroads for trade and communication.<ref name="Savada 1995">{{Harvnb|Savada|1995|p=81}}.</ref>


==Topography==
==Topography==
{{See also|List of mountains in Laos}}
Most of the western border of [[Laos]] is demarcated by the [[Mekong]] river, which is an important artery for transportation. The Dong Falls at the southern end of the country prevent access to the sea, but cargo boats travel along the entire length of the Mekong in Laos during most of the year. Smaller power boats and [[pirogue]]s provide an important means of transportation on many of the tributaries of the Mekong.
Most of the western border of [[Laos]] is demarcated by the [[Mekong]] river, which is an important artery for transportation.<ref name="Savada 1995" /> The Dong Falls at the southern end of the country prevent access to the sea, but cargo boats travel along the entire length of the Mekong in Laos during most of the year.<ref name="Savada 1995" /> Smaller power boats and [[pirogue]]s provide an important means of transportation on many of the tributaries of the Mekong.<ref name="Savada 1995" />


The Mekong has thus not been an obstacle but a facilitator for communication, and the similarities between Laos and northeast Thai society—same people, almost same language—reflect the close contact that has existed across the river for centuries. Also, many Laotians living in the Mekong Valley have relatives and friends in Thailand.
The Mekong has thus not been an obstacle but a facilitator for communication, and the similarities between Laos and northeast Thai society—same people, almost same language—reflect the close contact that has existed across the river for centuries.<ref name="Savada 1995" /> Also, many Laotians living in the Mekong Valley have relatives and friends in Thailand.<ref name="Savada 1995" />


Prior to the twentieth century, Laotian kingdoms and principalities encompassed areas on both sides of the Mekong, and Thai control in the late nineteenth century extended to the left bank. Although the Mekong was established as a border by French colonial forces, travel from one side to the other has been significantly limited only since the establishment of the Lao People's Democratic Republic (LPDR, or Laos) in 1975.
Prior to the twentieth century, Laotian kingdoms and principalities encompassed areas on both sides of the Mekong, and Thai control in the late nineteenth century extended to the left bank.<ref name="Savada 1995" /> Although the Mekong was established as a border by French colonial forces, travel from one side to the other has been significantly limited only since the establishment of the Lao People's Democratic Republic (LPDR, or Laos) in 1975.<ref name="Savada 1995" />


The eastern border with Vietnam extends for 2,130 kilometres, mostly along the crest of the Annamite Chain, and serves as a physical barrier between the Chinese-influenced culture of Vietnam and the Indianized states of Laos and Thailand. These mountains are sparsely populated by tribal minorities who traditionally have not acknowledged the border with Vietnam any more than lowland Lao have been constrained by the 1,754-kilometre Mekong River border with Thailand. Thus, ethnic minority populations are found on both the Laotian and Vietnamese sides of the frontier. Because of their relative isolation, contact between these groups and lowland Lao has been mostly confined to trading.
The eastern border with Vietnam extends for 2,130 kilometres, mostly along the crest of the Annamite Chain, and serves as a physical barrier between the Chinese-influenced culture of Vietnam and the Indianized states of Laos and Thailand.<ref name="Savada 1995" /> These mountains are sparsely populated by tribal minorities who traditionally have not acknowledged the border with Vietnam any more than lowland Lao have been constrained by the 1,754-kilometre Mekong River border with Thailand.<ref name="Savada 1995" /> Thus, ethnic minority populations are found on both the Laotian and Vietnamese sides of the frontier.<ref name="Savada 1995" /> Because of their relative isolation, contact between these groups and lowland Lao has been mostly confined to trading.<ref name="Savada 1995" />


Laos shares its short—only 541 kilometres—southern border with Cambodia, and ancient Khmer ruins at Wat Pho and other southern locations attest to the long history of contact between the Lao and the Khmer. In the north, the country is bounded by a mountainous 423-kilometre border with China and shares the 235-kilometre-long Mekong River border with [[Myanmar]].
Laos shares its short—only 541 kilometres—southern border with Cambodia, and ancient Khmer ruins at Wat Pho and other southern locations attest to the long history of contact between the Lao and the Khmer.<ref name="Savada 1995" /> In the north, the country is bounded by a mountainous 423-kilometre border with China and shares the 235-kilometre-long Mekong River border with [[Myanmar]].<ref name="Savada 1995" />


The topography of Laos is largely mountainous, with the [[Annamite Range]] in the northeast and east and the [[Luang Prabang Range]] in the northwest, among other ranges typically characterized by steep terrain. Elevations are typically above 500 metres with narrow river valleys and low agricultural potential. This mountainous landscape extends across most of the north of the country, except for the plain of Vientiane and the [[Plain of Jars]] in the [[Xiangkhoang Plateau]].
The topography of Laos is largely mountainous, with the [[Annamite Range]] in the northeast and east and the [[Luang Prabang Range]] in the northwest, among other ranges typically characterized by steep terrain.<ref name="Savada 1995-2">{{Harvnb|Savada|1995|p=82}}.</ref> Elevations are typically above 500 metres with narrow river valleys and low agricultural potential.<ref name="Savada 1995-2" /> This mountainous landscape extends across most of the north of the country, except for the plain of Vientiane and the [[Plain of Jars]] in the [[Xiangkhoang Plateau]].<ref name="Savada 1995-2" />


The southern "panhandle" of the country contains large level areas in Savannakhét and Champasak provinces that are well suited for extensive paddy rice cultivation and livestock raising. Much of Khammouan Province and the eastern part of all the southern provinces are mountainous. Together, the alluvial plains and terraces of the Mekong and its tributaries cover only about 20% of the land area.
The southern "panhandle" of the country contains large level areas in Savannakhét and Champasak provinces that are well suited for extensive paddy rice cultivation and livestock raising.<ref name="Savada 1995-2" /> Much of Khammouan Province and the eastern part of all the southern provinces are mountainous.<ref name="Savada 1995-2" /> Together, the alluvial plains and terraces of the Mekong and its tributaries cover only about 20% of the land area.<ref name="Savada 1995-2" />


Only about 4% of the total land area is classified as arable. The forested land area has declined significantly since the 1970s as a result of commercial logging and expanded [[swidden]], or slash-and-burn, farming.
Only about 4% of the total land area is classified as arable.<ref name="Savada 1995-2" /> The forested land area has declined significantly since the 1970s as a result of commercial logging and expanded [[swidden]], or [[slash-and-burn]], farming.<ref name="Savada 1995-2" />

===List of mountains in Laos===
*[[Phou Bia]], 2,819 m
*[[Phu Xai Lai Leng]], 2,720 m
*[[Rao Co]], 2,286 m
*[[Phou Louey]], 2,257 m, located at Lat/Lon {20.27057, 103.19746}
*[[Phu Soi Dao]], 2,120 m
*[[Pu Ke]], 2,079 m
*[[Shiceng Dashan]], 1,830 m
*[[Dong Ap Bia]], 937 m


==Climate==
==Climate==
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map LAO present.svg|thumb|300px|Laos map of Köppen climate classification.]]
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map LAO present.svg|thumb|Laos Köppen climate classification]]
[[Image:Climate Vientiane.svg|thumb|450px|Climate data for [[Vientiane]].]]
[[Image:Climate Vientiane.svg|thumb|Climate data for [[Vientiane]]]]


Laos has a tropical climate, with a pronounced rainy season from May through October, a cool dry season from November through February, and a hot dry season in March and April. Generally, monsoons occur at the same time across the country, although that time may vary significantly from one year to the next.
Laos has a tropical climate, with a pronounced rainy season from May through October, a cool dry season from November through February, and a hot dry season in March and April.<ref name="Savada 1995-2" /> Generally, monsoons occur at the same time across the country, although that time may vary significantly from one year to the next.<ref name="Savada 1995-2" />


Rainfall varies regionally, with the highest amounts—{{convert|3,700|mm|in|abbr=off|sp=us}} annually—recorded on the Bolovens Plateau in Champasak Province. City rainfall stations have recorded that Savannakhét averages {{convert|1,440|mm|in|abbr=off|sp=us}} of rain annually; Vientiane receives about {{convert|1,700|mm|in|abbr=off|sp=us}}, and Louangphrabang ([[Luang Prabang]]) receives about {{convert|1,360|mm|in|abbr=off|sp=us}}.
Rainfall varies regionally, with the highest amounts—{{convert|3,700|mm|in|abbr=off|sp=us}} annually—recorded on the [[Bolaven Plateau]] in Champasak Province.<ref>{{Harvnb|Savada|1995|p=83}}.</ref> City rainfall stations have recorded that Savannakhét averages {{convert|1,440|mm|in|abbr=off|sp=us}} of rain annually; Vientiane receives about {{convert|1,700|mm|in|abbr=off|sp=us}}, and Louangphrabang ([[Luang Prabang]]) receives about {{convert|1,360|mm|in|abbr=off|sp=us}}.<ref name="Savada 1995-2" />


Rainfall is not always adequate for rice cultivation and the relatively high average precipitation conceals years where rainfall may be only half or less of the norm, causing significant declines in rice yields. Such droughts often are regional, leaving production in other parts of the country unaffected.
Rainfall is not always adequate for rice cultivation and the relatively high average precipitation conceals years where rainfall may be only half or less of the norm, causing significant declines in rice yields.<ref name="Savada 1995-2" /> Such droughts often are regional, leaving production in other parts of the country unaffected.<ref name="Savada 1995-2" />


The average temperatures in January, coolest month, are, Luang Prabang 20.5&nbsp;°C (minimum 0.8&nbsp;°C), Vientiane 20.3&nbsp;°C (minimum 3.9&nbsp;°C), and Pakse 23.9&nbsp;°C (minimum 8.2&nbsp;°C); the average temperatures for April, usually the hottest month, are, Luang Prabang 28.1&nbsp;°C (maximum 44.8&nbsp;°C), Vientiane 39.4&nbsp;°C). Temperature does vary according to the altitude, there is an average drop of 1.7&nbsp;°C for every 1000 feet (or 300 meters). Temperatures in the upland plateux and in the mountains are considered lower than on the plains around Vientiane.
The average temperatures in January, coolest month, are, Luang Prabang 20.5&nbsp;°C (minimum 0.8&nbsp;°C), Vientiane 20.3&nbsp;°C (minimum 3.3&nbsp;°C), and Pakse 23.9&nbsp;°C (minimum 7.8&nbsp;°C); the average temperatures for April, usually the hottest month, are, Luang Prabang 28.1&nbsp;°C (maximum 44.8&nbsp;°C), Vientiane 42.5&nbsp;°C. Temperature does vary according to the altitude, there is an average drop of 1.7&nbsp;°C for every 1000 feet (or 300 meters). Temperatures in the upland plateux and in the mountains are considered lower than on the plains around Vientiane.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Laos climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, when to go |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/laos |access-date=2022-06-24 |website=www.climatestotravel.com}}</ref>


Laos is highly vulnerable to the effects of global climate change; nearly all provinces in Laos are at high risks from climate change.<ref>Overland, Indra et al. (2017) ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320622312 Impact of Climate Change on ASEAN International Affairs: Risk and Opportunity Multiplier]'', Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI) and Myanmar Institute of International and Strategic Studies (MISIS).</ref>
Laos is highly vulnerable to the effects of global [[climate change]]; nearly all provinces in Laos are at high risks from climate change.<ref>Overland, Indra et al. (2017) ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320622312 Impact of Climate Change on ASEAN International Affairs: Risk and Opportunity Multiplier]'', Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI) and Myanmar Institute of International and Strategic Studies (MISIS).</ref>


{{Weather box
== Agriculture ==
| location = Vientiane (1981–2010)
[[Agriculture in Laos]] is the most important sector of the economy. Five million out of 23,680,000 hectares of Laos's total land area is suitable for cultivation, and seventeen percent of the land area, between 850,000 and 900,000 hectares, is cultivated. Rice is the main crop grown during the rainy season both upland and wet. There is also a significant amount of fishing.
| metric first = Yes
| single line = Yes
| Jan record high C = 36.0
| Feb record high C = 38.0
| Mar record high C = 40.0
| Apr record high C = 41.4
| May record high C = 42.5
| Jun record high C = 39.5
| Jul record high C = 39.0
| Aug record high C = 37.2
| Sep record high C = 37.5
| Oct record high C = 36.8
| Nov record high C = 36.0
| Dec record high C = 36.0
| year record high C = 42.5
| Jan high C = 28.7
| Feb high C = 30.8
| Mar high C = 33.1
| Apr high C = 34.6
| May high C = 33.1
| Jun high C = 32.2
| Jul high C = 31.6
| Aug high C = 31.2
| Sep high C = 31.3
| Oct high C = 31.2
| Nov high C = 30.1
| Dec high C = 28.3
| year high C = 31.1
| Jan mean C = 22.4
| Feb mean C = 24.7
| Mar mean C = 27.1
| Apr mean C = 29.0
| May mean C = 28.4
| Jun mean C = 28.1
| Jul mean C = 27.7
| Aug mean C = 27.5
| Sep mean C = 27.3
| Oct mean C = 26.8
| Nov mean C = 24.8
| Dec mean C = 22.2
| year mean C = 26.3
| Jan low C = 17.4
| Feb low C = 19.6
| Mar low C = 22.1
| Apr low C = 24.5
| May low C = 24.9
| Jun low C = 25.2
| Jul low C = 25.0
| Aug low C = 24.8
| Sep low C = 24.3
| Oct low C = 23.4
| Nov low C = 20.5
| Dec low C = 17.3
| year low C = 22.4
| Jan record low C = 3.3
| Feb record low C = 7.6
| Mar record low C = 10.0
| Apr record low C = 16.8
| May record low C = 19.0
| Jun record low C = 20.0
| Jul record low C = 19.5
| Aug record low C = 20.6
| Sep record low C = 18.8
| Oct record low C = 12.9
| Nov record low C = 8.9
| Dec record low C = 5.0
| year record low C = 3.3
| precipitation colour = green
| Jan precipitation mm = 7.8
| Feb precipitation mm = 15.3
| Mar precipitation mm = 39.2
| Apr precipitation mm = 92.8
| May precipitation mm = 233.5
| Jun precipitation mm = 264.6
| Jul precipitation mm = 307.2
| Aug precipitation mm = 332.9
| Sep precipitation mm = 270.2
| Oct precipitation mm = 96.6
| Nov precipitation mm = 13.5
| Dec precipitation mm = 3.7
| year precipitation mm = 1677.2
| Jan rain days = 1.0
| Feb rain days = 2.0
| Mar rain days = 5.0
| Apr rain days = 8.0
| May rain days = 16.0
| Jun rain days = 19.0
| Jul rain days = 20.0
| Aug rain days = 22.0
| Sep rain days = 17.0
| Oct rain days = 9.0
| Nov rain days = 2.0
| Dec rain days = 1.0
| year rain days = 122.0
| Jan humidity = 70
| Feb humidity = 68
| Mar humidity = 66
| Apr humidity = 69
| May humidity = 78
| Jun humidity = 82
| Jul humidity = 82
| Aug humidity = 84
| Sep humidity = 83
| Oct humidity = 78
| Nov humidity = 72
| Dec humidity = 70
| year humidity = 75
| Jan sun = 239.8
| Feb sun = 216.9
| Mar sun = 218.5
| Apr sun = 227.6
| May sun = 195.3
| Jun sun = 140.8
| Jul sun = 129.9
| Aug sun = 133.0
| Sep sun = 165.9
| Oct sun = 210.5
| Nov sun = 228.5
| Dec sun = 246.6
| year sun = 2353.5
| source 1 = [[World Meteorological Organization]],<ref name=WMOCLINO>{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210716235244/https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1981-2010/RA-II/Lao_PDR/Vientiane%20Capital.xls
| archive-date = 16 July 2021
| url = https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1981-2010/RA-II/Lao_PDR/Vientiane%20Capital.xls
| title = World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1981–2010
| publisher = World Meteorological Organization
| access-date = 16 July 2021}}</ref> [[Deutscher Wetterdienst]] (extremes 1907–1990),<ref>
{{cite web
| url = http://www.dwd.de/DWD/klima/beratung/ak/ak_489400_kt.pdf
| title = Klimatafel von Vientiane (Viangchan) / Laos
| work = Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world
| publisher = Deutscher Wetterdienst
| language = de
| access-date = 23 January 2016}}</ref> Pogoda.ru.net,<ref name=pogoda>
{{cite web|url=http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate4.php?id=48940|script-title=ru:КЛИМАТ УЛАН-БАТОРА|publisher=Pogoda.ru.net|language=ru|access-date=4 January 2015}}</ref> tutiempo.net<ref name=RID>{{Cite web |last=S.L |first=Tutiempo Network |title=Climate Vientiane - Climate data (489400) |url=https://en.tutiempo.net/climate/ws-489400.html |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=www.tutiempo.net |language=en}}</ref>
| source 2 = [[NOAA]] (humidity 1961–1990)<ref name="NOAA">{{cite web
| url = ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG_II/LA/48940.TXT
| title = Vientiane Climate Normals 1961–1990
| publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
| access-date = 29 November 2013}}</ref>
| date = August 2010
| source =
}}


{{Weather box
Agricultural cultivation is possible during with varying weather on a small portion of land area apart from the Vientiane plain and the lowlands along the Mekong Valley. These cultivated areas are situated in the valley cuts by the rivers or the plateau regions of Xieng Khouang in the North and in the Bolovens in the south. Typically there are only two ways to cultivate: either the wet-field paddy system practiced among the Lao Loum or lowland in Lao, or the swidden cultivation system practiced in the hills.
|location = Pakse (1981–2010)
|metric first = Y
|single line = Y
|Jan record high C = 36.7
|Feb record high C = 37.8
|Mar record high C = 38.9
|Apr record high C = 40.8
|May record high C = 41.3
|Jun record high C = 38.3
|Jul record high C = 38.2
|Aug record high C = 35.0
|Sep record high C = 36.0
|Oct record high C = 36.7
|Nov record high C = 36.7
|Dec record high C = 36.6
|year record high C = 41.3
|Jan high C = 32.0
|Feb high C = 33.5
|Mar high C = 35.1
|Apr high C = 35.5
|May high C = 33.5
|Jun high C = 31.6
|Jul high C = 31.0
|Aug high C = 30.5
|Sep high C = 31.0
|Oct high C = 31.3
|Nov high C = 31.2
|Dec high C = 30.8
|year high C = 32.3
|Jan mean C = 25.6
|Feb mean C = 27.7
|Mar mean C = 29.6
|Apr mean C = 30.4
|May mean C = 29.1
|Jun mean C = 28.1
|Jul mean C = 27.6
|Aug mean C = 27.2
|Sep mean C = 27.3
|Oct mean C = 27.1
|Nov mean C = 26.2
|Dec mean C = 24.9
|year mean C = 27.6
|Jan low C = 18.7
|Feb low C = 21.4
|Mar low C = 24.1
|Apr low C = 25.8
|May low C = 25.3
|Jun low C = 24.9
|Jul low C = 24.5
|Aug low C = 24.3
|Sep low C = 24.1
|Oct low C = 23.1
|Nov low C = 21.1
|Dec low C = 18.9
|year low C = 23.0
|Jan record low C = 7.8
|Feb record low C = 10.8
|Mar record low C = 12.8
|Apr record low C = 19.8
|May record low C = 21.7
|Jun record low C = 21.5
|Jul record low C = 21.4
|Aug record low C = 21.5
|Sep record low C = 20.0
|Oct record low C = 16.7
|Nov record low C = 13.9
|Dec record low C = 8.9
|year record low C = 7.8
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 1.5
|Feb precipitation mm = 10.4
|Mar precipitation mm = 26.5
|Apr precipitation mm = 67.3
|May precipitation mm = 229.6
|Jun precipitation mm = 351.3
|Jul precipitation mm = 414.6
|Aug precipitation mm = 504.6
|Sep precipitation mm = 308.2
|Oct precipitation mm = 128.9
|Nov precipitation mm = 25.3
|Dec precipitation mm = 2.2
|year precipitation mm = 2070.6
|Jan rain days = 0
|Feb rain days = 1
|Mar rain days = 3
|Apr rain days = 8
|May rain days = 17
|Jun rain days = 21
|Jul rain days = 24
|Aug rain days = 25
|Sep rain days = 20
|Oct rain days = 12
|Nov rain days = 5
|Dec rain days = 1
|year rain days = 138
|Jan humidity = 62
|Feb humidity = 60
|Mar humidity = 59
|Apr humidity = 65
|May humidity = 75
|Jun humidity = 82
|Jul humidity = 83
|Aug humidity = 85
|Sep humidity = 84
|Oct humidity = 79
|Nov humidity = 72
|Dec humidity = 67
|year humidity = 72.8
|Jan sun = 274.5
|Feb sun = 243.9
|Mar sun = 244.5
|Apr sun = 227.1
|May sun = 202.0
|Jun sun = 145.0
|Jul sun = 142.2
|Aug sun = 126.6
|Sep sun = 141.2
|Oct sun = 188.3
|Nov sun = 225.7
|Dec sun = 249.3
|year sun = 2410.4
|source 1 = [[World Meteorological Organization]],<ref>{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210717012832/https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1981-2010/RA-II/Lao_PDR/Pakse.xls
| archive-date = 17 July 2021
| url = https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1981-2010/RA-II/Lao_PDR/Pakse.xls
| title = World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1981–2010
| publisher = World Meteorological Organization
| access-date = 16 July 2021}}</ref> tutiempo.net<ref>{{Cite web |last=S.L |first=Tutiempo Network |title=Climate Pakse - Climate data (489550) |url=https://en.tutiempo.net/climate/ws-489550.html |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=www.tutiempo.net |language=en}}</ref>
|source 2 = [[NOAA]] (humidity 1961–1990),<ref>{{cite web
| url = ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/RA-II/LA/48955.TXT
| title = Pakse Climate Normals 1961-1990
| publisher = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]
| access-date = January 11, 2013}}</ref> [[Deutscher Wetterdienst]] (extremes),<ref name = DWD>
{{cite web
| url = http://www.dwd.de/DWD/klima/beratung/ak/ak_489550_kt.pdf
| title = Klimatafel von Pakse (Pakxé) / Laos
| work = Baseline climate means (1961-1990) from stations all over the world
| publisher = Deutscher Wetterdienst
| language = de
| access-date = January 23, 2016}}</ref> The Yearbook of Indochina (1932-1933)<ref>[https://seadelt.net/Asset/Source/Document_ID-247_No-01.PDF The Yearbook of Indochina (1932-1933)]</ref>
|date=December 2014}}


== Population ==
== Agriculture ==
[[Agriculture in Laos]] is the most important sector of the economy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Savada|1995|p=162}}.</ref> Five million out of 23,680,000 hectares of Laos's total land area is suitable for cultivation, and seventeen percent of the land area, between 850,000 and 900,000 hectares, was cultivated as of the early 1990s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Savada|1995|p=153}}.</ref> Rice is the main crop grown during the rainy season.<ref>{{Harvnb|Savada|1995|p=156}}.</ref>
Laos has a smaller population than most countries in South East Asia. The first comprehensive national population census of Laos was taken in 1985; it recorded a population of about 3.57 million. In 1987, the population was officially stated as 3,830,000 and the capital city, Vientiane, had a population of 120,000. The annual growth was estimated at between 2.6 and 3.0 percent. The national birth rate is estimated at about forty-five per 1,000, while the death rate estimates at around sixteen per 1,000. The fertility rates are higher between ages twenty and forty which highlights the average woman giving birth to an average of 6.8 children.


Agricultural cultivation is possible during with varying weather on a small portion of land area apart from the Vientiane plain and the lowlands along the Mekong Valley. These cultivated areas are situated in the valley cuts by the rivers or the plateau regions of Xieng Khouang in the North and in the Bolavens in the south. Typically there are only two ways to cultivate: either the wet-field paddy system practiced among the Lao Loum or lowland in Lao, or the swidden cultivation system practiced in the hills.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Laos - Crops |url=http://countrystudies.us/laos/68.htm |access-date=2022-06-24 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref>
The overall population density was only eighteen persons per square kilometer, and in many districts the density was fewer than ten persons per square kilometer. Population density per cultivated hectare was considerably high ranging from 3.3 to 7.8 persons per hectare. The population is ethnically diverse, but a complete classification of all ethnic groups has never been undertaken. Discrepancies in the number of groups resulted from inconsistent definitions of what constitutes an ethnic group as opposed to a subgroup, as well as incomplete knowledge about the groups themselves.


== Human geography ==
==Transportation routes==
{{see also|Laos#Demographics}}
Because of its mountainous topography and lack of development, Laos has few reliable transportation routes. This inaccessibility has historically limited the ability of any government to maintain a presence in areas distant from the national or provincial capitals and has limited interchange and communication among villages and ethnic groups.
The overall population density was only eighteen persons per square kilometer, and in many districts the density was fewer than ten persons per square kilometer.<ref name="Savada 1995-3">{{Harvnb|Savada|1995|pp=86–87}}.</ref> Population density per cultivated hectare was considerably high ranging from 3.3 to 7.8 persons per hectare.<ref name="Savada 1995-3" />


==Natural resources and environmental issues==
The [[Mekong]] and [[Nam Ou]] are the only natural channels suitable for large-draft boat transportation, and from December through May low water limits the size of the draft that may be used over many routes. Laotians in lowland villages located on the banks of smaller rivers have traditionally traveled in pirogues for fishing, trading, and visiting up and down the river for limited distances.
{{See also|Wildlife of Laos|Environmental issues in Laos}}
[[File:Fires in Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam.jpg|thumb|Hundreds of active fires burning across the hills and valleys of [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], Laos, and [[Vietnam]] (labelled with red dots)]]


The natural resources of Laos include timber, hydropower, gypsum, tin, gold, and gemstones.<ref name="World Factbook">{{CIA World Factbook|article=Laos|year=2021|access-date=2021-10-26}}</ref>
Otherwise, travel is by ox-cart over level terrain or by foot. The steep mountains and lack of roads have caused upland ethnic groups to rely entirely on pack baskets and horse packing for transportation.
Laos is increasingly suffering from environmental problems, with [[Deforestation in Laos|deforestation]] a particularly significant issue,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-7823.html|title=Laos Environmental problems & Policy |publisher=United Nations Encyclopedia of the Nations|access-date=20 April 2011}}</ref> as expanding commercial exploitation of the forests, plans for additional hydroelectric facilities, foreign demand for wild animals and nonwood forest products for food and traditional medicines, and a growing population all create increasing pressure.<ref>{{Harvnb|Savada|1995|p=163}}.</ref>

The road system is not extensive. A rudimentary network begun under French colonial rule and continued from the 1950s has provided an important means of increased inter-village communication, movement of market goods, and a focus for new settlements. In mid-1994, travel in most areas was difficult and expensive, and most Laotians traveled only limited distances, if at all. As a result of ongoing improvements in the road system started during the early 1990s, it is expected that in the future villagers will more easily be able to seek medical care, send children to schools at district centers, and work outside the village.

In October 2015 the first highway through the country was completed connecting southern China to Thailand.<sup>[[Geography of Laos#cite note-1|[1]]]</sup>

Inland waterways, including the Mekong River, is the second most important source of transport network. About 4,600 kilometers of navigable waterways are located within the Mekong, the Ou, and nine other rivers. The Mekong River is only navigable for about seventy percent of its length due to rapids and low water levels in the dry season.

Residents in the lower lands and villages of smaller river banks have traditionally traveled in pirogues for fishing, trading, or visiting up and down the river for limited distances. The public and private trade associations handle river traffic. There are a series of warehouses and ports in Savannakhet, Xeno, and Vientiane. The river transportation has improved since government policy expanded trade with Vietnam and other rural regions.

==Natural resources==
[[File:Fires in Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam.jpg|thumb|350px|Hundreds of active fires burning across the hills and valleys of [[Myanmar]] [[Thailand]], Laos, and [[Vietnam]] (labelled with red dots).]]

Expanding commercial exploitation of forests, plans for additional hydroelectric facilities, foreign demands for wild animals and nonwood forest products for food and traditional medicines, and a growing population have brought new and increasing attention to the forests. Traditionally, forests have been important sources of wild foods, herbal medicines, and timber for house construction.

Soils are found commonly throughout the floodplains. Typically, soils are formed from alluvium deposited by the rivers as either sandy clay in light colors or sand clay with gray or yellow colors. Upland soils derive from granitic, schistose, or sandstone parent rocks more acidic and less fertile. Southern Laos has areas of laterite soils, and basaltic soils in the Bolovens Plateau.

===Ecology===
{{main|Wildlife of Laos}}

====Flora====
Northern Laos has [[tropical rainforest]]s with [[broad-leaved tree|broader-leaved]] [[evergreen]]s and [[monsoon forest]]s of mixed evergreen and in the south is filled with [[deciduous tree]]s. In the monsoon forest, the ground is covered with tall, coarse grass. The trees mostly only reach their [[secondary growth]]. Typically, [[bamboo]], [[shrubland|scrub]], and [[wild banana]] are abundant. Laos is also home to hundreds of species of [[orchid]]s and [[palm tree|palms]].

====Fauna====
Forests and fields serve as support for [[wildlife]]. Wildlife in Laos includes nearly 200 species of mammals, about the same number for reptiles and amphibians, and about 700 varieties of birds. Common mammals are [[gaur]]s (wild oxen), deer, bears, and monkeys. Endangered animals include [[elephant]]s, [[rhinoceros]]es, [[tiger]]s, several types of wild oxen, monkeys, and gibbons. Snakes, [[skink]]s, frogs, and [[gecko]]es are abundant. [[Old World warbler|Warbler]]s, babblers, woodpeckers, thrushes, and large raptors inhabit the [[canopy (biology)|canopy]] and floor of the forest. Numerous species of birds live in the lowlands. Lastly, several of Laos's bird species are threatened, including most [[hornillo]], [[ibis]]es, and [[stork]]s.

===Environmental problems and illegal logging===
{{Further|Deforestation in Laos}}

Laos is increasingly suffering from environmental problems, with deforestation a particularly significant issue,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-7823.html|title=Laos Environmental problems & Policy |publisher=United Nations Encyclopedia of the Nations|access-date=20 April 2011}}</ref> as expanding commercial exploitation of the forests, plans for additional hydroelectric facilities, foreign demand for wild animals and nonwood forest products for food and traditional medicines, and a growing population all create increasing pressure.


The [[United Nations Development Programme]] warns: "Protecting the environment and sustainable use of natural resources in Lao PDR is vital for poverty reduction and economic growth."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undplao.org/whatwedo/energy_env.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080311201841/http://www.undplao.org/whatwedo/energy_env.php|archive-date=11 March 2008|title=Energy & Environment for Sustainable Development |publisher=United Nations Development Programme|access-date=20 April 2011}}</ref>
The [[United Nations Development Programme]] warns: "Protecting the environment and sustainable use of natural resources in Lao PDR is vital for poverty reduction and economic growth."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undplao.org/whatwedo/energy_env.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080311201841/http://www.undplao.org/whatwedo/energy_env.php|archive-date=11 March 2008|title=Energy & Environment for Sustainable Development |publisher=United Nations Development Programme|access-date=20 April 2011}}</ref>

In April 2011, ''[[The Independent]]'' newspaper reported that Laos had started work on the controversial [[Xayaburi Dam]] on the [[Mekong River]] without getting formal approval. Environmentalists say the dam will adversely affect 60 million people and Cambodia and Vietnam—concerned about the flow of water further downstream—are officially opposed to the project. The [[Mekong River Commission]], a regional intergovernmental body designed to promote the "sustainable management" of the river, famed for its [[Mekong Giant Catfish|giant catfish]], carried out a study that warned if Xayaburi and subsequent schemes went ahead, it would "fundamentally undermine the abundance, productivity and diversity of the Mekong fish resources".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/green-living/mekong-ecology-in-the-balance-as-laos-quietly-begins-work-on-dam-2270082.html|title=Mekong ecology in the balance as Laos quietly begins work on dam|newspaper=The Independent|date=20 April 2011|access-date=20 April 2011|location=London|first=Andrew|last=Buncombe|archive-date=23 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423014601/http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/green-living/mekong-ecology-in-the-balance-as-laos-quietly-begins-work-on-dam-2270082.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Neighbouring Vietnam warned that the dam would harm the [[Mekong Delta]], which is the home to nearly 20 million people and supplies around 50 percent of Vietnam's rice output and over 70 percent of both its [[seafood]] and fruit output.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://khampoua.wordpress.com/tag/laos-hydroelectric-project/|title=Vietnam worries about impacts from Laos hydroelectric project|publisher=Voices for the Laotian Who do not have Voices |access-date=20 April 2011}}</ref> By building dams Laos is willing to become the battery of Asia by selling electricity to its neighboring countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/09/laos-building-dams-negative-impacts-180911043821027.html|title=Laos to keep building dams despite negative impacts|website=www.aljazeera.com|access-date=11 September 2018}}</ref>

[[Milton Osborne]], Visiting Fellow at the [[Lowy Institute for International Policy]] who has written widely on the Mekong, warns: "The future scenario is of the Mekong ceasing to be a bounteous source of fish and guarantor of agricultural richness, with the great river below China becoming little more than a series of unproductive lakes."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/mekong-dam-plans-threatening-the-natural-order/story-e6frg6ux-1226083709322|title=Mekong dam plans threatening the natural order|newspaper=The Australian|author=Osborne, Milton |date=29 June 2011}}</ref>

Illegal logging is also a major problem. Environmental groups estimate that {{convert|500000|m3}} of logs are being cut by [[Vietnam People's Army]] (VPA) forces, and companies it owns, in co-operation with the [[Lao People's Army]] and then transported from Laos to Vietnam every year, with most of the furniture eventually exported to western countries by the VPA military-owned companies.<ref>Environmental Investigation Agency (26 September 2012) [http://eia-international.org/laos-forests-still-falling-to-connected-businesses "Laos' forests still falling to 'connected' businesses"]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.illegal-logging.info/item_single.php?it_id=2605&it=news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204130032/http://illegal-logging.info/item_single.php?it_id=2605&it=news|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 December 2010|title=U.S. furniture demand drives illegal logging in Laos|publisher=illegal-logging.info|access-date=20 April 2011}}</ref><ref>CleanBiz.Asia News (31 July 2011) "Vietnam army accused of illegal timber trading in Laos" http://www.cleanbiz.asia/news/vietnam-army-accused-illegal-timber-trading-laos#.VKmlVKLZqSo{{dead link|date=July 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>Radio Australia News (3 October 2012) [http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/international/radio/program/connect-asia/laos-failing-to-act-on-illegal-logging-says-environmental-agency/1024722 "Laos failing to act on illegal logging, says environmental agency"]</ref>

A 1992 government survey indicated that forests occupied about 48 percent of Laos's land area. Forest coverage decreased to 41 percent in a 2002 survey. Lao authorities have said that, in reality, forest coverage might be no more than 35 percent because of development projects such as dams, on top of the losses to [[illegal logging]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.voanews.com/lao/news/a-52-2009-02-24-voa3-90694899.html|title=Illegal Logging Increasingly Prevalent in Laos|publisher=voanews.com|access-date=20 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511104809/http://www.voanews.com/lao/news/a-52-2009-02-24-voa3-90694899.html|archive-date=11 May 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Most of the deforestation during the 1980s stemmed from the northern region in which the poor destroyed about 300,000 hectares annually.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last1=Kim|first1=Se Bin|last2=Alounsavath|first2=Oupakone|date=2015-03-13|title=Forest policy measures influence on the increase of forest cover in northern Laos|journal=Forest Science and Technology|language=en|volume=11|issue=3|pages=166–171|doi=10.1080/21580103.2014.977358|s2cid=140650841|issn=2158-0103}}</ref> A study conducted in Savannakhet Province revealed a pattern in which the households extracting resources from the forest tended to be the rural poor.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal|last1=Nguyen|first1=Trung Thanh|last2=Do|first2=Truong Lam|last3=Grote|first3=Ulrike|date=2018-07-20|title=Natural resource extraction and household welfare in rural Laos|journal=Land Degradation & Development|language=en|volume=29|issue=9|pages=3029–3038|doi=10.1002/ldr.3056|issn=1085-3278|url=http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/277061/files/777.pdf}}</ref> It cross referenced the data collected from two groups, the poor and the wealthy to identify possible correlations between welfare and the dependency on the extraction of natural resources to support one's livelihood. Compared to the wealthy group, the poor had higher levels of exposure to environmental, health, and economic shocks in addition to having little capital such as education and financial assets.<ref name=":33" /> While the poor depended more on nonwood commodities from the forest to increase food security, the wealthier group would harvest timber and wood for environmental income.<ref name=":33" /> A study found a correlation between the loss of forest coverage with socio-economic development and physical factors, such as the elevation and slope of the land or its distance to main roads.<ref name=":75">{{Cite journal|last1=Clarke|first1=Kenneth|last2=Ostendorf|first2=Bertram|last3=Lewis|first3=Megan|last4=Phompila|first4=Chittana|last5=Phompila|first5=Chittana|last6=Lewis|first6=Megan|last7=Ostendorf|first7=Bertram|last8=Clarke|first8=Kenneth|date=March 2017|title=Forest Cover Changes in Lao Tropical Forests: Physical and Socio-Economic Factors are the Most Important Drivers|journal=Land|language=en|volume=6|issue=2|pages=23|doi=10.3390/land6020023|doi-access=free}}</ref> The closer a forest was situated to a main road, the increased chances of deforestation; the same applied to the proximity of villages to nearby forests.<ref name=":75" /> Furthermore, high elevation areas in the mountains tended to faced higher deforestation rates compared to the flat lands or lower areas.<ref name=":75" /> While there is a higher amount of settlements and villages in the lower flat lands, most of the human activities is concentrated in the higher areas thus explaining the different rates.<ref name=":75" /> A plethora of environmental issues contributing to the deforestation include problems with the urban environment, mismanaged mineral exploitation, and careless development planning for industrial and transportation sectors.<ref name=":45">{{Cite web|url=https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/uploads/invasive_alien_species_in_south_southeast_asia.pdf|title=Invasive Alien Species in South-Southeast Asia|last1=Pallewatta|first1=Nirmalie Alexis T. Gutierrez|last2=Reaser|first2=Jamie K.|year=2003|website=www.doi.gov|publisher=The Global Invasive Species Programme|access-date=2018-12-15|last3=Gutierrez|first3=Alexis T.}}</ref>

Among the many ongoing issues threatening Lao's ecosystem with deforestation, there is a growing concern about [[Invasive species|Invasive Alien Species]] (IAS) contributing to the environmental degradation and loss of biodiversity.<ref name=":45" /> Bringing in alien species to promote economic development has brought notable success such as coffee, which is now one of Lao's main exports.<ref name=":45" /> However, as non native plants or species proliferate, new diseases and pests also become an issue which upsets the natural balance of the ecosystem.<ref name=":45" /> This prompts farmers to use extensive commercial herbicides to protect their crops from species such as the [[Mimosa invisa|Mimosa Invisa]] and [[Mimosa pigra|Mimosa Pigra]] weeds, further damaging the land in the long run.<ref name=":45" /> Ever since the [[Pomacea canaliculata|Golden Apple Snail]] (GAS) was introduced to Laos from Vietnam in 1994 as a new source of food, it has spread through waterways and human transport to 10 of Lao's 17 provinces causing many fields to become infested with snails.<ref name=":45" /> One of the unintended consequences of this alien species being brought to Laos was the unforeseeable damage to rice paddies, prompting farmers to forgo hand-picking and instead use pesticides for the heavily infested fields leading to chemical runoff.<ref name=":45" /> In addition to the chemical pollution in the water threatening the health of aquatic animals and people working in the paddies, many farmers also experienced severe injuries in the field from stepping on the snail shells.<ref name=":45" />

Laos had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 5.59/10, ranking it 98<sup>th</sup> globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Conservation efforts===
Government intervention policies have been implemented to address concerns such as unsustainable timber harvesting, slash-and-burn cultivation, and the allocation of forestland to other purposes such as agriculture, industry, and infrastructure development.<ref name=":23" /> The major causes of continued forest degradation from that point onward was not due to policy failure, but rather a lack of multiple factors which include: funding, law enforcement, experienced workers, and organization in the economic sector.<ref name=":23" /> Despite all this, there have been other policy attempts and interventions that have been successful in aiding the problem. Reducing the rural population, allowing for tree plantation development, and transitioning from upland rice cultivation to commercial market oriented agricultural practices, contributed to the efforts increasing the amount of forest coverage in Laos.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bin|first1=Kim Se|last2=Alounsavath|first2=Oupakone|date=2016-01-18|title=Factors influencing the increase of forest cover in Luang Prabang Province, Northern Laos|journal=Forest Science and Technology|language=en|volume=12|issue=2|pages=98–103|doi=10.1080/21580103.2015.1075437|issn=2158-0103|doi-access=free}}</ref> Of the commercial market oriented agricultural practices, the one that saw great success in forest coverage increase is linked to the Southern region's rubber plantations, which has been increasing in number due to rubber being a valuable commodity giving farmers incentive to plant more trees.<ref name=":75"/> While it did increase forest coverage, native forests and shifting cultivation lands were subject to change and decline as they transformed into rubber plantations especially during the boom periods of rubber prices, altering the overall biodiversity in the ecosystem.<ref name=":75"/>

====Government policies====
As a means of regulating the country's environmental degradation, the Laos government implemented a new article to the Environmental Protection Law in 2013 that requires the natural resources and environment sector to develop a report every three years to assess the current state of the environment.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Environmental Protection Law (Revised)|publisher=National Assembly of Laos|year=2012|location=Vientiane, Laos|pages=10}}</ref> Amidst the implementation of new laws, however, to regulate the logging industry, there has not been much transparency regarding the provincial government's involvement with the smuggling and foreign investors.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/law/foreign-news/article/laos-illegal-timber-exports/|title=Laos: Illegal Timber Exports {{!}} Global Legal Monitor|date=2016-12-16|website=www.loc.gov|language=en|others=Johnson, Constance|access-date=2018-10-18}}</ref> Despite implementing the national export ban on timber in 2016, logs are still being smuggled on a regular basis to Lao's neighboring countries, particularly China and Vietnam to be used as materials for luxury furniture.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rfa.org/english/news/laos/logging-12072016153637.html|title=Logging Continues in Laos as Provinces Ignore Export Ban|website=Radio Free Asia|language=en|access-date=2018-12-15}}</ref> An anonymous witness account revealed that particular provincial governors are safeguarding the hidden illegal lumber, manipulating the reports, and hiding the total number of seized logs to protect the interests of their foreign investors.<ref name=":6" /> As such there seems to be a lack of oversight in the ongoing matter.<ref name=":5" />

====NGOs and activism====
USAID also implemented a program called Lowering Emissions in Asia's Forests (LEAF) from 2011 to 2016 to reduce greenhouse gases and minimize the consequences of deforestation.<ref name=":023">{{Cite journal|title=Lowering Emissions in Asia's Forests|url=https://www.leafasia.org/library/usaid-leaf-final-report|journal=Winrock International}}</ref> While USAID LEAF was overseeing one of the [[National Biodiversity Conservation Areas|National Biodiversity Conservation Area]] (NBCA) in Nam Xam, Laos, Climate Protection Through Avoided Deforestation (CliPAD) also simultaneously initiated their project in the Nam Et-Phou Louey National Protected Area (NPA) which provided a complementary foundation for USAID LEAF to work upon.<ref name=":023" /> USAID LEAF worked in conjunction with the CliPAD project to provide participatory land use planning as well as animal husbandry to prepare the communities for future provincial [[Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation|REDD+]] strategies.<ref name=":023" /> In introducing participatory land use planning into the provinces, districts developed management plans to allocate natural resources or approved land in a substantially more eco-friendly manner by allowing for better community security and conditions over forest resources.<ref name=":023" /> They also were involved in monitoring livestock management for quality over quantity, and in doing so decreased the concerns of excessive forest grazing while collectively increasing community income.<ref name=":023" /> They also were involved in monitoring livestock management for quality over quantity, and in doing so decreased the concerns of excessive forest grazing while collectively increasing community income. However, due to a lack of strong political leadership, the collaborative efforts between LEAF and CliPAD were impeded, resulting in LEAF downsizing the scope of the programs and processes.<ref name=":023" /> Furthermore, constant regulatory and legislative changes continued to occur in the national and provincial levels, which discouraged the plans of LEAF, but ultimately shifted the focus more on the local level leading to successful outcomes with local stakeholders.<ref name=":023" />

Funded by the German government through the KfW development bank, the GIZ CliPAD project oversaw the creation of a national and provincial [[Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation|REDD+]] framework through local-level mitigation measures and sustainable financing models.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://www.giz.de/en/downloads/ENG_CliPAD_factsheet_2017.pdf|title=Climate Protection Through Avoided Deforestation [Fact Sheet]|last1=Kallabinski|first1=Jens|last2=Koch|first2=Sebastian|date=April 2017|publisher=Giz|access-date=October 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108065729/https://www.giz.de/en/downloads/ENG_CliPAD_factsheet_2017.pdf|archive-date=November 8, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> Similarly to the USAID LEAF project, it provided support through capacity building measures such as conducting participatory land use planning in 87 villages.<ref name=":13" /> In addition, it arranged law enforcement training for 162 officers from the Provincial Office of Forest Inspection as a means to effectively deal with poachers and illegal logging.<ref name=":13" /> Local communities were prompted to apply the learned sustainable practices regarding natural resource management and explore alternative means of income, to reduce the dependency on the environment's natural resources.<ref name=":13" /> In addition to the capacity building measures, CliPAD also provided support for establishing the necessary legal framework to launch REDD+ by aiding in the forest law revision process.<ref name=":13" />


==Area and boundaries==
==Area and boundaries==
[[Image:Luang Prabang Phou Si 2.jpg|thumb|340px|The Mekong river at [[Luang Prabang]], Laos]]
[[Image:Luang Prabang Phou Si 2.jpg|thumb|The Mekong river at [[Luang Prabang]], Laos]]
;Area:

:* Total: {{Convert|236800|km2|abbr=in}}<ref name="World Factbook" />
'''Area:'''
:**country rank in the world: ''82nd''
<br>''total:'' 236,800&nbsp;km²
:* Land: {{Convert|230,800|km2|abbr=in}}
<br>''land:'' 230,800&nbsp;km²
:* Water: {{Convert|6,000|km2|abbr=in}}
<br>''water:'' 6,000&nbsp;km²
;Area comparison:

:* Australia comparative: slightly larger than [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]]
'''Area - comparative:''' slightly larger than the US state of [[Minnesota]] <br> slightly smaller than half of the Canadian territory of the [[Yukon]] <br> slightly smaller than the [[United Kingdom]]
:* Canada comparative: slightly less than half the size of the [[Yukon]]

:* United States comparative: slightly less than twice the size of [[Pennsylvania]]
'''Land boundaries:'''
:* UK comparative: slightly smaller than the [[United Kingdom]]
<br>''total:'' 5,083&nbsp;km
:*[[European Union|EU]] comparative: approximately equal in size to [[Romania]]
<br>''border countries:'' [[Myanmar]] 235&nbsp;km, [[Cambodia]] 541&nbsp;km, the [[People's Republic of China]] 423&nbsp;km, Thailand 1,754&nbsp;km, Vietnam 2,130&nbsp;km
;Land boundaries:<ref name="World Factbook" />

:* Total: {{Convert|5,274|km|abbr=in}}
'''Coastline:''' 0&nbsp;km ([[landlocked]])
:*Border countries:

:** [[Cambodia]]: {{Convert|555|km|abbr=in}}
'''Elevation extremes:'''
:** [[China]]: {{Convert|475|km|abbr=in}}
<br>''lowest point:'' [[Mekong|Mekong River]] 70 m
:** [[Myanmar]]: {{Convert|238|km|abbr=in}}
<br>''highest point:'' [[Phou Bia]] 2,817 m
:** Thailand: {{Convert|1845|km|abbr=in}}
:** Vietnam: {{Convert|2161|km|abbr=in}}
;Elevation extremes:<ref name="World Factbook" />
:*Lowest point: [[Mekong|Mekong River]] {{Convert|70|m|abbr=in}}
:*Highest point: [[Phou Bia]] {{Convert|2,817|m}}


==See also==
==See also==
*[[National Biodiversity Conservation Areas]]
*[[National Biodiversity Conservation Areas]]
*[[Zomia]]
*[[Zomia]]
*[[Transport in Laos]]


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}"Laos". ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online''. Encyclopædia Britannica, n.d. Web. 13 Nov. 2016.

Kittikhoun, Anoulak. "Small State, Big Revolution: Geography and the Revolution in Laos". ''Theory & Society'' 38.1 (2009): 25-55. Print.


* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Laos: a country study |publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]] |location=Washington, D.C. |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/95017235/ |date=1995 |editor-last=Savada |editor-first=Andrea Matles |edition=3rd |isbn=0-8444-0832-8 |oclc=32394600}} {{PD-notice}}
Savada, Andrea Matles, et al. ''Laos : A Country Study''. 3rd ed. ed. Washington, DC: Washington, DC : Federal Research Division, Library of Congress : For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O, 1995. Print.
'''Attribution:'''
*{{CIA World Factbook|article=Laos|year=2021}}


*{{country study|country=Laos|abbr=la}}
*{{CIA World Factbook}}
{{Laos topics}}
{{Laos topics}}
{{Geography of Asia}}
{{Geography of Asia}}
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[[Category:Geography of Laos| ]]
[[Category:Geography of Laos| ]]
[[Category:Regions of Southeast Asia]]


[[bn:লাওস#ভূগোল]]
[[bn:লাওস#ভূগোল]]

Latest revision as of 21:25, 15 November 2024

Geography of Laos
Satellite image of Laos
Satellite view of Laos
ContinentAsia
RegionSoutheast Asia
Coordinates18°00′N 105°00′E / 18.000°N 105.000°E / 18.000; 105.000
AreaRanked 82nd
 • Total236,800 km2 (91,400 sq mi)
 • Land97.47%
 • Water2.53%
BordersTotal:
5,274 km (3,277 mi)
Vietnam:
2,161 km (1,343 mi)
Thailand:
1,845 km (1,146 mi)
Cambodia:
555 km (345 mi)
China:
475 km (295 mi)
Myanmar:
238 km (148 mi)
Highest pointPhou Bia
2,817 m (9,242 ft)
Lowest pointMekong
70 m (230 ft)
Longest riverMekong River
1,835 km (1,140 mi)
Largest lakeNam Ngum Lake
370 km2 (140 sq mi)
ClimateMostly tropical
TerrainHigh mountains, and an upland plateau
Natural hazardsDroughts, soil erosion

Laos is a country in and the only landlocked nation in mainland Southeast Asia, northeast of Thailand and west of Vietnam. It covers approximately 236,800 square kilometers in the center of the Southeast Asian peninsula and it is surrounded by Myanmar (Burma), Cambodia, the People's Republic of China, Thailand, and Vietnam.

About seventy percent of its geographic area is made up of mountain ranges, highlands, plateaux, and rivers cut through. Historically, its location has often made it a buffer state between more powerful neighboring states, particularly for the ancestral rulers of the modern-day Burmese, Vietnamese and Thais, as well as a crossroads for trade and communication.[1]

Topography

[edit]
See also: List of mountains in Laos

Most of the western border of Laos is demarcated by the Mekong river, which is an important artery for transportation.[1] The Dong Falls at the southern end of the country prevent access to the sea, but cargo boats travel along the entire length of the Mekong in Laos during most of the year.[1] Smaller power boats and pirogues provide an important means of transportation on many of the tributaries of the Mekong.[1]

The Mekong has thus not been an obstacle but a facilitator for communication, and the similarities between Laos and northeast Thai society—same people, almost same language—reflect the close contact that has existed across the river for centuries.[1] Also, many Laotians living in the Mekong Valley have relatives and friends in Thailand.[1]

Prior to the twentieth century, Laotian kingdoms and principalities encompassed areas on both sides of the Mekong, and Thai control in the late nineteenth century extended to the left bank.[1] Although the Mekong was established as a border by French colonial forces, travel from one side to the other has been significantly limited only since the establishment of the Lao People's Democratic Republic (LPDR, or Laos) in 1975.[1]

The eastern border with Vietnam extends for 2,130 kilometres, mostly along the crest of the Annamite Chain, and serves as a physical barrier between the Chinese-influenced culture of Vietnam and the Indianized states of Laos and Thailand.[1] These mountains are sparsely populated by tribal minorities who traditionally have not acknowledged the border with Vietnam any more than lowland Lao have been constrained by the 1,754-kilometre Mekong River border with Thailand.[1] Thus, ethnic minority populations are found on both the Laotian and Vietnamese sides of the frontier.[1] Because of their relative isolation, contact between these groups and lowland Lao has been mostly confined to trading.[1]

Laos shares its short—only 541 kilometres—southern border with Cambodia, and ancient Khmer ruins at Wat Pho and other southern locations attest to the long history of contact between the Lao and the Khmer.[1] In the north, the country is bounded by a mountainous 423-kilometre border with China and shares the 235-kilometre-long Mekong River border with Myanmar.[1]

The topography of Laos is largely mountainous, with the Annamite Range in the northeast and east and the Luang Prabang Range in the northwest, among other ranges typically characterized by steep terrain.[2] Elevations are typically above 500 metres with narrow river valleys and low agricultural potential.[2] This mountainous landscape extends across most of the north of the country, except for the plain of Vientiane and the Plain of Jars in the Xiangkhoang Plateau.[2]

The southern "panhandle" of the country contains large level areas in Savannakhét and Champasak provinces that are well suited for extensive paddy rice cultivation and livestock raising.[2] Much of Khammouan Province and the eastern part of all the southern provinces are mountainous.[2] Together, the alluvial plains and terraces of the Mekong and its tributaries cover only about 20% of the land area.[2]

Only about 4% of the total land area is classified as arable.[2] The forested land area has declined significantly since the 1970s as a result of commercial logging and expanded swidden, or slash-and-burn, farming.[2]

Climate

[edit]
Laos Köppen climate classification
Climate data for Vientiane

Laos has a tropical climate, with a pronounced rainy season from May through October, a cool dry season from November through February, and a hot dry season in March and April.[2] Generally, monsoons occur at the same time across the country, although that time may vary significantly from one year to the next.[2]

Rainfall varies regionally, with the highest amounts—3,700 millimeters (150 inches) annually—recorded on the Bolaven Plateau in Champasak Province.[3] City rainfall stations have recorded that Savannakhét averages 1,440 millimeters (57 inches) of rain annually; Vientiane receives about 1,700 millimeters (67 inches), and Louangphrabang (Luang Prabang) receives about 1,360 millimeters (54 inches).[2]

Rainfall is not always adequate for rice cultivation and the relatively high average precipitation conceals years where rainfall may be only half or less of the norm, causing significant declines in rice yields.[2] Such droughts often are regional, leaving production in other parts of the country unaffected.[2]

The average temperatures in January, coolest month, are, Luang Prabang 20.5 °C (minimum 0.8 °C), Vientiane 20.3 °C (minimum 3.3 °C), and Pakse 23.9 °C (minimum 7.8 °C); the average temperatures for April, usually the hottest month, are, Luang Prabang 28.1 °C (maximum 44.8 °C), Vientiane 42.5 °C. Temperature does vary according to the altitude, there is an average drop of 1.7 °C for every 1000 feet (or 300 meters). Temperatures in the upland plateux and in the mountains are considered lower than on the plains around Vientiane.[4]

Laos is highly vulnerable to the effects of global climate change; nearly all provinces in Laos are at high risks from climate change.[5]

Climate data for Vientiane (1981–2010)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 36.0
(96.8) 		38.0
(100.4) 		40.0
(104.0) 		41.4
(106.5) 		42.5
(108.5) 		39.5
(103.1) 		39.0
(102.2) 		37.2
(99.0) 		37.5
(99.5) 		36.8
(98.2) 		36.0
(96.8) 		36.0
(96.8) 		42.5
(108.5)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 28.7
(83.7) 		30.8
(87.4) 		33.1
(91.6) 		34.6
(94.3) 		33.1
(91.6) 		32.2
(90.0) 		31.6
(88.9) 		31.2
(88.2) 		31.3
(88.3) 		31.2
(88.2) 		30.1
(86.2) 		28.3
(82.9) 		31.1
(88.0)
Daily mean °C (°F) 22.4
(72.3) 		24.7
(76.5) 		27.1
(80.8) 		29.0
(84.2) 		28.4
(83.1) 		28.1
(82.6) 		27.7
(81.9) 		27.5
(81.5) 		27.3
(81.1) 		26.8
(80.2) 		24.8
(76.6) 		22.2
(72.0) 		26.3
(79.3)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 17.4
(63.3) 		19.6
(67.3) 		22.1
(71.8) 		24.5
(76.1) 		24.9
(76.8) 		25.2
(77.4) 		25.0
(77.0) 		24.8
(76.6) 		24.3
(75.7) 		23.4
(74.1) 		20.5
(68.9) 		17.3
(63.1) 		22.4
(72.3)
Record low °C (°F) 3.3
(37.9) 		7.6
(45.7) 		10.0
(50.0) 		16.8
(62.2) 		19.0
(66.2) 		20.0
(68.0) 		19.5
(67.1) 		20.6
(69.1) 		18.8
(65.8) 		12.9
(55.2) 		8.9
(48.0) 		5.0
(41.0) 		3.3
(37.9)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 7.8
(0.31) 		15.3
(0.60) 		39.2
(1.54) 		92.8
(3.65) 		233.5
(9.19) 		264.6
(10.42) 		307.2
(12.09) 		332.9
(13.11) 		270.2
(10.64) 		96.6
(3.80) 		13.5
(0.53) 		3.7
(0.15) 		1,677.2
(66.03)
Average rainy days 1.0 2.0 5.0 8.0 16.0 19.0 20.0 22.0 17.0 9.0 2.0 1.0 122.0
Average relative humidity (%) 70 68 66 69 78 82 82 84 83 78 72 70 75
Mean monthly sunshine hours 239.8 216.9 218.5 227.6 195.3 140.8 129.9 133.0 165.9 210.5 228.5 246.6 2,353.5
Source 1: World Meteorological Organization,[6] Deutscher Wetterdienst (extremes 1907–1990),[7] Pogoda.ru.net,[8] tutiempo.net[9]
Source 2: NOAA (humidity 1961–1990)[10]
Climate data for Pakse (1981–2010)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 36.7
(98.1) 		37.8
(100.0) 		38.9
(102.0) 		40.8
(105.4) 		41.3
(106.3) 		38.3
(100.9) 		38.2
(100.8) 		35.0
(95.0) 		36.0
(96.8) 		36.7
(98.1) 		36.7
(98.1) 		36.6
(97.9) 		41.3
(106.3)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 32.0
(89.6) 		33.5
(92.3) 		35.1
(95.2) 		35.5
(95.9) 		33.5
(92.3) 		31.6
(88.9) 		31.0
(87.8) 		30.5
(86.9) 		31.0
(87.8) 		31.3
(88.3) 		31.2
(88.2) 		30.8
(87.4) 		32.3
(90.1)
Daily mean °C (°F) 25.6
(78.1) 		27.7
(81.9) 		29.6
(85.3) 		30.4
(86.7) 		29.1
(84.4) 		28.1
(82.6) 		27.6
(81.7) 		27.2
(81.0) 		27.3
(81.1) 		27.1
(80.8) 		26.2
(79.2) 		24.9
(76.8) 		27.6
(81.7)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 18.7
(65.7) 		21.4
(70.5) 		24.1
(75.4) 		25.8
(78.4) 		25.3
(77.5) 		24.9
(76.8) 		24.5
(76.1) 		24.3
(75.7) 		24.1
(75.4) 		23.1
(73.6) 		21.1
(70.0) 		18.9
(66.0) 		23.0
(73.4)
Record low °C (°F) 7.8
(46.0) 		10.8
(51.4) 		12.8
(55.0) 		19.8
(67.6) 		21.7
(71.1) 		21.5
(70.7) 		21.4
(70.5) 		21.5
(70.7) 		20.0
(68.0) 		16.7
(62.1) 		13.9
(57.0) 		8.9
(48.0) 		7.8
(46.0)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 1.5
(0.06) 		10.4
(0.41) 		26.5
(1.04) 		67.3
(2.65) 		229.6
(9.04) 		351.3
(13.83) 		414.6
(16.32) 		504.6
(19.87) 		308.2
(12.13) 		128.9
(5.07) 		25.3
(1.00) 		2.2
(0.09) 		2,070.6
(81.52)
Average rainy days 0 1 3 8 17 21 24 25 20 12 5 1 138
Average relative humidity (%) 62 60 59 65 75 82 83 85 84 79 72 67 72.8
Mean monthly sunshine hours 274.5 243.9 244.5 227.1 202.0 145.0 142.2 126.6 141.2 188.3 225.7 249.3 2,410.4
Source 1: World Meteorological Organization,[11] tutiempo.net[12]
Source 2: NOAA (humidity 1961–1990),[13] Deutscher Wetterdienst (extremes),[14] The Yearbook of Indochina (1932-1933)[15]

Agriculture

[edit]

Agriculture in Laos is the most important sector of the economy.[16] Five million out of 23,680,000 hectares of Laos's total land area is suitable for cultivation, and seventeen percent of the land area, between 850,000 and 900,000 hectares, was cultivated as of the early 1990s.[17] Rice is the main crop grown during the rainy season.[18]

Agricultural cultivation is possible during with varying weather on a small portion of land area apart from the Vientiane plain and the lowlands along the Mekong Valley. These cultivated areas are situated in the valley cuts by the rivers or the plateau regions of Xieng Khouang in the North and in the Bolavens in the south. Typically there are only two ways to cultivate: either the wet-field paddy system practiced among the Lao Loum or lowland in Lao, or the swidden cultivation system practiced in the hills.[19]

Human geography

[edit]
See also: Laos § Demographics

The overall population density was only eighteen persons per square kilometer, and in many districts the density was fewer than ten persons per square kilometer.[20] Population density per cultivated hectare was considerably high ranging from 3.3 to 7.8 persons per hectare.[20]

Natural resources and environmental issues

[edit]
See also: Wildlife of Laos and Environmental issues in Laos
Hundreds of active fires burning across the hills and valleys of Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam (labelled with red dots)

The natural resources of Laos include timber, hydropower, gypsum, tin, gold, and gemstones.[21] Laos is increasingly suffering from environmental problems, with deforestation a particularly significant issue,[22] as expanding commercial exploitation of the forests, plans for additional hydroelectric facilities, foreign demand for wild animals and nonwood forest products for food and traditional medicines, and a growing population all create increasing pressure.[23]

The United Nations Development Programme warns: "Protecting the environment and sustainable use of natural resources in Lao PDR is vital for poverty reduction and economic growth."[24]

Area and boundaries

[edit]
The Mekong river at Luang Prabang, Laos
Area
  • Total: 236,800 km2 (91,400 square miles)[21]
    • country rank in the world: 82nd
  • Land: 230,800 km2 (89,100 square miles)
  • Water: 6,000 km2 (2,300 square miles)
Area comparison
  • Australia comparative: slightly larger than Victoria
  • Canada comparative: slightly less than half the size of the Yukon
  • United States comparative: slightly less than twice the size of Pennsylvania
  • UK comparative: slightly smaller than the United Kingdom
  • EU comparative: approximately equal in size to Romania
Land boundaries
[21]
  • Total: 5,274 km (3,277 miles)
  • Border countries:
    • Cambodia: 555 km (345 miles)
    • China: 475 km (295 miles)
    • Myanmar: 238 km (148 miles)
    • Thailand: 1,845 km (1,146 miles)
    • Vietnam: 2,161 km (1,343 miles)
Elevation extremes
[21]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Savada 1995, p. 81.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Savada 1995, p. 82.
  3. ^ Savada 1995, p. 83.
  4. ^ "Laos climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, when to go". www.climatestotravel.com. Retrieved 2022-06-24.
  5. ^ Overland, Indra et al. (2017) Impact of Climate Change on ASEAN International Affairs: Risk and Opportunity Multiplier, Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI) and Myanmar Institute of International and Strategic Studies (MISIS).
  6. ^ "World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1981–2010". World Meteorological Organization. Archived from the original on 16 July 2021. Retrieved 16 July 2021.
  7. ^ "Klimatafel von Vientiane (Viangchan) / Laos" (PDF). Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Retrieved 23 January 2016.
  8. ^ КЛИМАТ УЛАН-БАТОРА (in Russian). Pogoda.ru.net. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
  9. ^ S.L, Tutiempo Network. "Climate Vientiane - Climate data (489400)". www.tutiempo.net. Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  10. ^ "Vientiane Climate Normals 1961–1990". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 29 November 2013.
  11. ^ "World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1981–2010". World Meteorological Organization. Archived from the original on 17 July 2021. Retrieved 16 July 2021.
  12. ^ S.L, Tutiempo Network. "Climate Pakse - Climate data (489550)". www.tutiempo.net. Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  13. ^ "Pakse Climate Normals 1961-1990". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved January 11, 2013.
  14. ^ "Klimatafel von Pakse (Pakxé) / Laos" (PDF). Baseline climate means (1961-1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Retrieved January 23, 2016.
  15. ^ The Yearbook of Indochina (1932-1933)
  16. ^ Savada 1995, p. 162.
  17. ^ Savada 1995, p. 153.
  18. ^ Savada 1995, p. 156.
  19. ^ "Laos - Crops". countrystudies.us. Retrieved 2022-06-24.
  20. ^ a b Savada 1995, pp. 86–87.
  21. ^ a b c d Public Domain This article incorporates public domain material from "Laos". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). CIA. Retrieved 2021-10-26. (Archived 2021 edition.)
  22. ^ "Laos Environmental problems & Policy". United Nations Encyclopedia of the Nations. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
  23. ^ Savada 1995, p. 163.
  24. ^ "Energy & Environment for Sustainable Development". United Nations Development Programme. Archived from the original on 11 March 2008. Retrieved 20 April 2011.

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