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Transpersonal psychology, or spiritual psychology, is an area of psychology that seeks to integrate the spiritual and transcendent human experiences within the framework of modern psychology.^[1]

Evolving from the humanistic psychology movement, transpersonal psychology emerged in the late 1960s, integrating spirituality and consciousness studies into psychological theory, as a response to perceived limitations of mainstream psychological approaches.

The empirical validity and recognition of transpersonal psychology remains contentious in modern psychology. Early critics such as Ernest Hilgard have viewed it as a fringe movement that attracted extreme followers of humanistic psychology, while scholars such as Eugene Taylor have acknowledged the field's interdisciplinary approach, at the same time noting its epistemological and practical challenges. The field's connections to psychedelic substances, religious ideas, and the new age movement have also further fueled controversy.

Transpersonal psychology has influenced various related and transpersonal disciplines, including transpersonal anthropology, business studies, near-death studies, and parapsychology. The field has a strong institutional presence in California, where the Association for Transpersonal Psychology, Institute of Transpersonal Psychology, and Journal of Transpersonal Psychology were developed.

History

Origins

Early use of the term "transpersonal" can also be credited to Stanislav Grof and Anthony Sutich, who were dissatisfied with the humanistic psychology movement and included spirituality in their new framework.^[2] In 1967 to 1968, Abraham Maslow was in close dialogue with both Grof and Sutich regarding the name and orientation of the new field, later describing transpersonal psychology as a "fourth force" in psychology.^[2]

According to Powers, the term "transpersonal" starts to show up in academic journals from 1970 onwards. Humanistic and transpersonal psychology are often associated with the Human Potential Movement, a movement in the 1960s that explored various therapies and philosophies at institutions like Esalen in Big Sur, California. Transpersonal psychology was heavily influenced by Western culture, and had not been regarded as a “hard science”.^[2]

Formative period

Gradually, during the 1960s, the term "transpersonal" became associated with a distinct school of psychology within the humanistic psychology movement.^[3] This branch of psychology was introduced to a time where the majority of schools were teaching Freudian Psychology.^[2]

In 1969, Maslow, Grof and Sutich were among the initiators behind the publication of the first issue of the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology.^[4]^[3]^[5] The Association for Transpersonal Psychology was established in 1972,^[6] the International Transpersonal Psychology Association in 1973,^[5] and the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology in 1975 .^[6] The institute was founded by Robert Frager and James Fadiman^{[citation needed]} in response to an academic climate that they felt was hostile to such ideas.^{[citation needed]}

Soon, other institutions began offering curricula in transpersonal psychology including Saybrook Graduate School, the California Institute of Asian Studies (now California Institute of Integral Studies), JFK University, and Naropa.^[7] Other proponents of transpersonal psychology included Ram Dass; Elmer and Alyce Green who were affiliated with the Menninger Foundation;^[5] and Ken Wilber.^[5]^[8]^[9]

Transpersonal psychology has been influenced by various Eastern spiritual traditions, such as Buddhism and Hinduism, which emphasize practices like meditation, mindfulness, and the dissolution of the ego. In 1969, Anthony Sutich, along with Maslow and other humanistic psychologists, founded the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, formally establishing the field. The creation of the Association for Transpersonal Psychology in 1972 further solidified its identity. Transpersonal psychology focuses on exploring spiritual experiences, mystical states, self-transcendence, and the holistic development of human potential.

An interest group was later re-formed as the Transpersonal Psychology Interest Group (TPIG), which continued to promote transpersonal issues in collaboration with Division 32.^[6] Ken Wilber and Michael Washburn delivered the main transpersonal models of development of this period, Wilber in 1977 and Washburn in 1988.^[10] Ken Wilber has since distanced himself from the label "transpersonal", being in favour of the label of "integral" since the mid-1990s. In 1998 he formed the Integral Institute.^[11]

In 1998, the San Francisco Chronicle reported on the holistic studies program at the John F. Kennedy University in Orinda, which included a transpersonal psychology department. The program was considered to be unique at the time, but also controversial. Commentators presented their skepticism towards the program.^[12]

Later developments

Proponents of transpersonal psychology were behind the proposal for a new diagnostic category to be included in the DSM-manual of the American Psychiatric Association called "Psychoreligious or psychospiritual problem", which was approved by the Task Force on DSM-IV in 1993, after changing its name to Religious or spiritual problem.^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]^[3]^[17]^{[excessive citations]} Concurrently, there was an increase in membership for the Association for Transpersonal Psychology, stabilizing at approximately 3000 members in the early nineties.^[3] In 1996, the British Psychological Society established a Transpersonal Psychology Section.^[18]^[19]

In 2007 the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology and the International Journal of Transpersonal Studies were accepted for indexing in PsycINFO, the journal database of the American Psychological Association. That same year, Ruzek, noted that the "American Psychological Association (APA) and most academic institutions have not yet recognized transpersonal psychology as an approved area of study; transpersonal psychology is rarely mentioned in mainstream academic journals or textbooks; and relatively few American academicians identify themselves as practitioners of transpersonal psychology. Furthermore, transpersonal psychology is scarcely mentioned, if at all, in history or introductory psychology texts".^[20]

Reception, recognition and criticism

Although transpersonal psychology has received some support from both psychologists and non-psychologists, it remains highly controversial and has not been widely accepted by mainstream academic psychology.^[3]^[8]^[21]^[22]^[23]

Transpersonal psychology has been criticized for lacking conceptual, evidentiary, and scientific rigor. In a review of criticisms of the field, Paul F Cunningham writes, "philosophers have criticized transpersonal psychology because its metaphysics is naive and epistemology is undeveloped. Multiplicity of definitions and lack of operationalization of many of its concepts has led to a conceptual confusion about the nature of transpersonal psychology itself... Biologists have criticized transpersonal psychology for its lack of attention to biological foundations of behavior and experience. Physicists have criticized transpersonal psychology for inappropriately accommodating physic concepts as explanations of consciousness."^[24]

Albert Ellis, a cognitive and humanistic psychologist, has questioned the results of transpersonal psychotherapy. In 1989, he worked with Raymond Yeager for the release of Why some therapies don't work: The dangers of transpersonal psychology, where the authors compared the results of transpersonal psychology with the effects of rational-emotive therapy and noted the dangers of the transpersonal approach.^[25] Ellis has also questioned the scientific status of transpersonal psychology, and its relationship to religion, mysticism and authoritarian belief systems.^[26]^[27]

Ernest Hilgard, a psychologist at Stanford University, regarded transpersonal psychology as a fringe movement that attracted the more extreme followers of humanistic psychology.^[28]

Eugene Taylor, a humanistic psychologist affiliated with Harvard University, viewed transpersonal psychology as "philosophically naive, poorly financed, at times almost anti-intellectual, and frequently overrated as far as its influences", while at the same time noting the field's "integrated approach to understanding the phenomenology of scientific method", "centrality of qualitative research", and its emphasised "importance of interdisciplinary communication".^[5] In a later article, Taylor regarded transpersonal psychology as a visionary American folk-psychology with little historical relation to American academic psychology, except through its association with humanistic psychology and the categories of transcendence and consciousness.^[29]

Another contentious aspect concerns the topic of psychedelic substances. Commenting upon the controversial status of psychedelic and entheogenic substances in contemporary culture, Elmer, MacDonald & Friedman observe that these drugs have been used for therapeutic effect in the transpersonal movement, but that it is uncommon in contemporary therapy.^[30] Bravo and Grob note that "the place of psychedelics in spiritual practice remains controversial".^[31]

Ruzek, who interviewed founders of transpersonal psychology, as well as historians of American psychology, found that the field of transpersonal psychology had made little impact on the larger field of psychology in America. Among the factors that contributed to this situation was mainstream psychology's "resistance to spiritual and philosophical ideas", and the tendency of transpersonal psychologists to isolate themselves from the larger field.^[32]

One of the earliest criticisms of transpersonal psychology was leveled by the humanistic psychologist Rollo May, who "disputed the conceptual foundations of transpersonal psychology".^[6] May also criticized the field for neglecting the personal dimension of the psyche by elevating the pursuit of the transcendental, and for neglecting the "dark side of human nature".^[7]^[33]^[34]^{[clarification needed]}

Branches and related fields

Other transpersonal disciplines, such as transpersonal anthropology and transpersonal business studies, are known as transpersonal disciplines. Other fields of study that are related to transpersonal psychology, include near-death studies and parapsychology.

A few commentators^[3]^[22]^[35] have suggested that there is a difference between transpersonal psychology and a broader category of transpersonal theories, sometimes called transpersonal studies. According to Friedman this category might include several approaches to the transpersonal that lie outside mainstream science.^[35] However, according to Ferrer the field of transpersonal psychology is "situated within the wider umbrella of transpersonal studies".^[36]

Transpersonal psychology has also be associated with New Age beliefs and pop psychology.^[22]^[37]^[38]^[5] However, leading authors in the field, among those Sovatsky,^[39] Rowan,^[40] and Hartelius^[41] have criticized the nature of "New Age"-philosophy and discourse. Rowan^[40] even states that "The Transpersonal is not the New Age".^[42] Other commentators, such as Wade, note that the field remains part of the New Age, despite the fact that transpersonal psychologists may want no such association.^[43]

Although some consider that the distinction between transpersonal psychology and the psychology of religion is fading (e.g. The Oxford Handbook of Psychology and Spirituality), there is still generally considered to be a clear distinction between the two.^[44] Much of the focus of psychology of religion is concerned with issues that would not be considered 'transcendent' within transpersonal psychology, so the two disciplines have quite distinct focuses.^[45]Transpersonal psychology is more so spiritually focused, as it lacks a hierarchy and seeks an altruistic approach. ^[46]^[47]

Organizations, publications and locations

Although the perspective of transpersonal psychology has spread to a number of interest groups across the US and Europe, its origins were in California, and the field has always been strongly associated with institutions on the west coast of the US.^[33] Both the Association for Transpersonal Psychology and the forerunner to Sofia University were founded in the state of California, and a number of the fields leading theorists come from this area of the US.^[33] A European counterpart to the American institution, the European Transpersonal Psychology Association (ETPA), was founded much later.^[30]

Leading publications include the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology and the International Journal of Transpersonal Studies. Smaller publications include the Transpersonal Psychology Review, the journal of the Transpersonal Psychology Section of the British Psychological Society.

References

^ Walsh, R.; Vaughan, F. (1993). "On transpersonal definitions". Journal of Transpersonal Psychology. 25 (2): 125–182.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Grof, Stanislav (January 1, 2008). "Brief History of Transpersonal Psychology". International Journal of Transpersonal Psychology. 27 (1): 10 – via Digital Commons.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Chinen, Allan B. (1996). "The emergence of Transpersonal psychiatry". In Scotton, Bruce W.; Chinen, Allan B.; Battista, John R. (eds.). Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology. New York: Basic Books.
^ Judy, Dwight. "Transpersonal psychology: Coming of age." ReVision. Winter 94, Vol. 16 Issue 3, p99. 2p.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Taylor, Eugene. Transpersonal Psychology: Its several Virtues. The Humanistic Psychologist, Vol. 20, Nos. 2 and 3, pp. 285-300, 1992.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Aanstoos, C.; Serlin, I.; Greening, T. (2000). "History of Division 32 (Humanistic Psychology) of the American Psychological Association". In Dewsbury, D. (ed.). Unification through Division: Histories of the divisions of the American Psychological Association. Vol. V. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
^ ^a ^b Lukoff, David; Lu, Francis. A transpersonal-integrative approach to spiritually oriented psychotherapy. In Sperry, Len (Ed); Shafranske, Edward P. (Ed), (2005). Spiritually oriented psychotherapy., (pp. 177-205). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association, ix, 368 pp.
^ ^a ^b Adams, George (2002) A Theistic Perspective on Ken Wilber's Transpersonal Psychology, Journal of Contemporary Religion, 17:2, 165-179, DOI:10.1080/13537900220125163
^ Miller, John J. "Book review: Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology." Psychiatric Services April 01, 1998
^ Smith, Elizabeth D. Addressing the Psychospiritual Distress of Death as Reality: A Transpersonal Approach. Social Work. May95, Vol. 40 Issue 3, p402-413.
^ "History". Integral Institute. Retrieved 16 June 2022.
^ McManis, Sam. University with a Vision. JFK's holistic studies program attracts devoted students - and strong critics. San Francisco Chronicle, Friday, October 9, 1998
^ Lukoff D, Lu F, Turner R. Toward a more culturally sensitive DSM-IV. Psychoreligious and psychospiritual problems. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 1992;180(11):673–682.
^ Steinfels, P. "Psychiatrists' Manual Shifts Stance On Religious and Spiritual Problems". New York Times, February 10, 1994.
^ Turner, Robert P.; Lukoff, David; Barnhouse, Ruth Tiffany & Lu Francis G. "Religious or spiritual problem. A culturally sensitive diagnostic category in the DSM-IV". Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Jul;183(7):435-44, 1995
^ Lukoff D, Lu FG, Turner R. Cultural considerations in the assessment and treatment of religious and spiritual problems. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 1995 Sep;18(3):467-85.
^ Fadiman, James; Judy, Dwight; Lukoff, David and Sovatsky, Stuart. 50TH Anniversary Reflections From (a few) of the Past Presidents of the Association for Transpersonal Psychology. The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2018, Vol. 50, No. 1
^ Fontana, David; Slack, Ingrid & Treacy, Martin, Eds. (2005) Transpersonal Psychology: Meaning and Developments. Transpersonal Psychology Review (Special Issue). Leicester: British Psychological Society
^ Daniels, Michael & McNutt, Brendan. "Questioning the Role of Transpersonal Psychology". Transpersonal Psychology Review, Vol. 1, No. 4, 4-9. (1997) [Preprint Version]
^ Ruzek, Nicole. Transpersonal Psychology in Context: Perspectives from its founders and Historians of American Psychology. The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2007, Vol. 39, No. 2
^ Zdenek, Marilee. "Transformations of Consciousness" (Book review). L.A Times, September 14, 1986
^ ^a ^b ^c Friedman, Harris (2000) Toward Developing Transpersonal Psychology as a Scientific Field. Paper presented at Old Saybrook 2 conference, May 11–14, 2000, State University of West Georgia
^ Parsons, William B. Book Reviews: Revisioning Transpersonal Theory. A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality (Book). Journal of Religion, 00224189, Oct. 2003, Vol.83, Issue 4.
^ Cunningham, Paul F. (2011). A Primer on Transpersonal Psychology. Nashua NH 03060-5086: Rivier College. p. 53.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
^ Ellis, Albert; Yeager, Raymond J. (1989) Why some therapies don't work: The dangers of transpersonal psychology. Amherst, NY, US: Prometheus Books.
^ Ellis, Albert. "Fanaticism that may lead to a nuclear holocaust: The contributions of scientific counseling and psychotherapy". Journal of Counseling & Development, Nov 1986, Vol. 65, pp. 146-151
^ Ellis, Albert. "Dangers of Transpersonal Psychology: A Reply To Ken Wilber". Journal of Counseling & Development, Feb89, Vol. 67 Issue 6, p336, 2p;
^ Hilgard, Ernest R. Consciousness in Contemporary Psychology. Annual Review of Psychology 1980, 31:1-26
^ Taylor, Eugene (Spring 1999). "An Intellectual Renaissance of Humanistic Psychology". Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 39 (2): 7–25. doi:10.1177/0022167899392002.
^ ^a ^b Elmer, Lori D., MacDonald, Douglas A. & Friedman, Harris L. "Transpersonal psychology, physical health, and mental health: Theory, research, and practice". The Humanistic Psychologist, 31:2-3, 159-181, 2003
^ Bravo, Gary and Grob, Charles. Psychedelics and Transpersonal psychiatry. In Scotton, Bruce W., Chinen, Allan B. and Battista, John R., Eds. (1996) Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology. New York: Basic Books
^ Ruzek, Nicole Amity. Transpersonal Psychology's Historical Relationship to Mainstream American Psychology. Cited in Diss. Abstr. Int. B 65/04 (2004): 2081. UMI pub. no. 3129589.2
^ ^a ^b ^c Hartelius, Glenn; Caplan, Mariana; Rardin, Mary Anne. "Transpersonal Psychology: Defining the Past, Divining the Future". The Humanistic Psychologist, 35(2), 1–26, 2007
^ Abzug, Robert H (2021) Psyche and Soul in America : The Spiritual Odyssey of Rollo May. Oxford University Press. Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: December 2020
^ ^a ^b Friedman, Harris. Transpersonal Psychology as a Scientific Field. The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2002, Vol. 21, 175-187.
^ Caplan, Hartelius & Rardin. Contemporary viewpoints on Transpersonal Psychology. The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2003, Vol. 35, No. 2.
^ Sutcliffe, Steven (2003). Category Formation and the History of 'New Age'. Culture and Religion: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 4:1, 5-29
^ Casey retiring from Burlington College. Vermont Business Magazine 29.14 (Dec 01, 2001): 27.
^ Sovatsky, Stuart (1998) Words from the Soul : Time, East/West Spirituality, and Psychotherapeutic Narrative. New York: State University of New York Press (SUNY Series in Transpersonal and Humanistic Psychology)
^ ^a ^b Rowan, John (2005). The Transpersonal: Spirituality in Psychotherapy and Counselling. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-58391-987-3.
^ Hartelius, Glenn (2017). "Circular reasoning is not the uroboros: Rejecting perennialism as a psychological theory". International Journal of Transpersonal Studies. 36 (2): 121–135. doi:10.24972/ijts.2017.36.2.121.
^ Evans, Joan. "The Transpersonal - Psychotherapy and Counselling" (Book review). International Journal of Psychotherapy 2.2 (Nov 1997): 237-240.
^ Wade, Jenny. Transcending "Transpersonal": Time to join the world. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2019, Vol. 51, No. 1
^ Hartelius, G., Friedman, H. L., & Pappas, J. (2013). The calling to a spiritual psychology: Should transpersonal psychology convert? The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of transpersonal psychology. Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/9781118591277.ch3
^ Miller, L. J., ed. (2012) [2012]. "Models of Spiritual Development". The Oxford Handbook of Psychology and Spirituality (1 ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-19-972992-0.
^ Kasprow, Mark C.; Scotton, Bruce W. (January 1, 1999). "A Review of Transpersonal Theory and Its Application to the Practice of Psychotherapy". The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research. 8 (1): 12–23. PMC 3330526. PMID 9888104.
^ Kasprow, Mark C.; Scotton, Bruce W. (January 1, 1999). "A Review of Transpersonal Theory and It's Application to the Practice of Psychotherapy". The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research. 8 (1): 12–23. PMC 3330526. PMID 9888104.

External links

The Association for Transpersonal Psychology (ATP)
International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Organ of the International Transpersonal Association
Sofia University (formerly the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology)
Journal of Transpersonal Research Organ of the European Transpersonal Association

[1] Walsh, R.; Vaughan, F. (1993). "On transpersonal definitions". Journal of Transpersonal Psychology. 25 (2): 125–182.

[:0-2] Grof, Stanislav (January 1, 2008). "Brief History of Transpersonal Psychology". International Journal of Transpersonal Psychology. 27 (1): 10 – via Digital Commons.

[Chinen_1996-3] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Chinen, Allan B. (1996). "The emergence of Transpersonal psychiatry". In Scotton, Bruce W.; Chinen, Allan B.; Battista, John R. (eds.). Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology. New York: Basic Books.

[4] Judy, Dwight. "Transpersonal psychology: Coming of age." ReVision. Winter 94, Vol. 16 Issue 3, p99. 2p.

[Taylor_1992-5] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Taylor, Eugene. Transpersonal Psychology: Its several Virtues. The Humanistic Psychologist, Vol. 20, Nos. 2 and 3, pp. 285-300, 1992.

[Aanstoos,_Serlin_&_Greening_2000-6] Aanstoos, C.; Serlin, I.; Greening, T. (2000). "History of Division 32 (Humanistic Psychology) of the American Psychological Association". In Dewsbury, D. (ed.). Unification through Division: Histories of the divisions of the American Psychological Association. Vol. V. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

[Lukoff_Lu_2005-7] Lukoff, David; Lu, Francis. A transpersonal-integrative approach to spiritually oriented psychotherapy. In Sperry, Len (Ed); Shafranske, Edward P. (Ed), (2005). Spiritually oriented psychotherapy., (pp. 177-205). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association, ix, 368 pp.

[Adams_2002-8] Adams, George (2002) A Theistic Perspective on Ken Wilber's Transpersonal Psychology, Journal of Contemporary Religion, 17:2, 165-179, DOI:10.1080/13537900220125163

[9] Miller, John J. "Book review: Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology." Psychiatric Services April 01, 1998

[10] Smith, Elizabeth D. Addressing the Psychospiritual Distress of Death as Reality: A Transpersonal Approach. Social Work. May95, Vol. 40 Issue 3, p402-413.

[11] "History". Integral Institute. Retrieved 16 June 2022.

[12] McManis, Sam. University with a Vision. JFK's holistic studies program attracts devoted students - and strong critics. San Francisco Chronicle, Friday, October 9, 1998

[13] Lukoff D, Lu F, Turner R. Toward a more culturally sensitive DSM-IV. Psychoreligious and psychospiritual problems. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 1992;180(11):673–682.

[14] Steinfels, P. "Psychiatrists' Manual Shifts Stance On Religious and Spiritual Problems". New York Times, February 10, 1994.

[15] Turner, Robert P.; Lukoff, David; Barnhouse, Ruth Tiffany & Lu Francis G. "Religious or spiritual problem. A culturally sensitive diagnostic category in the DSM-IV". Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Jul;183(7):435-44, 1995

[16] Lukoff D, Lu FG, Turner R. Cultural considerations in the assessment and treatment of religious and spiritual problems. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 1995 Sep;18(3):467-85.

[Fadiman_et_al_2018-17] Fadiman, James; Judy, Dwight; Lukoff, David and Sovatsky, Stuart. 50TH Anniversary Reflections From (a few) of the Past Presidents of the Association for Transpersonal Psychology. The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2018, Vol. 50, No. 1

[18] Fontana, David; Slack, Ingrid & Treacy, Martin, Eds. (2005) Transpersonal Psychology: Meaning and Developments. Transpersonal Psychology Review (Special Issue). Leicester: British Psychological Society

[19] Daniels, Michael & McNutt, Brendan. "Questioning the Role of Transpersonal Psychology". Transpersonal Psychology Review, Vol. 1, No. 4, 4-9. (1997) [Preprint Version]

[20] Ruzek, Nicole. Transpersonal Psychology in Context: Perspectives from its founders and Historians of American Psychology. The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2007, Vol. 39, No. 2

[21] Zdenek, Marilee. "Transformations of Consciousness" (Book review). L.A Times, September 14, 1986

[Friedman_2000-22] Friedman, Harris (2000) Toward Developing Transpersonal Psychology as a Scientific Field. Paper presented at Old Saybrook 2 conference, May 11–14, 2000, State University of West Georgia

[23] Parsons, William B. Book Reviews: Revisioning Transpersonal Theory. A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality (Book). Journal of Religion, 00224189, Oct. 2003, Vol.83, Issue 4.

[24] Cunningham, Paul F. (2011). A Primer on Transpersonal Psychology. Nashua NH 03060-5086: Rivier College. p. 53.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)

[25] Ellis, Albert; Yeager, Raymond J. (1989) Why some therapies don't work: The dangers of transpersonal psychology. Amherst, NY, US: Prometheus Books.

[26] Ellis, Albert. "Fanaticism that may lead to a nuclear holocaust: The contributions of scientific counseling and psychotherapy". Journal of Counseling & Development, Nov 1986, Vol. 65, pp. 146-151

[27] Ellis, Albert. "Dangers of Transpersonal Psychology: A Reply To Ken Wilber". Journal of Counseling & Development, Feb89, Vol. 67 Issue 6, p336, 2p;

[28] Hilgard, Ernest R. Consciousness in Contemporary Psychology. Annual Review of Psychology 1980, 31:1-26

[Taylor_1999-29] Taylor, Eugene (Spring 1999). "An Intellectual Renaissance of Humanistic Psychology". Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 39 (2): 7–25. doi:10.1177/0022167899392002.

[Elmer,_MacDonald_&_Friedman-30] Elmer, Lori D., MacDonald, Douglas A. & Friedman, Harris L. "Transpersonal psychology, physical health, and mental health: Theory, research, and practice". The Humanistic Psychologist, 31:2-3, 159-181, 2003

[31] Bravo, Gary and Grob, Charles. Psychedelics and Transpersonal psychiatry. In Scotton, Bruce W., Chinen, Allan B. and Battista, John R., Eds. (1996) Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology. New York: Basic Books

[32] Ruzek, Nicole Amity. Transpersonal Psychology's Historical Relationship to Mainstream American Psychology. Cited in Diss. Abstr. Int. B 65/04 (2004): 2081. UMI pub. no. 3129589.2

[Hartelius_Caplan_Rardin_2007-33] Hartelius, Glenn; Caplan, Mariana; Rardin, Mary Anne. "Transpersonal Psychology: Defining the Past, Divining the Future". The Humanistic Psychologist, 35(2), 1–26, 2007

[34] Abzug, Robert H (2021) Psyche and Soul in America : The Spiritual Odyssey of Rollo May. Oxford University Press. Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: December 2020

[Friedman_2002-35] Friedman, Harris. Transpersonal Psychology as a Scientific Field. The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2002, Vol. 21, 175-187.

[36] Caplan, Hartelius & Rardin. Contemporary viewpoints on Transpersonal Psychology. The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2003, Vol. 35, No. 2.

[37] Sutcliffe, Steven (2003). Category Formation and the History of 'New Age'. Culture and Religion: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 4:1, 5-29

[38] Casey retiring from Burlington College. Vermont Business Magazine 29.14 (Dec 01, 2001): 27.

[39] Sovatsky, Stuart (1998) Words from the Soul : Time, East/West Spirituality, and Psychotherapeutic Narrative. New York: State University of New York Press (SUNY Series in Transpersonal and Humanistic Psychology)

[Rowan_2005-40] Rowan, John (2005). The Transpersonal: Spirituality in Psychotherapy and Counselling. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-58391-987-3.

[41] Hartelius, Glenn (2017). "Circular reasoning is not the uroboros: Rejecting perennialism as a psychological theory". International Journal of Transpersonal Studies. 36 (2): 121–135. doi:10.24972/ijts.2017.36.2.121.

[42] Evans, Joan. "The Transpersonal - Psychotherapy and Counselling" (Book review). International Journal of Psychotherapy 2.2 (Nov 1997): 237-240.

[43] Wade, Jenny. Transcending "Transpersonal": Time to join the world. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2019, Vol. 51, No. 1

[44] Hartelius, G., Friedman, H. L., & Pappas, J. (2013). The calling to a spiritual psychology: Should transpersonal psychology convert? The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of transpersonal psychology. Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/9781118591277.ch3

[45] Miller, L. J., ed. (2012) [2012]. "Models of Spiritual Development". The Oxford Handbook of Psychology and Spirituality (1 ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-19-972992-0.

[46] Kasprow, Mark C.; Scotton, Bruce W. (January 1, 1999). "A Review of Transpersonal Theory and Its Application to the Practice of Psychotherapy". The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research. 8 (1): 12–23. PMC 3330526. PMID 9888104.

[47] Kasprow, Mark C.; Scotton, Bruce W. (January 1, 1999). "A Review of Transpersonal Theory and It's Application to the Practice of Psychotherapy". The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research. 8 (1): 12–23. PMC 3330526. PMID 9888104.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Short description|School of psychology}}
-{{Fringe theories|date=January 2023}}
-{{New Age beliefs sidebar}}
 {{Psychology sidebar}}
-'''Transpersonal psychology''', or '''spiritual psychology''', is an area of psychology that seeks to integrate the [[spirituality|spiritual]] and [[transcendence (philosophy)|transcendent]] aspects of the human experience within the framework of [[modern psychology]].<ref name="Walsh & Vaughan 1993">Walsh, R. & Vaughan, F. "On transpersonal definitions". ''Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 25 (2) 125-182, 1993</ref>
+'''Transpersonal psychology''', or '''spiritual psychology''', is an area of psychology that seeks to integrate the [[spirituality|spiritual]] and [[transcendence (philosophy)|transcendent]] human experiences within the framework of [[modern psychology]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walsh |first1=R. |last2=Vaughan |first2=F. |title=On transpersonal definitions |journal=Journal of Transpersonal Psychology |volume=25 |number=2 |pages=125–182 |date=1993}}</ref>
+Evolving from the [[humanistic psychology]] movement, transpersonal psychology emerged in the late 1960s, integrating spirituality and [[consciousness]] studies into psychological theory, as a response to perceived limitations of mainstream psychological approaches.
+The [[Validity (statistics)|empirical validity]] and recognition of transpersonal psychology remains contentious in modern psychology. Early critics such as [[Ernest Hilgard]] have viewed it as a [[Fringe theory|fringe movement]] that attracted extreme followers of humanistic psychology, while scholars such as [[Eugene Taylor (psychologist)|Eugene Taylor]] have acknowledged the field's interdisciplinary approach, at the same time noting its epistemological and practical challenges. The field's connections to [[Psychedelic drug|psychedelic substances]], [[Religion|religious ideas]], and the [[New Age|new age movement]] have also further fueled controversy.
+Transpersonal psychology has influenced various related and [[transpersonal disciplines]], including transpersonal anthropology, business studies, [[near-death studies]], and [[parapsychology]]. The field has a strong institutional presence in [[California]], where the Association for Transpersonal Psychology, [[Sofia University (California)|Institute of Transpersonal Psychology]], and [[Journal of Transpersonal Psychology]] were developed.
 ==History==
 === Origins ===
+Early use of the term "transpersonal" can also be credited to [[Stanislav Grof]] and [[Anthony Sutich]], who were dissatisfied with the [[humanistic psychology]] movement and included spirituality in their new framework.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Grof |first=Stanislav |date=January 1, 2008 |title=Brief History of Transpersonal Psychology |url=https://digitalcommons.ciis.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1182&&context=ijts-transpersonalstudies&&sei-redir=1&referer=https%253A%252F%252Fscholar.google.com%252Fscholar%253Fhl%253Den%2526as_sdt%253D0%25252C1%2526q%253Dtranspersonal%252Bpsychology%252B%2526btnG%253D#search=%22transpersonal%20psychology%22 |journal=International Journal of Transpersonal Psychology |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=10 |via=Digital Commons}}</ref> In 1967 to 1968, [[Abraham Maslow]] was in close dialogue with both Grof and Sutich regarding the name and orientation of the new field, later describing transpersonal psychology as a "fourth force" in psychology.<ref name=":0" />
-In 1968, [[Abraham Maslow]] was among the people who described transpersonal psychology as a "fourth force" in psychology.<ref name="Chinen 1996">Chinen, Allan B. "The emergence of Transpersonal psychiatry". In Scotton, Bruce W., Chinen, Allan B. and Battista, John R., Eds. (1996) ''Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology''. New York: Basic Books</ref> Early use of the term "transpersonal" can also be credited to [[Stanislav Grof]] and [[Anthony Sutich]]. At this time, in 1967–68, Maslow was in close dialogue with both Grof and Sutich regarding the name and orientation of the new field.<ref name="Vich 1988">Vich, M.A. (1988) "Some historical sources of the term "transpersonal". ''Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 20 (2) 107-110</ref> According to Powers,<ref name="Powers 2005">Powers, Robin. Counseling and Spirituality: A Historical Review. ''Counseling and Values'', Apr 2005, Vol.49(3), pp.217-225</ref> the term "transpersonal" starts to show up in academic journals from 1970 onwards.
+According to Powers, the term "transpersonal" starts to show up in academic journals from 1970 onwards. Humanistic and transpersonal psychology are often associated with the [[Human Potential Movement]], a movement in the 1960s that explored various therapies and philosophies at institutions like [[Esalen]] in [[Big Sur]], California. Transpersonal psychology was heavily influenced by Western culture, and had not been regarded as a “[[Hard and soft science|hard science]]”.<ref name=":0" />
-Both humanistic and transpersonal psychology have been associated with the [[Human Potential Movement]], which revolves around alternative therapies and philosophies that grew out of the counter-culture of the 1960s at places such as [[Esalen Institute|Esalen]], California.<ref name="Aanstoos, Serlin & Greening 2000">Aanstoos, C., Serlin, I., & Greening, T. (2000). ''History of Division 32 (Humanistic Psychology) of the American Psychological Association''. In D. Dewsbury (Ed.), "Unification through Division: Histories of the divisions of the American Psychological Association", Vol. V. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.</ref><ref name="Leonard 1992">Leonard, G. How to Have an Extraordinary Life. ''Psychology Today'', May 01, 1992 (reviewed June 20, 2012)</ref><ref name="Tarnas 2001">Tarnas, Richard. A New Birth In Freedom. A Review of Jorge Ferrer's Revisioning Transpersonal Theory: A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality. ''Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 2001, Vol. 33, No. I</ref><ref name="Taylor 1999">Taylor, Eugene. An Intellectual Renaissance of Humanistic Psychology.  ''Journal of Humanistic Psychology'', Vol. 39, No. 2, Spring 1999 p.p 7-25</ref><ref name="Greyson 1993">Greyson, Bruce. (Book review) The Future of the Body: Explorations into the Further Evolution of Human Nature. ''The New England Journal of Medicine'', Volume 328:216, Number 3, 1993</ref>
 ===Formative period===
+Gradually, during the 1960s, the term "transpersonal" became associated with a distinct school of psychology within the humanistic psychology movement.<ref name="Chinen 1996">{{cite book |last=Chinen |first=Allan B. |title=Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology |publisher=Basic Books |year=1996 |editor1-last=Scotton |editor1-first=Bruce W. |place=New York |chapter=The emergence of Transpersonal psychiatry |editor2-last=Chinen |editor2-first=Allan B. |editor3-last=Battista |editor3-first=John R.}}</ref> This branch of psychology was introduced to a time where the majority of schools were teaching [[Freudian psychology|Freudian Psychology]].<ref name=":0" />
-Gradually, during the 1960s, the term "transpersonal" was associated with a distinct school of psychology within the humanistic psychology movement.<ref name="Chinen 1996"/> In 1969, Maslow, Grof and Sutich were among the initiators behind the publication of the first issue of the ''[[Journal of Transpersonal Psychology]]''.<ref name="Judy 1994">Judy, Dwight. "Transpersonal psychology: Coming of age." ''ReVision''. Winter 94, Vol. 16 Issue 3, p99. 2p.</ref><ref name="Chinen 1996"/><ref name="Taylor 1992">Taylor, Eugene. Transpersonal Psychology: Its several Virtues. ''The Humanistic Psychologist'', Vol. 20, Nos. 2 and 3, pp. 285-300, 1992.</ref> The Association for Transpersonal Psychology was established in 1972,<ref name="Aanstoos, Serlin & Greening 2000"/> the International Transpersonal Psychology Association in 1973,<ref name="Taylor 1992"/> and the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology in 1975 .<ref name="Aanstoos, Serlin & Greening 2000"/><ref name="SF Chronicle 2014">PRWeb (Press release). Founder Bob Frager Returns to Sofia University. ''San Francisco Chronicle'', published online Tuesday, July 15, 2014.</ref> The institute was founded by [[Robert Frager]] and [[James Fadiman]]<ref name="SF Chronicle 2014"/><ref name="PRWEB 2012">PRWEB Press release. ''Sofia University Announces Inauguration of First President, Neal King Ph.D.'' Palo Alto, CA (PRWEB) September 18, 2012</ref> in response to an academic climate that they felt was hostile to such ideas.<ref name="SF Chronicle 2014"/> Soon other institutions begain offering curricula in transpersonal psychology including [[Saybrook Graduate School]], the California Institute of Asian Studies (now [[California Institute of Integral Studies]]), [[JFK University]], and [[Naropa University|Naropa]].<ref name="Lukoff Lu 2005">Lukoff, David; Lu, Francis. ''A transpersonal-integrative approach to spiritually oriented psychotherapy''. In Sperry, Len (Ed); Shafranske, Edward P. (Ed), (2005). Spiritually oriented psychotherapy., (pp. 177-205). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association, ix, 368 pp.</ref> Other proponents of transpersonal psychology included [[Ram Dass]]; Elmer and Alyce Green who were affiliated with the [[Menninger Foundation]];<ref name="Taylor 1992" /> and [[Ken Wilber]].<ref name="Taylor 1992" /><ref name="Adams 2002">Adams, George (2002) A Theistic Perspective on Ken Wilber's Transpersonal Psychology, ''Journal of Contemporary Religion'', 17:2, 165-179, DOI:10.1080/13537900220125163</ref><ref name="Miller 1998">Miller, John J. "Book review: Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology." ''Psychiatric Services''  April 01, 1998</ref>
+In 1969, Maslow, Grof and Sutich were among the initiators behind the publication of the first issue of the ''[[Journal of Transpersonal Psychology]]''.<ref>Judy, Dwight. "Transpersonal psychology: Coming of age." ''ReVision''. Winter 94, Vol. 16 Issue 3, p99. 2p.</ref><ref name="Chinen 1996" /><ref name="Taylor 1992">Taylor, Eugene. Transpersonal Psychology: Its several Virtues. ''The Humanistic Psychologist'', Vol. 20, Nos. 2 and 3, pp. 285-300, 1992.</ref> The Association for Transpersonal Psychology was established in 1972,<ref name="Aanstoos, Serlin & Greening 2000">{{cite book |last1=Aanstoos |first1=C. |title=Unification through Division: Histories of the divisions of the American Psychological Association |last2=Serlin |first2=I. |last3=Greening |first3=T. |publisher=American Psychological Association |year=2000 |editor-last=Dewsbury |editor-first=D. |volume=V |place=Washington, D.C. |chapter=History of Division 32 (Humanistic Psychology) of the American Psychological Association}}</ref> the International Transpersonal Psychology Association in 1973,<ref name="Taylor 1992" /> and the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology in 1975 .<ref name="Aanstoos, Serlin & Greening 2000" /> The institute was founded by [[Robert Frager]] and [[James Fadiman]]{{cn|date=June 2024}} in response to an academic climate that they felt was hostile to such ideas.{{cn|date=June 2024}}
+Soon, other institutions began offering curricula in transpersonal psychology including [[Saybrook Graduate School]], the California Institute of Asian Studies (now [[California Institute of Integral Studies]]), [[JFK University]], and [[Naropa University|Naropa]].<ref name="Lukoff Lu 2005">Lukoff, David; Lu, Francis. ''A transpersonal-integrative approach to spiritually oriented psychotherapy''. In Sperry, Len (Ed); Shafranske, Edward P. (Ed), (2005). Spiritually oriented psychotherapy., (pp. 177-205). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association, ix, 368 pp.</ref> Other proponents of transpersonal psychology included [[Ram Dass]]; Elmer and Alyce Green who were affiliated with the [[Menninger Foundation]];<ref name="Taylor 1992" /> and [[Ken Wilber]].<ref name="Taylor 1992" /><ref name="Adams 2002">Adams, George (2002) A Theistic Perspective on Ken Wilber's Transpersonal Psychology, ''Journal of Contemporary Religion'', 17:2, 165-179, DOI:10.1080/13537900220125163</ref><ref>Miller, John J. "Book review: Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology." ''Psychiatric Services''  April 01, 1998</ref>
-An early preoccupation of those interested in transpersonal psychology was [[meditation]] and [[altered states of consciousness]] including those induced from [[Psychedelic drug|psychedelic drugs]].<ref name="Fadiman et al 2018">Fadiman, James; Judy, Dwight; Lukoff, David and Sovatsky, Stuart. 50TH Anniversary Reflections From (a few) of the Past Presidents of the Association for Transpersonal Psychology. ''The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 2018, Vol. 50, No. 1</ref><ref name="Freeman 2006">Freeman, Anthony. A Daniel Come To Judgement? Dennett and the Revisioning of Transpersonal Theory. ''Journal of Consciousness Studies'', 13, No. 3, 2006, pp. 95–109</ref>
+Transpersonal psychology has been influenced by various Eastern spiritual traditions, such as [[Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism]], which emphasize practices like meditation, mindfulness, and the dissolution of the ego. In 1969, Anthony Sutich, along with Maslow and other humanistic psychologists, founded the ''[[Journal of Transpersonal Psychology]]'', formally establishing the field. The creation of the [[Journal of Transpersonal Psychology|Association for Transpersonal Psychology]] in 1972 further solidified its identity. Transpersonal psychology focuses on exploring spiritual experiences, mystical states, self-transcendence, and the holistic development of human potential.
-In the early 1980s, a group of members within [[American Psychological Association|APA]] Division 32 (Humanistic Psychology) argued in favor of establishing transpersonal psychology as a separate division within the framework of the American Psychological Association. A petition was presented to the APA Council in 1984, but it was turned down. A new initiative was made in 1985, but it failed to win the majority of votes in the council. In 1986 the petition was presented for a third and final time, but was withdrawn by the executive board of Division 32.<ref name="Hartelius Caplan Rardin 2007">Hartelius, Glenn;  Caplan, Mariana; Rardin, Mary Anne. "Transpersonal Psychology: Defining the Past, Divining the Future". ''The Humanistic Psychologist'', 35(2), 1–26, 2007</ref><ref name="Aanstoos, Serlin & Greening 2000" /> An interest group was later re-formed as the Transpersonal Psychology Interest Group (TPIG), which continued to promote transpersonal issues in collaboration with Division 32.<ref name="Aanstoos, Serlin & Greening 2000" /> Ken Wilber and Michael Washburn delivered the main transpersonal models of development of this period, Wilber in 1977 and Washburn in 1988.<ref name="Smith 1995">Smith, Elizabeth D. Addressing the Psychospiritual Distress of Death as Reality: A Transpersonal Approach. ''Social Work''. May95, Vol. 40 Issue 3, p402-413.</ref> Ken Wilber has since distanced himself from the label "transpersonal", being in favour of the label of "integral" since the mid-1990s. In 1998 he formed the [[Integral Institute]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=https://integralinstitute.org/history.htm |access-date=16 June 2022 |website=Integral Institute}}</ref>
+An interest group was later re-formed as the Transpersonal Psychology Interest Group (TPIG), which continued to promote transpersonal issues in collaboration with Division 32.<ref name="Aanstoos, Serlin & Greening 2000" /> Ken Wilber and Michael Washburn delivered the main transpersonal models of development of this period, Wilber in 1977 and Washburn in 1988.<ref>Smith, Elizabeth D. Addressing the Psychospiritual Distress of Death as Reality: A Transpersonal Approach. ''Social Work''. May95, Vol. 40 Issue 3, p402-413.</ref> Ken Wilber has since distanced himself from the label "transpersonal", being in favour of the label of "integral" since the mid-1990s. In 1998 he formed the [[Integral Institute]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=https://integralinstitute.org/history.htm |access-date=16 June 2022 |website=Integral Institute}}</ref>
-===Later developments===
+In 1998, the ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'' reported on the holistic studies program at the ''[[John F. Kennedy University]]'' in Orinda, which included a transpersonal psychology department. The program was considered to be unique at the time, but also controversial. Commentators presented their skepticism towards the program.<ref>McManis, Sam. University with a Vision. JFK's holistic studies program attracts devoted students - and strong critics. ''San Francisco Chronicle'', Friday, October 9, 1998</ref>
-Proponents of transpersonal psychology were behind the proposal for a new diagnostic category to be included in the DSM-manual of the [[American Psychiatric Association]] called "Psychoreligious or psychospiritual problem", which was approved by the Task Force on [[DSM-IV]] in 1993, after changing its name to ''Religious or spiritual problem''.<ref name="Lukoff, Lu & Turner 1992">Lukoff D, Lu F, Turner R. Toward a more culturally sensitive DSM-IV. Psychoreligious and psychospiritual problems. ''Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease'', 1992;180(11):673–682.</ref><ref name="Steinfels">Steinfels, P. "Psychiatrists' Manual Shifts Stance On Religious and Spiritual Problems". New York Times, February 10, 1994.</ref><ref name="Turner et al., 1995">Turner, Robert P.; Lukoff, David; Barnhouse, Ruth Tiffany & Lu Francis G. "Religious or spiritual problem. A culturally sensitive diagnostic category in the DSM-IV". ''Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease'', Jul;183(7):435-44, 1995</ref><ref name="Lukoff Lu Turner 1995">Lukoff D, Lu FG, Turner R. Cultural considerations in the assessment and treatment of religious and spiritual problems. ''Psychiatric Clinics of North America'', 1995 Sep;18(3):467-85.</ref><ref name="Chinen 1996"/><ref name="Fadiman et al 2018"/> Concurrently, there was an increase in membership for the ''Association for Transpersonal Psychology'', stabilizing at approximately 3000 members in the early nineties.<ref name="Chinen 1996" /> In 1996, the ''British Psychological Society'' established a Transpersonal Psychology Section.<ref name="Fontana Slack Treacy 2005">Fontana, David; Slack, Ingrid & Treacy, Martin, Eds. (2005) ''Transpersonal Psychology: Meaning and Developments''. ''Transpersonal Psychology Review'' (Special Issue). Leicester: British Psychological Society</ref><ref name="Daniels & McNutt 1997">Daniels, Michael & McNutt, Brendan. "Questioning the Role of Transpersonal Psychology". ''Transpersonal Psychology Review'', Vol. 1, No. 4, 4-9. (1997) [Preprint Version]</ref>
+===Later developments===
-In 2007 the ''Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'' and the ''International Journal of Transpersonal Studies'' were accepted for indexing in [[PsycINFO]], the journal database of the American Psychological Association. That same year, Ruzek, noted that the "American Psychological Association (APA) and most academic institutions have not yet recognized transpersonal psychology as an approved area of study; transpersonal psychology is rarely mentioned in mainstream academic journals or textbooks; and relatively few American academicians identify themselves as practitioners of transpersonal psychology. Furthermore, transpersonal psychology is scarcely mentioned, if at all, in history or introductory psychology texts".<ref name="Ruzek 2007">Ruzek, Nicole. Transpersonal Psychology in Context: Perspectives from its founders and Historians of American Psychology. ''The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 2007, Vol. 39, No. 2</ref>
+Proponents of transpersonal psychology were behind the proposal for a new diagnostic category to be included in the DSM-manual of the [[American Psychiatric Association]] called "Psychoreligious or psychospiritual problem", which was approved by the Task Force on [[DSM-IV]] in 1993, after changing its name to ''Religious or spiritual problem''.<ref>Lukoff D, Lu F, Turner R. Toward a more culturally sensitive DSM-IV. Psychoreligious and psychospiritual problems. ''Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease'', 1992;180(11):673–682.</ref><ref>Steinfels, P. "Psychiatrists' Manual Shifts Stance On Religious and Spiritual Problems". New York Times, February 10, 1994.</ref><ref>Turner, Robert P.; Lukoff, David; Barnhouse, Ruth Tiffany & Lu Francis G. "Religious or spiritual problem. A culturally sensitive diagnostic category in the DSM-IV". ''Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease'', Jul;183(7):435-44, 1995</ref><ref>Lukoff D, Lu FG, Turner R. Cultural considerations in the assessment and treatment of religious and spiritual problems. ''Psychiatric Clinics of North America'', 1995 Sep;18(3):467-85.</ref><ref name="Chinen 1996"/><ref name="Fadiman et al 2018">Fadiman, James; Judy, Dwight; Lukoff, David and Sovatsky, Stuart. 50TH Anniversary Reflections From (a few) of the Past Presidents of the Association for Transpersonal Psychology. ''The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 2018, Vol. 50, No. 1</ref>{{overcitation|date=June 2024}} Concurrently, there was an increase in membership for the ''Association for Transpersonal Psychology'', stabilizing at approximately 3000 members in the early nineties.<ref name="Chinen 1996" /> In 1996, the ''British Psychological Society'' established a Transpersonal Psychology Section.<ref>Fontana, David; Slack, Ingrid & Treacy, Martin, Eds. (2005) ''Transpersonal Psychology: Meaning and Developments''. ''Transpersonal Psychology Review'' (Special Issue). Leicester: British Psychological Society</ref><ref>Daniels, Michael & McNutt, Brendan. "Questioning the Role of Transpersonal Psychology". ''Transpersonal Psychology Review'', Vol. 1, No. 4, 4-9. (1997) [Preprint Version]</ref>
-In 2012 the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology announced that it was changing its name to [[Sofia University (California)|Sofia University]] with an expanded graduate program featuring computer science and business.<ref name="PRweb 2012">Press release: "Institute of Transpersonal Psychology Becomes Sofia University. New Name Brings Broader Mission, Expanded Campus and New Programs". Palo Alto, CA (PRWEB), published online July 16, 2012</ref>
+In 2007 the ''Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'' and the ''International Journal of Transpersonal Studies'' were accepted for indexing in [[PsycINFO]], the journal database of the American Psychological Association. That same year, Ruzek, noted that the "American Psychological Association (APA) and most academic institutions have not yet recognized transpersonal psychology as an approved area of study; transpersonal psychology is rarely mentioned in mainstream academic journals or textbooks; and relatively few American academicians identify themselves as practitioners of transpersonal psychology. Furthermore, transpersonal psychology is scarcely mentioned, if at all, in history or introductory psychology texts".<ref>Ruzek, Nicole. Transpersonal Psychology in Context: Perspectives from its founders and Historians of American Psychology. ''The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 2007, Vol. 39, No. 2</ref>
-==Branches and related fields==
+==Reception, recognition and criticism==
-Other transpersonal disciplines, such as [[transpersonal anthropology]] and [[transpersonal business studies]], are listed as [[transpersonal disciplines]]. Other fields of study that are related to transpersonal psychology, include [[near-death studies]] and [[parapsychology]].
-A few commentators<ref name="Chinen 1996"/><ref name="Friedman 2000">Friedman, Harris (2000) Toward Developing Transpersonal Psychology as a Scientific Field. Paper presented at Old Saybrook 2 conference, May 11–14, 2000, State University of West Georgia</ref><ref name="Friedman 2002">Friedman, Harris. Transpersonal Psychology as a Scientific Field. ''The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies'', 2002, Vol. 21, 175-187.</ref> have suggested that there is a difference between transpersonal psychology and a broader category of transpersonal theories, sometimes called transpersonal studies. According to Friedman<ref name="Friedman 2002"/> this category might include several approaches to the transpersonal that lie outside the frames of science. However, according to Ferrer<ref>Caplan, Hartelius & Rardin. Contemporary viewpoints on Transpersonal Psychology. ''The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 2003, Vol. 35, No. 2.</ref> the field of transpersonal psychology is "situated within the wider umbrella of transpersonal studies".
+Although transpersonal psychology has received some support from both psychologists and non-psychologists, it remains highly controversial and has not been widely accepted by mainstream academic psychology.<ref name="Chinen 1996" /><ref name="Adams 2002" /><ref>Zdenek, Marilee. "Transformations of Consciousness" (Book review). ''L.A Times,'' September 14, 1986</ref><ref name="Friedman 2000">Friedman, Harris (2000) Toward Developing Transpersonal Psychology as a Scientific Field. Paper presented at Old Saybrook 2 conference, May 11–14, 2000, State University of West Georgia</ref><ref>Parsons, William B. Book Reviews:  Revisioning Transpersonal Theory. A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality (Book). ''Journal of Religion'', 00224189, Oct. 2003, Vol.83, Issue 4.</ref>
+Transpersonal psychology has been criticized for lacking conceptual, evidentiary, and scientific rigor. In a review of criticisms of the field, Paul F Cunningham writes, "philosophers have criticized transpersonal psychology because its [[metaphysics]] is naive and [[epistemology]] is undeveloped. Multiplicity of definitions and lack of [[operationalization]] of many of its concepts has led to a conceptual confusion about the nature of transpersonal psychology itself... Biologists have criticized transpersonal psychology for its lack of attention to [[Behavioral neuroscience|biological foundations of behavior]] and experience. Physicists have criticized transpersonal psychology for inappropriately accommodating physic concepts as explanations of consciousness."<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Paul F. |title=A Primer on Transpersonal Psychology |publisher=Rivier College |year=2011 |location=Nashua NH 03060-5086 |page=53}}</ref>
-Transpersonal psychology may also be associated with [[New Age]] beliefs and pop psychology.<ref name="Friedman 2000"/><ref name="Sutcliffe 2003">Sutcliffe, Steven (2003). Category Formation and the History of 'New Age'. ''Culture and Religion: An Interdisciplinary Journal'', 4:1, 5-29</ref><ref name="Vermont Business Magazine">Casey retiring from Burlington College. ''Vermont Business Magazine'' 29.14 (Dec 01, 2001): 27.</ref><ref name="Taylor 1992"/> However, leading authors in the field, among those Sovatsky,<ref name="Sovatsky, Stuart 1998">Sovatsky, Stuart (1998) ''Words from the Soul : Time, East/West Spirituality, and Psychotherapeutic Narrative''. New York: State University of New York Press (SUNY Series in Transpersonal and Humanistic Psychology)</ref> Rowan,<ref name="Rowan 2005">Rowan, John (1993) The transpersonal: psychotherapy and counselling. London: Routledge (Second edition)</ref> and Hartelius<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartelius|first=Glenn|date=2017|title=Circular reasoning is not the uroboros: Rejecting perennialism as a psychological theory|url=https://digitalcommons.ciis.edu/ijts-transpersonalstudies/vol36/iss2/12/|journal=International Journal of Transpersonal Studies|volume=36|issue=2|pages=121–135|doi=10.24972/ijts.2017.36.2.121|doi-access=free}}</ref> have criticized the nature of "New Age"-philosophy and discourse. Rowan<ref name="Rowan 2005"/> even states that "The Transpersonal is not the New Age".<ref name="Evans 1997">Evans,  Joan. "The Transpersonal - Psychotherapy and Counselling" (Book review). ''International Journal of Psychotherapy'' 2.2 (Nov 1997): 237-240.</ref> Other commentators, such as Wade,<ref name="Wade">Wade, Jenny. Transcending "Transpersonal": Time to join the world. ''Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 2019, Vol. 51, No. 1</ref> notes that the field remains part of the New Age, despite the fact that transpersonal psychologists may want no such association.
+[[Albert Ellis]], a cognitive and humanistic psychologist, has questioned the results of transpersonal psychotherapy. In 1989, he worked with Raymond Yeager for the release of ''Why some therapies don't work: The dangers of transpersonal psychology'', where the authors compared the results of transpersonal psychology with the effects of [[rational-emotive therapy]] and noted the dangers of the transpersonal approach.<ref>Ellis, Albert; Yeager, Raymond J. (1989) Why some therapies don't work: The dangers of transpersonal psychology. Amherst, NY, US: Prometheus Books.</ref> Ellis has also questioned the scientific status of transpersonal psychology, and its relationship to religion, mysticism and authoritarian belief systems.<ref>Ellis, Albert. "Fanaticism that may lead to a [[nuclear holocaust]]: The contributions of scientific counseling and psychotherapy". ''Journal of Counseling & Development'', Nov 1986, Vol. 65, pp. 146-151</ref><ref>Ellis, Albert. "Dangers of Transpersonal Psychology: A Reply To Ken Wilber". ''Journal of Counseling & Development'', Feb89, Vol. 67 Issue 6, p336, 2p;</ref>
-Although some consider that the distinction between transpersonal psychology and the [[psychology of religion]] is fading (e.g. The Oxford Handbook of Psychology and Spirituality), there is still generally considered to be a clear distinction between the two.<ref>Hartelius, G., Friedman, H. L., & Pappas, J. (2013). The calling to a spiritual psychology: Should transpersonal psychology convert? ''The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of transpersonal psychology''. Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons. {{doi|10.1002/9781118591277.ch3}}</ref> Much of the focus of psychology of religion is concerned with issues that would not be considered 'transcendent' within transpersonal psychology, so the two disciplines have quite distinct focuses.<ref>{{cite book |editor= Miller, L. J. |title= The Oxford Handbook of Psychology and Spirituality |edition= 1 |year= 2012 |orig-year= 2012 |publisher= Oxford University Press |isbn= 978-0-19-972992-0 |chapter= Models of Spiritual Development |page= 216}}</ref>
+[[Ernest Hilgard]], a psychologist at [[Stanford University]], regarded transpersonal psychology as a [[Fringe science|fringe movement]] that attracted the more extreme followers of humanistic psychology.<ref>Hilgard, Ernest R. Consciousness in Contemporary Psychology. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 1980, 31:1-26</ref>
-==Organizations, publications and locations==
-Although the perspective of transpersonal psychology has spread to a number of interest groups across the US and Europe, its origins were in California, and the field has always been strongly associated with institutions on the west coast of the US.<ref name="Hartelius Caplan Rardin 2007" /> Both the [[Association for Transpersonal Psychology]] and the forerunner to [[Institute of Transpersonal Psychology|Sofia University]] were founded in the state of California, and a number of the fields leading theorists come from this area of the US.<ref name="Hartelius Caplan Rardin 2007" /> A European counterpart to the American institution, the European Transpersonal Psychology Association (ETPA), was founded much later.<ref name="Elmer, MacDonald & Friedman">Elmer, Lori D., MacDonald, Douglas A. & Friedman, Harris L. "Transpersonal psychology, physical health, and mental health: Theory, research, and practice". ''The Humanistic Psychologist'', 31:2-3, 159-181, 2003</ref>
+[[Eugene Taylor (psychologist)|Eugene Taylor]], a humanistic psychologist affiliated with [[Harvard University]], viewed transpersonal psychology as "philosophically naive, poorly financed, at times almost anti-intellectual, and frequently overrated as far as its influences", while at the same time noting the field's "integrated approach to understanding the phenomenology of scientific method", "centrality of qualitative research", and its emphasised "importance of interdisciplinary communication".<ref name="Taylor 1992" /> In a later article, Taylor regarded transpersonal psychology as a visionary American [[Folk psychology|folk-psychology]] with little historical relation to American academic psychology, except through its association with humanistic psychology and the categories of transcendence and consciousness.<ref name="Taylor 1999">{{cite journal |last=Taylor |first=Eugene |date=Spring 1999 |title=An Intellectual Renaissance of Humanistic Psychology |journal=Journal of Humanistic Psychology |volume=39 |pages=7–25 |doi=10.1177/0022167899392002 |number=2}}</ref>
-Leading publications include the ''[[Journal of Transpersonal Psychology]]'' and the ''[[International Journal of Transpersonal Studies]]''. Smaller publications include the ''Transpersonal Psychology Review'', the journal of the Transpersonal Psychology Section of the [[British Psychological Society]].
+Another contentious aspect concerns the topic of psychedelic substances. Commenting upon the controversial status of psychedelic and entheogenic substances in contemporary culture, Elmer, MacDonald & Friedman observe that these drugs have been used for therapeutic effect in the transpersonal movement, but that it is uncommon in contemporary therapy.<ref name="Elmer, MacDonald & Friedman">Elmer, Lori D., MacDonald, Douglas A. & Friedman, Harris L. "Transpersonal psychology, physical health, and mental health: Theory, research, and practice". ''The Humanistic Psychologist'', 31:2-3, 159-181, 2003</ref> Bravo and Grob note that "the place of psychedelics in spiritual practice remains controversial".<ref>Bravo, Gary and Grob, Charles. Psychedelics and Transpersonal psychiatry. In Scotton, Bruce W., Chinen, Allan B. and Battista, John R., Eds. (1996) Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology. New York: Basic Books</ref>
-==Reception, recognition and criticism==
+Ruzek, who interviewed founders of transpersonal psychology, as well as historians of American psychology, found that the field of transpersonal psychology had made little impact on the larger field of psychology in America. Among the factors that contributed to this situation was mainstream psychology's "resistance to spiritual and philosophical ideas", and the tendency of transpersonal psychologists to isolate themselves from the larger field.<ref>Ruzek, Nicole Amity. Transpersonal Psychology's Historical Relationship to Mainstream American Psychology. Cited in ''Diss. Abstr. Int.'' B 65/04 (2004): 2081. UMI pub. no. 3129589.2</ref>
-Reception of Transpersonal psychology in the surrounding culture reflects a wide range of views and opinions, including severe skepticism. [[Ernest Hilgard]],<ref name="Hilgard 1980">Hilgard, Ernest R. Consciousness in Contemporary Psychology. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 1980, 31:1-26</ref> representing the contemporary psychology of the early 1980s, regarded transpersonal psychology as a [[Fringe science|fringe movement]] that attracted the more extreme followers of Humanistic psychology. He did however remark that such movements might enrich the topics that psychologists study, even though most psychologists choose not to join the movement. Adams<ref name="Adams 2002"/> also regarded Transpersonal psychology as a fringe discipline. He also observed its status as a controversial field of study.
+One of the earliest criticisms of transpersonal psychology was leveled by the humanistic psychologist [[Rollo May]], who "disputed the conceptual foundations of transpersonal psychology".<ref name="Aanstoos, Serlin & Greening 2000" /> May also criticized the field for neglecting the personal dimension of the psyche by elevating the pursuit of the transcendental, and for neglecting the "dark side of human nature".<ref name="Lukoff Lu 2005" /><ref name="Hartelius Caplan Rardin 2007">Hartelius, Glenn;  Caplan, Mariana; Rardin, Mary Anne. "Transpersonal Psychology: Defining the Past, Divining the Future". ''The Humanistic Psychologist'', 35(2), 1–26, 2007</ref><ref>Abzug, Robert H (2021) Psyche and Soul in America : The Spiritual Odyssey of Rollo May. Oxford University Press. Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: December 2020</ref>{{Clarify|date=September 2024}}
-[[Eugene Taylor (psychologist)|Eugene Taylor]],<ref name="Taylor 1992"/> representing the field of Humanistic Psychology, presented a balanced review of transpersonal psychology in the early nineties. On the negative side he mentioned transpersonal Psychology's tendency toward being "philosophically naive, poorly financed, at times almost anti-intellectual, and frequently overrated as far as its influences". On the positive side he noted the field's "integrated approach to understanding the phenomenology of scientific method"; the "centrality of qualitative research"; and the "importance of interdisciplinary communication". In conclusion he suggested that the virtues of transpersonal psychology may, in the end, "outweigh its defects". In a later article Taylor<ref name="Taylor 1999"/> regarded transpersonal psychology as a visionary American folk-psychology with little historical relation to American academic psychology, except through its association with Humanistic psychology and the categories of transcendence and consciousness.
+==Branches and related fields==
-Although transpersonal psychology has experienced some minor recognition from the surrounding culture,<ref name="Chinen 1996" /> it faces a fair amount of skepticism and criticism from the same surroundings. Freeman<ref name="Freeman 2006" /> mentions that the early field of transpersonal psychology was aware of the possibility that it would be rejected by the scientific community. Its method of inner empiricism, "based on disciplined introspection", was to be a target of skepticism from outsiders in the years to come. Several commentators have mentioned the controversial aspects of transpersonal psychology. Zdenek<ref name="Zdenek 1986">Zdenek, Marilee. "Transformations of Consciousness" (Book review). ''L.A Times,'' September 14, 1986</ref> noted that the field was regarded as "controversial since its inception". Other commentators, such as Friedman,<ref name="Friedman 2000" /> and Adams,<ref name="Adams 2002" /> also mention the controversial status of the field. Adams<ref name="Adams 2003">Adams, George. "Book Reviews: Revisioning Transpersonal Theory: A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality." ''Journal of Contemporary Religion'', Vol. 18, No. 3, 2003 pp. 403–435</ref> also remarked that the field has struggled for "recognition as a legitimate field of study" in academia. This aspect was also noticed by Parsons,<ref name="Parsons 2003">Parsons, William B. Book Reviews:  Revisioning Transpersonal Theory. A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality (Book). ''Journal of Religion'', 00224189, Oct. 2003, Vol.83, Issue 4.</ref> who observed that Transpersonal psychology's "naive perennialism, misreading of religious texts, lack of methodological sophistication, weak epistemology, and, some would claim, promotion of narcissistic self-absorption" had not been well received by the majority of academics. Commenting on the state of the field in the mid-nineties Chinen<ref name="Chinen 1996" /> noted that professional publications, until then, had been hesitant to publish articles that dealt with transpersonal subjects.
+Other transpersonal disciplines, such as [[transpersonal anthropology]] and [[transpersonal business studies]], are known as [[transpersonal disciplines]]. Other fields of study that are related to transpersonal psychology, include [[near-death studies]] and [[parapsychology]].
+A few commentators<ref name="Chinen 1996" /><ref name="Friedman 2000" /><ref name="Friedman 2002">Friedman, Harris. Transpersonal Psychology as a Scientific Field. ''The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies'', 2002, Vol. 21, 175-187.</ref> have suggested that there is a difference between transpersonal psychology and a broader category of transpersonal theories, sometimes called transpersonal studies. According to Friedman this category might include several approaches to the transpersonal that lie outside mainstream science.<ref name="Friedman 2002" /> However, according to Ferrer the field of transpersonal psychology is "situated within the wider umbrella of transpersonal studies".<ref>Caplan, Hartelius & Rardin. Contemporary viewpoints on Transpersonal Psychology. ''The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 2003, Vol. 35, No. 2.</ref>
-In 1998 the ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'' reported on the holistic studies program at the ''[[John F. Kennedy University]]'' in Orinda, which included a transpersonal psychology department. The program was considered to be unique at the time, but also controversial. Commentators presented their skepticism towards the program.<ref name="McManis 1998">McManis, Sam. University with a Vision. JFK's holistic studies program attracts devoted students - and strong critics. ''San Francisco Chronicle'', Friday, October 9, 1998</ref> Another contentious aspect concerns the topic of psychedelic substances. Commenting upon the controversial status of psychedelic and entheogenic substances in contemporary culture, authors Elmer, MacDonald & Friedman<ref name="Elmer, MacDonald & Friedman" /> observe that these drugs have been used for therapeutic effect in the transpersonal movement, but - the authors add - this is not the most "common form of transpersonal intervention"  in contemporary therapy. However, Bravo and Grob<ref name="Bravo and Grob 1996">Bravo, Gary and Grob, Charles. Psychedelics and Transpersonal psychiatry. In Scotton, Bruce W., Chinen, Allan B. and Battista, John R., Eds. (1996) Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology. New York: Basic Books</ref> note that "the place of psychedelics in spiritual practice remains controversial".
+Transpersonal psychology has also be associated with [[New Age]] beliefs and pop psychology.<ref name="Friedman 2000" /><ref>Sutcliffe, Steven (2003). Category Formation and the History of 'New Age'. ''Culture and Religion: An Interdisciplinary Journal'', 4:1, 5-29</ref><ref>Casey retiring from Burlington College. ''Vermont Business Magazine'' 29.14 (Dec 01, 2001): 27.</ref><ref name="Taylor 1992" /> However, leading authors in the field, among those Sovatsky,<ref>Sovatsky, Stuart (1998) ''Words from the Soul : Time, East/West Spirituality, and Psychotherapeutic Narrative''. New York: State University of New York Press (SUNY Series in Transpersonal and Humanistic Psychology)</ref> Rowan,<ref name="Rowan 2005">{{cite book |last=Rowan |first=John |author-link=John Rowan (psychologist) |title=The Transpersonal: Spirituality in Psychotherapy and Counselling |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-58391-987-3}}</ref> and Hartelius<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hartelius |first=Glenn |date=2017 |title=Circular reasoning is not the uroboros: Rejecting perennialism as a psychological theory |url=https://digitalcommons.ciis.edu/ijts-transpersonalstudies/vol36/iss2/12/ |journal=International Journal of Transpersonal Studies |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=121–135 |doi=10.24972/ijts.2017.36.2.121 |doi-access=free}}</ref> have criticized the nature of "New Age"-philosophy and discourse. Rowan<ref name="Rowan 2005" /> even states that "The Transpersonal is not the New Age".<ref>Evans,  Joan. "The Transpersonal - Psychotherapy and Counselling" (Book review). ''International Journal of Psychotherapy'' 2.2 (Nov 1997): 237-240.</ref> Other commentators, such as Wade, note that the field remains part of the New Age, despite the fact that transpersonal psychologists may want no such association.<ref>Wade, Jenny. Transcending "Transpersonal": Time to join the world. ''Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 2019, Vol. 51, No. 1</ref>
-Ruzek,<ref name="Ruzek 2004">Ruzek, Nicole Amity. Transpersonal Psychology's Historical Relationship to Mainstream American Psychology. Cited in ''Diss. Abstr. Int.'' B 65/04 (2004): 2081. UMI pub. no. 3129589.2</ref> who interviewed founders of transpersonal psychology, as well as historians of American psychology, found that the field of Transpersonal psychology had made little impact on the larger field of psychology in America. Among the factors that contributed to this situation was mainstream psychology's "resistance to spiritual and philosophical ideas", and the tendency of Transpersonal psychologists to isolate themselves from the larger context.
+Although some consider that the distinction between transpersonal psychology and the [[psychology of religion]] is fading (e.g. The Oxford Handbook of Psychology and Spirituality), there is still generally considered to be a clear distinction between the two.<ref>Hartelius, G., Friedman, H. L., & Pappas, J. (2013). The calling to a spiritual psychology: Should transpersonal psychology convert? ''The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of transpersonal psychology''. Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons. {{doi|10.1002/9781118591277.ch3}}</ref> Much of the focus of psychology of religion is concerned with issues that would not be considered 'transcendent' within transpersonal psychology, so the two disciplines have quite distinct focuses.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of Psychology and Spirituality |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-972992-0 |editor=Miller, L. J. |edition=1 |page=216 |chapter=Models of Spiritual Development |orig-year=2012}}</ref>Transpersonal psychology is more so spiritually focused, as it lacks a hierarchy and seeks an [[Altruism|altruistic]] approach. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kasprow |first1=Mark C. |last2=Scotton |first2=Bruce W. |date=January 1, 1999 |title=A Review of Transpersonal Theory and Its Application to the Practice of Psychotherapy |journal=The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=12–23 |pmc=3330526 |pmid=9888104}}</ref>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kasprow |first1=Mark C. |last2=Scotton |first2=Bruce W. |date=January 1, 1999 |title=A Review of Transpersonal Theory and It's Application to the Practice of Psychotherapy |journal=The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=12–23 |pmc=3330526 |pmid=9888104}}</ref>'''
-One of the earliest criticisms of transpersonal psychology was leveled by the humanistic psychologist [[Rollo May]], who "disputed the conceptual foundations of transpersonal psychology".<ref name="Aanstoos, Serlin & Greening 2000" /> May also criticized the field for neglecting the personal dimension of the psyche by elevating the pursuit of the transcendental,<ref name="Hartelius Caplan Rardin 2007" /> and for neglecting the "dark side of human nature".<ref name="Lukoff Lu 2005" /><ref name="Abzug 2021">Abzug, Robert H (2021) Psyche and Soul in America : The Spiritual Odyssey of Rollo May. Oxford University Press. Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: December 2020</ref>
+==Organizations, publications and locations==
-According to Lukoff and Lu<ref name="Lukoff Lu 2005" /> the ''American Psychological Association'' expressed some concerns about the "unscientific" nature of transpersonal psychology at the time of the petition to the APA (see above). Rowan<ref name="Rowan 2014">Rowan, John. "The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology" (Book Review). ''ACPNL Magazine'', Issue 75 March 2014. The Association of Counsellors and Psychotherapists in North London</ref> notes that the Association had serious reservations about opening up a Transpersonal Psychology Division. The petitions for divisional status failed to win the majority of votes in the APA council, and the division was never established.<ref name="Aanstoos, Serlin & Greening 2000" /> Commentators also mention that transpersonal psychology's association with the ideas of religion was one of the concerns that prohibited it from becoming a separate division of the APA at the time of the petition in 1984.<ref name="Aanstoos, Serlin & Greening 2000" />
+Although the perspective of transpersonal psychology has spread to a number of interest groups across the US and Europe, its origins were in California, and the field has always been strongly associated with institutions on the west coast of the US.<ref name="Hartelius Caplan Rardin 2007" /> Both the [[Association for Transpersonal Psychology]] and the forerunner to [[Institute of Transpersonal Psychology|Sofia University]] were founded in the state of California, and a number of the fields leading theorists come from this area of the US.<ref name="Hartelius Caplan Rardin 2007" /> A European counterpart to the American institution, the European Transpersonal Psychology Association (ETPA), was founded much later.<ref name="Elmer, MacDonald & Friedman" />
+Leading publications include the ''[[Journal of Transpersonal Psychology]]'' and the ''[[International Journal of Transpersonal Studies]]''. Smaller publications include the ''Transpersonal Psychology Review'', the journal of the Transpersonal Psychology Section of the [[British Psychological Society]].
-Transpersonal psychology has been criticized for lacking conceptual, evidentiary, and scientific rigor. In a review of criticisms of the field, Cunningham writes, "philosophers have criticized transpersonal psychology because its metaphysics is naive and epistemology is undeveloped. Multiplicity of definitions and lack of operationalization of many of its concepts has led to a conceptual confusion about the nature of transpersonal psychology itself (i.e., the concept is used differently by different theorists and means different things to different people). Biologists have criticized transpersonal psychology for its lack of attention to biological foundations of behavior and experience. Physicists have criticized transpersonal psychology for inappropriately accommodating physic concepts as explanations of consciousness."<ref name="Cunningham 2011 53">{{cite book|last=Cunningham|first=Paul F.|title=A Primer on Transpersonal Psychology|year=2011|publisher=Rivier College|location=Nashua NH 03060-5086|page=53}}</ref>
-[[Albert Ellis]], a cognitive psychologist and humanist, has questioned the results of transpersonal psychotherapy. In 1989 he cooperated with Raymond Yeager for the release of ''Why some therapies don't work: The dangers of transpersonal psychology'', where the authors compared the results of transpersonal psychology with the effects of [[Rational-emotive therapy|Rational-Emotive Therapy]], noting the dangers of the transpersonal approach.<ref>Ellis, Albert; Yeager, Raymond J. (1989) Why some therapies don't work: The dangers of transpersonal psychology. Amherst, NY, US: Prometheus Books.</ref> Ellis has also questioned the scientific status of transpersonal psychology, and its relationship to religion, mysticism and authoritarian belief systems.<ref>Ellis, Albert. "Fanaticism that may lead to a [[nuclear holocaust]]: The contributions of scientific counseling and psychotherapy". ''Journal of Counseling & Development'', Nov 1986, Vol. 65, pp. 146-151</ref><ref>Ellis, Albert. "Dangers of Transpersonal Psychology: A Reply To Ken Wilber". ''Journal of Counseling & Development'', Feb89, Vol. 67 Issue 6, p336, 2p;</ref>
 ==See also==
@@ Line 74: / Line 78: @@
 ==Further reading==
+{{refbegin}}
-* Davis, John V. (2003). ''Transpersonal psychology'' in Taylor, B. and Kaplan, J., Eds. The Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature. Bristol, England: Thoemmes Continuum.
+* {{cite book |last=Davis |first=John V. |year=2003 |chapter=Transpersonal psychology |editor1-last=Taylor |editor1-first=B. |editor2-last=Kaplan |editor2-first=J. |title=The Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature |place=Bristol, England |publisher=Thoemmes Continuum |ref=none}}
-* Gripentrog, Stephanie (2018). Mapping the Boundaries between Science and Religion: Psychology, Psychiatry, and Near-Death Experiences. In: Lüddeckens, D., & Schrimpf, M. (2018). [https://www.transcript-verlag.de/en/detail/index/sArticle/4316 Medicine - religion - spirituality: Global perspectives on traditional, complementary, and alternative healing]. Bielefeld: transcript Verlag. {{ISBN|978-3-8376-4582-8}}, pp.&nbsp;241–272.
+* {{cite magazine |last=Leonard |first=G. |title=How to Have an Extraordinary Life |magazine=Psychology Today |date=May 1, 1992 |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/articles/199205/how-have-extraordinary-life |access-date=2024-06-30 |ref=none}}
-* [[John Rowan (psychologist)|Rowan, John]]. (1993) ''The Transpersonal: Psychotherapy and Counselling''. London: Routledge
-* {{cite journal|last=Schneider|first=Kirk|year=1987|author-link=Kirk J. Schneider|title=The Deified Self: A Centaur Response to Wilber and the Transpersonal Movement|journal=Journal of Humanistic Psychology|volume=27|pages=196–216|doi=10.1177/0022167887272006|s2cid=145608686}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Schneider |first=Kirk |year=1987 |author-link=Kirk J. Schneider |title=The Deified Self: A Centaur Response to Wilber and the Transpersonal Movement |journal=Journal of Humanistic Psychology |volume=27 |pages=196–216 |doi=10.1177/0022167887272006|s2cid=145608686 |ref=none}}
-* Taylor, Steve. (2015, September 15). "[https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/out-the-darkness/201509/transpersonal-psychology Transpersonal Psychology: Exploring the Farther Reaches of Human Nature]". ''Psychology Today''.
+* {{cite magazine |last=Taylor |first=Steve |date=September 15, 2015 |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/out-the-darkness/201509/transpersonal-psychology |title=Transpersonal Psychology: Exploring the Farther Reaches of Human Nature |magazine=Psychology Today |ref=none}}
+{{refend}}
 ==External links==
@@ Line 92: / Line 97: @@
 [[Category:Transpersonal psychology| ]]
 [[Category:Clinical psychology]]
-[[Category:Meditation]]
-[[Category:New Age practices]]
 [[Category:Transpersonal studies]]

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