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[[File:PFM1 scheme.JPG|thumb|right|PFM-1 schematic]]
[[File:PFM1 scheme.JPG|thumb|right|PFM-1 schematic]]


'''PFM-1''' ({{Lang-ru|ПФМ-1 — Противопехотная Фугасная Мина-1|lit=Anti-infantry high-explosive mine}}) is a scatterable [[high explosive]] [[Anti-personnel mine|anti-personnel land mine]] of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] and [[Russia]]n production.<ref name=IWM>{{cite web|url=https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/30021997|access-date=2022-02-27|work=Imperial War Museum|title=PFM 1 anti-personnel mine ("Green Parrot") (British drill/training example)}}</ref> It is also known as a Green Parrot or Butterfly Mine.<ref name=IWM /> The mines can be deployed from mortars, helicopters and aeroplanes in large numbers; they glide to the ground without exploding and will explode later upon contact.
'''PFM-1''' ({{Langx|ru|ПФМ-1 — Противопехотная Фугасная Мина-1|lit=Anti-infantry high-explosive mine}}) is a scatterable [[high explosive]] [[Anti-personnel mine|anti-personnel land mine]] of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] and [[Russia]]n production.<ref name=IWM>{{cite web|url=https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/30021997|access-date=2022-02-27|work=Imperial War Museum|title=PFM 1 anti-personnel mine ("Green Parrot") (British drill/training example)}}</ref> It is also known as a Green Parrot or Butterfly Mine.<ref name=IWM /> The mines can be deployed from mortars, helicopters and airplanes in large numbers; they glide to the ground without exploding and will explode later upon contact.<ref name="fnrus">{{cite news |title=Russia using controversial butterfly mines in Ukraine, says MOD |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JlaDoo5tT9E |agency=YouTube |publisher=Forces News |date=10 August 2022}}</ref>


<!--({{Lang-ru|ПФМ-1}}, short for противопехотная фугасная мина, ''protivopekhotnaya fugasnaya mina-1'', "anti-infantry high-explosive mine 1";-->


==Design==
==Design==
The mine consists of a polythene plastic container containing 40g of explosive liquid.<ref name=IWM /> The two wings of the PFM-1 allow it to glide after being released in the air, then spin, stabilising it and slowing its descent.<ref name=Rae /><ref name=IWM /> The thick wing contains the liquid explosive.<ref name=Rae /> The two wings together are 120 mm (about 5 inches) long.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Hambling |first=David |date=2022-03-10 |title=Russia Accused Of Using Air-Dropped Butterfly Mines To Block Ukrainian Evacuation Route |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidhambling/2022/03/10/russia-reportedly-blocks-ukrainian-evacuation-route-with-air-dropped-butterfly-mines/ |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> The plastic body can be moulded in a variety of colours for best camouflage. As existing stocks were in European green rather than sand coloured, the first examples used in 1980s Afghanistan were green and easily visible. This led to their name 'green parrots'.<ref name=Rae>{{cite book |title=Landmines: Legacy of Conflict: A Manual for Development Workers |last=McGrath |first=Rae |year=1998 |isbn=0-7881-3280-6 |pages=39–40 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=369Xfpy7Sa0C&pg=PA40}}</ref>
The mine consists of a polyethylene plastic container containing {{Convert|37|g|oz|abbr=on}} of '''VS-6D''' or '''VS-60D''' liquid explosive.<ref name="IWM" /><ref name=":6" /> The two wings of the PFM-1 allow it to glide after being released in the air, then spin, stabilizing it and slowing its descent, similar to [[Samara (fruit)|maple seeds]].<ref name=Rae /><ref name=IWM /> The thick wing contains the liquid explosive.<ref name=Rae /> The two wings together are {{Convert|120|mm|in|abbr=on}} long.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Hambling |first=David |date=2022-03-10 |title=Russia Accused Of Using Air-Dropped Butterfly Mines To Block Ukrainian Evacuation Route |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidhambling/2022/03/10/russia-reportedly-blocks-ukrainian-evacuation-route-with-air-dropped-butterfly-mines/ |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> The plastic body can be produced in a variety of colours for best camouflage. As existing stocks were in European green rather than sand coloured, the first examples used in 1980s Afghanistan were green and easily visible. This led to their name 'green parrots'.<ref name=Rae>{{cite book |title=Landmines: Legacy of Conflict: A Manual for Development Workers |last=McGrath |first=Rae |year=1998 |isbn=0-7881-3280-6 |pages=39–40 |publisher=DIANE |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=369Xfpy7Sa0C&pg=PA40}}</ref>


The shape and bright colour is attractive to children, inspiring claims that they were deliberately designed to look like a toy.<ref name="Braithwaite2011">{{cite book |last1=Braithwaite |first1=Rodric |title=Afgantsy : the Russians in Afghanistan, 1979-89 |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199832668 |pages=234–235}}</ref><ref name="sovtoy">{{cite news|title=Soviet Toys of Death|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/12/10/opinion/soviet-toys-of-death.html|accessdate= 11 March 2019|work=The New York Times|date=10 December 1985}}</ref> This was denied by the Soviets and, while the mines did endanger children, there is no evidence to suggest they were designed to look appealing.<ref name="Cauderay" />
The shape and bright colour is attractive to children, inspiring criticism that they look like a toy.<ref name="Braithwaite2011">{{cite book |last1=Braithwaite |first1=Rodric |title=Afgantsy : the Russians in Afghanistan, 1979-89 |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199832668 |pages=234–235}}</ref><ref name="sovtoy">{{cite news|title=Soviet Toys of Death|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/12/10/opinion/soviet-toys-of-death.html|accessdate= 11 March 2019|work=The New York Times|date=10 December 1985}}</ref>


The mine comes in two variants: '''PFM-1''' and '''PFM-1S'''. The only difference between the two variants is that the '''PFM-1S''' comes with a self-liquidation mechanism, which activates within 1 to 40 hours, depending on the weather conditions. The mines cannot be laid manually and must be laid only using minelaying systems, such as remote mining machine '''UMZ''', portable mining kit - '''PKM''' (mortar), and those present on [[MLRS]], helicopters ([[VSM-1 mine system]]) or airplanes.<ref name="IWM" /><ref name="Cauderay" /> The remote minelaying systems can only use cluster munition containing PFM-1 mines. The cassettes that contain the PFM-1 mines are '''KSF-1''' (72 PFM-1), '''KSF-1S''' (64 PFM-1S) or '''KSF-1S-0.5''' (36 PFM-1 and 36 PFM-1S).<ref name=":3">{{cite book |title=Инженерные Боеприпасы. Руководство по материальной части и применению. |publisher=Военное издательство министерства обороны СССР |year=1987 |edition=5th |location=г. Москва |pages=4-8 |language=ru}}</ref><ref name=":1" />
The mine comes in two variants: '''PFM-1''' and '''PFM-1S'''. The only difference between the two variants is that the '''PFM-1S''' comes with a [[Smart mine|self-destruct mechanism]], with a nominal self destruct time for 85% of all mines of 40 hours.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Landmine, APERS, PFM-1 Birdmine {{!}} Bullet Picker |url=https://www.bulletpicker.com/landmine_-apers_-pfm-1-birdmin.html |access-date=2023-09-14 |website=www.bulletpicker.com}}</ref> The self destruct mechanism is designed to activate after 1– 40 hours depending on ambient temperature.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last1=Yu.G. |first1=Veremeev |last2=N. |first2=Iliev |title=Engineering ammunition -Soviet army - Anti-personnel mine PFM-1S (PFM-1) |url=http://tewton.narod.ru/mines-2/pfm-1.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081225082825/http://tewton.narod.ru:80/mines-2/pfm-1.html |archive-date=2008-12-25 |website=tewton.narod.ru}}</ref> The '''PFM-1S''' self-destruct mechanism is not very reliable, and is likely to leave mines in an armed or sensitive state;<ref name=":6">{{Cite report |url=https://www.gichd.org/fileadmin/uploads/gichd/Publications/GICHD_Ukraine_Guide_2022_Second_Edition_web.pdf |title=Explosive Ordnance Guide for Ukraine - Second Edition |date=2022-08-03 |publisher=Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining |publication-date=2022-08-03 |edition=2nd |page=15 |access-date=14 Sep 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230914091827/https://www.gichd.org/fileadmin/uploads/gichd/Publications/GICHD_Ukraine_Guide_2022_Second_Edition_web.pdf |archive-date=2023-09-14 |url-status=live}}</ref> with mines known to continue to randomly self-destruct for weeks after deployment.<ref name=":4"/> The mines cannot be laid manually and must be laid only using minelaying systems, such as remote mining machine '''UMZ''', portable mining kit - '''PKM''' (mortar), and those present on [[multiple rocket launcher]]s, helicopters ([[VSM-1 mine system]]) or airplanes.<ref name="IWM" /><ref name="Cauderay" /> The remote minelaying systems can only use cluster munition containing PFM-1 mines. The cassettes that contain the PFM-1 mines are '''KSF-1''' (72 PFM-1), '''KSF-1S''' (64 PFM-1S) or '''KSF-1S-0.5''' (36 PFM-1 and 36 PFM-1S).<ref name=":3">{{cite book |title=Инженерные Боеприпасы. Руководство по материальной части и применению. |publisher=Военное издательство министерства обороны СССР |year=1987 |edition=5th |location=г. Москва |pages=4–8 |language=ru}}</ref><ref name=":1" />


Because the mine is so light, it can be carried in waterways and move downstream after heavy rains or melting snow. The PFM-1 mines are notorious for attaining good camouflage in the conditions of dense [[foliage]], snow or sand.<ref name="IWM" />
Because the mine is so light, it can be carried in waterways and move downstream after heavy rains or melting snow. The PFM-1 mines are notorious for attaining good camouflage in the conditions of dense [[foliage]], snow or sand.<ref name="IWM" />


== Action ==
== Action ==
The mine is stored with a pin restraining a detonating plunger. Once the arming pin is removed, the plunger is slowly forced forward by a spring until it contacts the detonator, at which point it is armed.<ref name="apminebanconvention">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=PFM Design|url=https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/_APMBC-DOCUMENTS/Meetings/2003/GICHD_PFM1_SD.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=apminebanconvention.org|format=PDF}}</ref>
The mine is stored with a pin restraining a detonating plunger. Once the arming pin is removed, the plunger is slowly forced forward by a spring until it contacts the detonator, at which point it is armed.<ref name="apminebanconvention">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=PFM Design|url=https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/_APMBC-DOCUMENTS/Meetings/2003/GICHD_PFM1_SD.pdf|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=apminebanconvention.org}}</ref>


Deformation of the soft plastic skin of the mine forces the arming plunger to strike the detonator, detonating the mine.<ref name="apminebanconvention" /> Because the body of the mine is a single cumulative pressure primer, it is extremely dangerous to handle the mine: The [[Imperial War Museum]] states that "A pressure in excess of 5kg would activate the mine".<ref name=IWM /> Holding it between the thumb and forefinger may be enough to make it explode.<ref name=Cauderay /> The charge is usually nonlethal, although sufficient to maim.<ref name=Cauderay />
Deformation of the soft plastic skin of the mine forces the arming plunger to strike the detonator, detonating the mine.<ref name="apminebanconvention" /> Because the body of the mine is a single cumulative pressure primer, it is extremely dangerous to handle the mine: The [[Imperial War Museum]] states that "A pressure in excess of 5kg would activate the mine".<ref name=IWM /> Holding it between the thumb and forefinger may be enough to make it explode.<ref name=Cauderay /> The charge is usually nonlethal, although sufficient to maim.<ref name=Cauderay>{{cite journal|journal=International Review of the Red Cross|title=Anti-Personnel Mines|first=Gérald C.|last= Cauderay|access-date=2022-02-27|url=https://international-review.icrc.org/sites/default/files/S0020860400080530a.pdf|volume=33|issue=295|date=1993|pages=273–287|doi=10.1017/S0020860400080530 |s2cid=31512388 }}</ref>


== Destruction ==
== Disposal ==
The PFM-1(S) mines can be destroyed by mechanical or explosive means; they cannot be disarmed. The mines are generally moved using a scoop that is at least 3 meters long, and has soft materials used in its construction (for example, plastic). The operator should ideally wear personal protection, such as a protective screen, gloves and [[face covering]] that has at least 8-10mm of [[Pmma|PMMA]].<ref name=":3" /> If the mines are to be destroyed mechanically, then they should be driven on by the tracks of an armoured vehicle, or impacted with a load weighing at least 60 kg. Otherwise, the technician must place 0.2 kg of explosive with an electric [[detonator]] using a scoop at least 4&ndash;5m long.<ref name=":3" /> The requirement to use soft materials for the scoop comes from secondary fragments that may be generated as a result of the mine exploding: if the scoop has metallic materials, or if the mine is placed on solid materials, such as asphalt, it could generate ''secondary fragmentation'' and potentially wound the defuser, or people around them. The mines are always to be approached with caution as it is sometimes impossible to tell the PFM-1 mine version and the mine's self-destruction mechanism may actuate.
The PFM-1(S) mines can be disposed by destruction or activation by mechanical or explosive means; they cannot be disarmed. The mines are generally disposed of in-situ to prevent unintended initiation while moving. If the mine has to be moved, it is done so with an implement that is at least 3 meters long, made of soft materials (for example, plastic) to prevent injury in the event the mine detonates in transit. The disposal technician should ideally wear suitable personal protective equipment (PPE), including gloves and a helmet with a ballistic visor of at least 8–10&nbsp;mm of [[Pmma|PMMA]].<ref name=":3" /> If the mine is to be destroyed mechanically, then they should be driven on by the tracks of an armoured vehicle, or impacted with a load weighing at least 60&nbsp;kg. Otherwise, the technician must dispose of the mine with at least 200&nbsp;grams of explosive at least 4&ndash;5m away.<ref name=":3" /> The requirement to use soft materials is due to secondary fragments that may be generated as a result of the mine exploding: if the mine is placed on a hard or metallic surface, such as asphalt or steel, it could generate ''secondary fragmentation'' and potentially wound the disposal technician, or people around them. As it is almost impossible to tell the PFM-1 and PFM-1S versions apart care should be taken when approaching them as the mine's self-destruction mechanism may actuate.


==Compliance with the Ottawa Convention==
==Compliance with the Ottawa Convention==

In 2017, the government of [[Belarus]] announced that it had destroyed its stockpiles of PFM-1 mines.<ref name=Belarus>{{cite web |url=https://www.mil.by/ru/news/62864/ |access-date=2022-02-28 |title=The Republic of Belarus has fully fulfilled its international obligations under the 2003 Ottawa Convention |date=2017-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200823041028/https://www.mil.by/ru/news/62864/ |archive-date=23 August 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The last 78 PFM-1 mines held by Belarus were destroyed as the highlight of the closing ceremony marking the elimination of their landmine stock.<ref name=Belarus />
In 2017, the government of [[Belarus]] announced that it had destroyed its stockpiles of PFM-1 mines.<ref name=Belarus>{{cite web |url=https://www.mil.by/ru/news/62864/ |access-date=2022-02-28 |title=The Republic of Belarus has fully fulfilled its international obligations under the 2003 Ottawa Convention |date=2017-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200823041028/https://www.mil.by/ru/news/62864/ |archive-date=23 August 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The last 78 PFM-1 mines held by Belarus were destroyed as the highlight of the closing ceremony marking the elimination of their landmine stock.<ref name=Belarus />


Ukraine stated that its stockpile of PFM-1 mines in 1999 was 6,000,000 units.<ref name="EU-Ukraine">{{cite web |date=2013 |title=Commission Implementing Decision on the Annual Action Programme 2013 in favour of Ukraine |url=https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/system/files/2017-03/enpi_2013_support_to_eu-ukraine_agreements.pdf#page=2 |access-date=2022-07-31}}</ref> In a November 2008 presentation, [[Ukraine]] indicated that it had destroyed 101,088 PFM-1 mines per the convention in 1999. Following the agreement between the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine and [[NATO Support and Procurement Agency|NSPA]] (formerly known as NAMSO) on 1st September 2012, a three-way agreement between [[Ukraine]], [[NATO Support and Procurement Agency|NSPA]] the EU was signed, which figurated that the EU would provide 3.689 million [[Euro|euros]] for the destruction of 3.3 million mines.<ref name="EU-Ukraine" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Yakymenko |title=UKRAINE: 30 YEARS ON THE EUROPEAN PATH |publisher=«Zapovit» Publishing House |year=2021 |isbn=978-966-2050-27-1 |pages=336 |language=En}}</ref> In 2013, the NSPA provided assistance in destruction of 300,000 mines.<ref name="EU-Ukraine" /> In 2014, [[Ukraine]] submitted a document to the Mine Ban Treaty Third Review Conference, stating that it has destroyed 568,248 mines since the ratification, with an additional 576 mines in 2014, leaving its stockpile at 5,434,672 mines.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 June 2014 |title=Mine Ban Treaty Third Review Conference, Maputo, Mozambique |url=https://www.maputoreviewconference.org/fileadmin/APMBC-RC3/3RC-Ukraine-information.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=8 August 2022}}</ref> After failing to adhere to the [[Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction|Ottawa treaty]] deadline of November 2018 on the destruction of its anti-personnel mines, Ukraine requested the deadline be extended til 1 June 2021, later asking for further extension on 8 June 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 November 2018 |title=Decisions on the request submitted by Ukraine for an extension of the deadline for completing the destruction of anti-personnel mines in accordance with Article 5 of the Convention |url=https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/_APMBC-DOCUMENTS/Meetings/2018/17MSP-Ukraine-decision-final.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808175001/https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/_APMBC-DOCUMENTS/Meetings/2018/17MSP-Ukraine-decision-final.pdf |archive-date=8 August 2022 |access-date=8 August 2022 |website=AP Mine Ban Convention}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2020 |title=REQUEST FOR AN EXTENTION OF THE DEADLINE FOR COMPLETING THE DESTRUCTION OF ANTI-PERSONNEL MINES IN ACCORDANCE WITH ARTICLE 5 OF THE CONVENTION EXECUTIVE SUMMARY |url=https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/_APMBC-DOCUMENTS/Meetings/2020/18MSP-Ukraine-ExtRequest-and-annex.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808175149/https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/_APMBC-DOCUMENTS/Meetings/2020/18MSP-Ukraine-ExtRequest-and-annex.pdf |archive-date=8 August 2022 |access-date=8 August 2022 |website=AP Mine Ban Convention}}</ref> The effort for the destruction has sizzled out towards 2019 and 2020, with only 67,236 destroyed in 2019. In 2020, Ukraine refused to destroy any PFM-1 mines. In 2021, Ukraine's PFM-1 stockpile is reported at 3,363,828 mines, with no further submissions of their destruction.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 April 2021 |title=Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on Their Destruction |url=https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/_APMBC-DOCUMENTS/Art7Reports/Ukraine-2020-Report-submitted-2021.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728053105/https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/_APMBC-DOCUMENTS/Art7Reports/Ukraine-2020-Report-submitted-2021.pdf |archive-date=28 July 2022 |access-date=8 August 2022 |website=AP Mine Ban Convention}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 April 2020 |title=КОНВЕЦИЯ О ЗАПРЕЩЕНИИ ПРИМЕНЕНИЯ, НАКОПЛЕНИЯ ЗАПАСОВ, ПРОИЗВОДСТВА И ПЕРЕДАЧИ ПРОТИВОПЕХОТНЫХ МИН И ОБ ИХ УНИЧТОЖЕНИИ |url=https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/_APMBC-DOCUMENTS/Art7Reports/Ukraine-2019-Report-submitted-2020.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728053105/https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/_APMBC-DOCUMENTS/Art7Reports/Ukraine-2020-Report-submitted-2021.pdf |archive-date=28 July 2022 |access-date=8 August 2022 |website=AP Mine Ban Convention}}</ref>
Ukraine stated that its stockpile of PFM-1 mines in 1999 was 6,000,000 units.<ref name="EU-Ukraine">{{cite web |date=2013 |title=Commission Implementing Decision on the Annual Action Programme 2013 in favour of Ukraine |url=https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/system/files/2017-03/enpi_2013_support_to_eu-ukraine_agreements.pdf#page=2 |access-date=2022-07-31}}</ref> In a November 2008 presentation, [[Ukraine]] indicated that it had destroyed 101,088 PFM-1 mines per the convention in 1999. Following the agreement between the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine and [[NATO Support and Procurement Agency]] (NSPA, formerly known as NAMSO) on 1 September 2012, a three-way agreement between [[Ukraine]], [[NATO Support and Procurement Agency|NSPA]] and the EU was signed, which figurated that the EU would provide 3.689 million [[euro]]s for the destruction of 3.3 million mines.<ref name="EU-Ukraine" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Yakymenko |title=UKRAINE: 30 YEARS ON THE EUROPEAN PATH |publisher=«Zapovit» Publishing House |year=2021 |isbn=978-966-2050-27-1 |pages=336 |language=En}}</ref> In 2013, the NSPA provided assistance in destruction of 300,000 mines.<ref name="EU-Ukraine" /> In 2014, following the outbreak of war with Russia, Ukrainian representatives did not attend in person but submitted a document to the Mine Ban Treaty Third Review Conference, stating that it had destroyed 568,248 mines since the ratification, with an additional 576 mines in 2014, leaving its stockpile at 5,434,672 mines.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 June 2014 |title=Mine Ban Treaty Third Review Conference, Maputo, Mozambique |url=https://www.maputoreviewconference.org/fileadmin/APMBC-RC3/3RC-Ukraine-information.pdf |access-date=8 August 2022}}</ref> After failing to meet the [[Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction|Ottawa Treaty]] deadline of November 2018 on the destruction of its anti-personnel mines, Ukraine requested the deadline be extended to 1 June 2021, later asking for further extension on 8 June 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 November 2018 |title=Decisions on the request submitted by Ukraine for an extension of the deadline for completing the destruction of anti-personnel mines in accordance with Article 5 of the Convention |url=https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/_APMBC-DOCUMENTS/Meetings/2018/17MSP-Ukraine-decision-final.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808175001/https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/_APMBC-DOCUMENTS/Meetings/2018/17MSP-Ukraine-decision-final.pdf |archive-date=8 August 2022 |access-date=8 August 2022 |website=AP Mine Ban Convention}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2020 |title=REQUEST FOR AN EXTENTION OF THE DEADLINE FOR COMPLETING THE DESTRUCTION OF ANTI-PERSONNEL MINES IN ACCORDANCE WITH ARTICLE 5 OF THE CONVENTION EXECUTIVE SUMMARY |url=https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/_APMBC-DOCUMENTS/Meetings/2020/18MSP-Ukraine-ExtRequest-and-annex.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808175149/https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/_APMBC-DOCUMENTS/Meetings/2020/18MSP-Ukraine-ExtRequest-and-annex.pdf |archive-date=8 August 2022 |access-date=8 August 2022 |website=AP Mine Ban Convention}}{{Dead link|date=August 2024}}</ref> In 2019, 67,236 mines were destroyed. Amid continuing conflict in the Donbas region, in 2020 Ukraine refused to destroy any PFM-1 mines.{{failed verification|reason=refusal not in the report|date=January 2024}}In 2021, Ukraine's PFM-1 stockpile was reported at 3,363,828 mines.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 April 2021 |title=Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on Their Destruction |url=https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/_APMBC-DOCUMENTS/Art7Reports/Ukraine-2020-Report-submitted-2021.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728053105/https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/_APMBC-DOCUMENTS/Art7Reports/Ukraine-2020-Report-submitted-2021.pdf |archive-date=28 July 2022 |access-date=8 August 2022 |website=AP Mine Ban Convention}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 April 2020 |title=КОНВЕЦИЯ О ЗАПРЕЩЕНИИ ПРИМЕНЕНИЯ, НАКОПЛЕНИЯ ЗАПАСОВ, ПРОИЗВОДСТВА И ПЕРЕДАЧИ ПРОТИВОПЕХОТНЫХ МИН И ОБ ИХ УНИЧТОЖЕНИИ |url=https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/_APMBC-DOCUMENTS/Art7Reports/Ukraine-2019-Report-submitted-2020.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728053105/https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/_APMBC-DOCUMENTS/Art7Reports/Ukraine-2020-Report-submitted-2021.pdf |archive-date=28 July 2022 |access-date=8 August 2022 |website=AP Mine Ban Convention}}</ref>

[[Russia]], as well as the [[United States]], [[China]], and several other countries, are not signatories of the [[Ottawa Treaty]] (the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Status of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on Their Destruction|url=http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/mine_ban|access-date=2020-10-21|website=Treaties Database of the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.icbl.org/en-gb/the-treaty/treaty-status.aspx|title=Treaty Status|publisher=ICBL|access-date=21 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914072000/http://www.icbl.org/en-gb/the-treaty/treaty-status.aspx|archive-date=14 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Military use==

=== Afghanistan ===
⚫
[[File:Russian butterfly mines.jpg|thumb|"Butterfly" mines, [[OMAR Mine Museum]], 2008]]
⚫
PFM-1 was used during the [[Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan|Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]], allegedly resulting in a high number of casualties among children from the mine being mistaken for a toy due to its shape and coloring.<ref name=Tanner>{{cite book|last=Tanner|first=Stephen|title="Afghanistan: A Military History"}}</ref>

=== Ukraine ===
The Ukrainian government alleged that the [[Russian Federation]] deployed PFM-1 mines during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2022/02/26/7326201/ |title=In Kharkiv region, the Russian invaders are using internationally-banned butterfly mines }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-08 |title=Russia likely using "indiscriminate" mines that kids mistake for toys: U.K. |url=https://www.newsweek.com/russia-anti-personnel-mines-ukraine-war-kids-toys-1731753 |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=Newsweek |language=en}}</ref><ref name="washingtonexaminer"/> At the start of the invasion, in March 2022, [[Deutsche Welle]] found no evidence to support the accusation.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dw.com/en/fact-check-is-russia-using-butterfly-mines-in-ukraine/a-61120270 |title=Is Russia using butterfly mines in Ukraine?|website=[[Deutsche Welle]] }}</ref> In June, [[Human Rights Watch]] (HRW) reported that Russia had used "at least seven types of antipersonnel mines in at least four regions of Ukraine: Donetsk, Kharkiv, Kyiv, and Sumy", but could not ascertain PFM-1 use in its briefing.<ref name="France 24">{{Cite web | title=What do we know about 'petal mines' scattered in the streets of Donetsk? | work=[[France 24]] | url=https://observers.france24.com/en/europe/20220817-ukraine-russia-donetsk-petal-butterfly-antipersonnel-mines | first=Pariesa | last=Young | date=17 August 2022 | access-date=26 October 2022}}</ref><ref name="HRW">{{Cite web | title=Background Briefing on Landmine Use in Ukraine | work=[[Human Rights Watch]] | url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/06/15/background-briefing-landmine-use-ukraine | date=15 June 2022 | access-date=26 October 2022}}</ref>


In summer 2022, HRW found no credible information about Ukraine using any anti-personnel mines,<ref name="France 24"/><ref name="HRW"/> but said in January 2023 that its team "saw physical evidence of PFM antipersonnel mine use in seven of the nine areas around [[Izyum]]" in Kharkiv Oblast, and urged the Ukrainian government to investigate possible PFM use by its forces.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-31 |title=Ukraine: Banned Landmines Harm Civilians |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/01/31/ukraine-banned-landmines-harm-civilians |access-date=2023-02-01 |website=Human Rights Watch |language=en}}</ref>
== Military use in Afghanistan and Ukraine==
⚫
[[File:Russian butterfly mines.jpg|thumb|Russian "butterfly" mines, [[OMAR Mine Museum]], 2008]]
⚫
PFM-1 was used during the [[Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan]], allegedly resulting in a high number of casualties among children from being mistaken for a toy due to its shape and coloring.<ref name=Tanner>{{cite book|last=Tanner|first=Stephen|title="Afghanistan: A Military History"}}</ref> As the mine is made of plastic, it is intended not to kill but to maim.<ref name=Cauderay>{{cite journal|journal=International Review of the Red Cross|title=Anti-Personnel Mines|first=Gérald C.|last= Cauderay|access-date=2022-02-27|url=https://international-review.icrc.org/sites/default/files/S0020860400080530a.pdf|volume=33|issue=295|date=1993|pages=273–287}}</ref>


In Russian-controlled Donetsk many PFM-1 were widely dispersed, and Russian and local sources accused the Ukrainian army of being responsible for their deployment.<ref name="washingtonexaminer">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/policy/foreign/us-89-million-ukraine-clear-land-mines?_amp=true |last=Knox |first=Brady |title=US approves $89 million to help Ukraine clear land mines |date=19 August 2022 |work=Washington Examiner}}</ref> There have been reported casualties, the most prominent of which was the Russian influencer [[Semfira Sulejmanova]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last=Putzbach |first=Robert |date=2022-10-24 |title=Russischer Kriegsblogger War Gonzo im Minenfeld verletzt |language=de |work=FAZ.NET |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/medien/russischer-kriegsblogger-war-gonzo-im-minenfeld-verletzt-18411000.html |access-date=2023-06-06 |issn=0174-4909}}</ref> Another Russian influencer, [[Semyon Pegov]], reportedly had his leg injured and was hospitalized as a result of these mines.<ref name=":2" />
The PFM-1 mines were deployed by Ukrainian forces in [[Mariupol]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hambling |first=David |title=Russia Accused Of Using Air-Dropped Butterfly Mines To Block Ukrainian Evacuation Route (Update: New Video Confirmation) |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidhambling/2022/03/10/russia-reportedly-blocks-ukrainian-evacuation-route-with-air-dropped-butterfly-mines/ |access-date=2022-07-28 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> [[Kharkiv]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2022/02/26/7326201/ |title=In Kharkiv region, the Ukrainian Armed Forces are using internationally-banned butterfly mines }}</ref> [[Donetsk]] and [[Kramatorsk]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-08 |title=Ukraine likely using "indiscriminate" mines that kids mistake for toys:
|language=en}}</ref> during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]]. The United States government would later approve a $89 million spending bill supporting the spreading of more landmines using contractors to train and equip the Ukrainian government rather than giving the money to the Ukrainian government directly.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/policy/foreign/us-89-million-ukraine-spreading-land-mines?_amp=true |last=Knox |first=Brady |title=US approves $89 million to help Ukraine clear land mines |date=19 August 2022 |work=Washington Examiner}}</ref>


==Similar weapons==
==Similar weapons==
The PFM-1 is very similar to the [[BLU-43]] landmine used by the [[United States Army|US Army]] in [[Operation Igloo White]] in Laos during the [[Vietnam War]].<ref name=SA>{{cite journal|first=Jeremy|last=Hsu|title=Drones Used to Find Toylike "Butterfly" Land Mines|date=2018-12-28|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/drones-used-to-find-toylike-butterfly-land-mines/|journal=Scientific American}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> According to a U.S. military document, the Soviet military created PFM-1 after [[Reverse engineering|reverse-engineering]] BLU-43.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=January 1996 |title=INSTANT OBSTACLES: RUSSIAN REMOTELY DELIVERED MINES |url=https://community.apan.org/cfs-file/__key/docpreview-s/00-00-08-12-95/1996_2D00_01_2D00_01-Instant-Obstacles_2D00_-Russian-Remotely-Delivered-Mines-_2800_D_2D00_Aria-and-Grau_2900_.pdf}}</ref>
The PFM-1 is very similar to the [[BLU-43]] landmine used by the [[United States Army|US Army]] in [[Operation Igloo White]] in Laos during the [[Vietnam War]].<ref name=SA>{{cite journal|first=Jeremy|last=Hsu|title=Drones Used to Find Toylike "Butterfly" Land Mines|date=2018-12-28|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/drones-used-to-find-toylike-butterfly-land-mines/|journal=Scientific American}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> According to a U.S. military document, the Soviet military created PFM-1 after [[Reverse engineering|reverse-engineering]] BLU-43.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=January 1996 |title=INSTANT OBSTACLES: RUSSIAN REMOTELY DELIVERED MINES |url=https://community.apan.org/cfs-file/__key/docpreview-s/00-00-08-12-95/1996_2D00_01_2D00_01-Instant-Obstacles_2D00_-Russian-Remotely-Delivered-Mines-_2800_D_2D00_Aria-and-Grau_2900_.pdf}}</ref>


== Specifications (PFM-1S) ==
== Specifications (PFM-1 & PFM-1S) ==
*'''Dimensions:<ref name=":3" />''' 119x64x20 mm
*'''Dimensions:''' {{cvt|119|x|64|x|20|mm}} '''<ref name=":3" />'''
*'''Activation pressure:<ref name="apminebanconvention" /><ref name=":3" />''' {{Cvt|5.1-25.5|kgf|N|lk=on}} of VS-6D liquid explosive
*'''Activation pressure:''' {{Cvt|5.1-25.5|kgf|N|lk=on}} '''<ref name=":3" /><ref name="apminebanconvention" />'''
*'''Weight:<ref name="apminebanconvention" /><ref name=":3" />'''
*'''Weight:<ref name=":3" />'''
**'''''Mine:''''' {{Cvt|0.08|kg|oz|abbr=on}}
**'''''Mine:''''' {{Cvt|75|g|oz|abbr=on}}
**'''''Charge:''''' {{Cvt|37|g|oz|abbr=on}} of '''VS-6D''' or '''VS-60D''' liquid explosive <ref>{{Cite book |last=McGrath |first=Rae |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=369Xfpy7Sa0C&pg=PA40 |title=Landmines: Legacy of Conflict: A Manual for Development Workers |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-7881-3280-3 |pages=39–40|publisher=DIANE }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Einsele |first=Lukas |date=2004-03-15 |title=One Step Beyond – Mines – Afghanistan – PFM-1 |url=http://www.one-step-beyond.de/en/countries/afghanistan/mines/afghanistan_mine_pfm-1.html |access-date=2023-09-14 |website=One Step Beyond |language=en}}</ref>
**'''''Charge:''''' {{Cvt|0.04|kg|oz|abbr=on}}
**'''KSF-1''' '''cassette:''' {{Cvt|9.2|kg|lb}}
**'''KSF-1''' '''cassette:''' {{Cvt|9.2|kg|lb}}
*'''Shelf life:<ref name="apminebanconvention" /><ref name=":3" />''' 10 years
*'''Shelf life:''' 10 years '''<ref name=":3" /><ref name="apminebanconvention" />'''
*'''Temperature range of use<ref name=":3" />''': -40 to +50 °С
*'''Temperature range''' : {{cvt|-40|to|50|C}}
*'''Fuse:''' MVDM/VGM-572
*'''Fuze:''' MVDM/VGM-572 (МВВДМ ВГММ-572)
*'''Self-liquidation timeframe''':'''<ref name="apminebanconvention" />''' 1-40 hours
*'''Self-destruct time (PKM-1S)''':<ref name=":4" /> 1–40 hours (85% '''nominal''' self destruction within 40 hours)<ref name=":5" />
'''<ref name=":3" /><ref name="apminebanconvention" />'''


==See also==
==See also==
Line 57: Line 64:
*{{slink|Atrocity propaganda|Soviet–Afghan War}}
*{{slink|Atrocity propaganda|Soviet–Afghan War}}
*[[PMN mine]]
*[[PMN mine]]
*[[BLU-43 Dragontooth]]


==Notes==
==Notes==
Line 70: Line 78:
[[Category:Land mines of the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Land mines of the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Submunitions]]
[[Category:Submunitions]]
[[Category:Weapons of Russia]]

Latest revision as of 08:03, 17 November 2024

A PFM-1 training mine, distinguishable from the live version by the presence of the Cyrillic letter У (short for учебный, uchebnyy, "for training").
PFM-1 schematic

PFM-1 (Russian: ПФМ-1 — Противопехотная Фугасная Мина-1, lit. 'Anti-infantry high-explosive mine') is a scatterable high explosive anti-personnel land mine of Soviet and Russian production.[1] It is also known as a Green Parrot or Butterfly Mine.[1] The mines can be deployed from mortars, helicopters and airplanes in large numbers; they glide to the ground without exploding and will explode later upon contact.[2]

Design

[edit]

The mine consists of a polyethylene plastic container containing 37 g (1.3 oz) of VS-6D or VS-60D liquid explosive.[1][3] The two wings of the PFM-1 allow it to glide after being released in the air, then spin, stabilizing it and slowing its descent, similar to maple seeds.[4][1] The thick wing contains the liquid explosive.[4] The two wings together are 120 mm (4.7 in) long.[5] The plastic body can be produced in a variety of colours for best camouflage. As existing stocks were in European green rather than sand coloured, the first examples used in 1980s Afghanistan were green and easily visible. This led to their name 'green parrots'.[4]

The shape and bright colour is attractive to children, inspiring criticism that they look like a toy.[6][7]

The mine comes in two variants: PFM-1 and PFM-1S. The only difference between the two variants is that the PFM-1S comes with a self-destruct mechanism, with a nominal self destruct time for 85% of all mines of 40 hours.[8] The self destruct mechanism is designed to activate after 1– 40 hours depending on ambient temperature.[9] The PFM-1S self-destruct mechanism is not very reliable, and is likely to leave mines in an armed or sensitive state;[3] with mines known to continue to randomly self-destruct for weeks after deployment.[8] The mines cannot be laid manually and must be laid only using minelaying systems, such as remote mining machine UMZ, portable mining kit - PKM (mortar), and those present on multiple rocket launchers, helicopters (VSM-1 mine system) or airplanes.[1][10] The remote minelaying systems can only use cluster munition containing PFM-1 mines. The cassettes that contain the PFM-1 mines are KSF-1 (72 PFM-1), KSF-1S (64 PFM-1S) or KSF-1S-0.5 (36 PFM-1 and 36 PFM-1S).[11][12]

Because the mine is so light, it can be carried in waterways and move downstream after heavy rains or melting snow. The PFM-1 mines are notorious for attaining good camouflage in the conditions of dense foliage, snow or sand.[1]

Action

[edit]

The mine is stored with a pin restraining a detonating plunger. Once the arming pin is removed, the plunger is slowly forced forward by a spring until it contacts the detonator, at which point it is armed.[13]

Deformation of the soft plastic skin of the mine forces the arming plunger to strike the detonator, detonating the mine.[13] Because the body of the mine is a single cumulative pressure primer, it is extremely dangerous to handle the mine: The Imperial War Museum states that "A pressure in excess of 5kg would activate the mine".[1] Holding it between the thumb and forefinger may be enough to make it explode.[10] The charge is usually nonlethal, although sufficient to maim.[10]

Disposal

[edit]

The PFM-1(S) mines can be disposed by destruction or activation by mechanical or explosive means; they cannot be disarmed. The mines are generally disposed of in-situ to prevent unintended initiation while moving. If the mine has to be moved, it is done so with an implement that is at least 3 meters long, made of soft materials (for example, plastic) to prevent injury in the event the mine detonates in transit. The disposal technician should ideally wear suitable personal protective equipment (PPE), including gloves and a helmet with a ballistic visor of at least 8–10 mm of PMMA.[11] If the mine is to be destroyed mechanically, then they should be driven on by the tracks of an armoured vehicle, or impacted with a load weighing at least 60 kg. Otherwise, the technician must dispose of the mine with at least 200 grams of explosive at least 4–5m away.[11] The requirement to use soft materials is due to secondary fragments that may be generated as a result of the mine exploding: if the mine is placed on a hard or metallic surface, such as asphalt or steel, it could generate secondary fragmentation and potentially wound the disposal technician, or people around them. As it is almost impossible to tell the PFM-1 and PFM-1S versions apart care should be taken when approaching them as the mine's self-destruction mechanism may actuate.

Compliance with the Ottawa Convention

[edit]

In 2017, the government of Belarus announced that it had destroyed its stockpiles of PFM-1 mines.[14] The last 78 PFM-1 mines held by Belarus were destroyed as the highlight of the closing ceremony marking the elimination of their landmine stock.[14]

Ukraine stated that its stockpile of PFM-1 mines in 1999 was 6,000,000 units.[15] In a November 2008 presentation, Ukraine indicated that it had destroyed 101,088 PFM-1 mines per the convention in 1999. Following the agreement between the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine and NATO Support and Procurement Agency (NSPA, formerly known as NAMSO) on 1 September 2012, a three-way agreement between Ukraine, NSPA and the EU was signed, which figurated that the EU would provide 3.689 million euros for the destruction of 3.3 million mines.[15][16] In 2013, the NSPA provided assistance in destruction of 300,000 mines.[15] In 2014, following the outbreak of war with Russia, Ukrainian representatives did not attend in person but submitted a document to the Mine Ban Treaty Third Review Conference, stating that it had destroyed 568,248 mines since the ratification, with an additional 576 mines in 2014, leaving its stockpile at 5,434,672 mines.[17] After failing to meet the Ottawa Treaty deadline of November 2018 on the destruction of its anti-personnel mines, Ukraine requested the deadline be extended to 1 June 2021, later asking for further extension on 8 June 2020.[18][19] In 2019, 67,236 mines were destroyed. Amid continuing conflict in the Donbas region, in 2020 Ukraine refused to destroy any PFM-1 mines.[failed verification]In 2021, Ukraine's PFM-1 stockpile was reported at 3,363,828 mines.[20][21]

Russia, as well as the United States, China, and several other countries, are not signatories of the Ottawa Treaty (the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention).[22][23]

Military use

[edit]

Afghanistan

[edit]
"Butterfly" mines, OMAR Mine Museum, 2008

PFM-1 was used during the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, allegedly resulting in a high number of casualties among children from the mine being mistaken for a toy due to its shape and coloring.[24]

Ukraine

[edit]

The Ukrainian government alleged that the Russian Federation deployed PFM-1 mines during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[25][26][27] At the start of the invasion, in March 2022, Deutsche Welle found no evidence to support the accusation.[28] In June, Human Rights Watch (HRW) reported that Russia had used "at least seven types of antipersonnel mines in at least four regions of Ukraine: Donetsk, Kharkiv, Kyiv, and Sumy", but could not ascertain PFM-1 use in its briefing.[29][30]

In summer 2022, HRW found no credible information about Ukraine using any anti-personnel mines,[29][30] but said in January 2023 that its team "saw physical evidence of PFM antipersonnel mine use in seven of the nine areas around Izyum" in Kharkiv Oblast, and urged the Ukrainian government to investigate possible PFM use by its forces.[31]

In Russian-controlled Donetsk many PFM-1 were widely dispersed, and Russian and local sources accused the Ukrainian army of being responsible for their deployment.[27] There have been reported casualties, the most prominent of which was the Russian influencer Semfira Sulejmanova.[32] Another Russian influencer, Semyon Pegov, reportedly had his leg injured and was hospitalized as a result of these mines.[32]

Similar weapons

[edit]

The PFM-1 is very similar to the BLU-43 landmine used by the US Army in Operation Igloo White in Laos during the Vietnam War.[33][5] According to a U.S. military document, the Soviet military created PFM-1 after reverse-engineering BLU-43.[12]

Specifications (PFM-1 & PFM-1S)

[edit]
  • Dimensions: 119 mm × 64 mm × 20 mm (4.69 in × 2.52 in × 0.79 in) [11]
  • Activation pressure: 5.1–25.5 kgf (50–250 N) [11][13]
  • Weight:[11]
    • Mine: 75 g (2.6 oz)
    • Charge: 37 g (1.3 oz) of VS-6D or VS-60D liquid explosive [34][35]
    • KSF-1 cassette: 9.2 kg (20 lb)
  • Shelf life: 10 years [11][13]
  • Temperature range : −40 to 50 °C (−40 to 122 °F)
  • Fuze: MVDM/VGM-572 (МВВДМ ВГММ-572)
  • Self-destruct time (PKM-1S):[8] 1–40 hours (85% nominal self destruction within 40 hours)[9]

[11][13]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g "PFM 1 anti-personnel mine ("Green Parrot") (British drill/training example)". Imperial War Museum. Retrieved 2022-02-27.
  2. ^ "Russia using controversial butterfly mines in Ukraine, says MOD". Forces News. YouTube. 10 August 2022.
  3. ^ a b Explosive Ordnance Guide for Ukraine - Second Edition (PDF) (Report) (2nd ed.). Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining. 2022-08-03. p. 15. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-09-14. Retrieved 14 Sep 2023.
  4. ^ a b c McGrath, Rae (1998). Landmines: Legacy of Conflict: A Manual for Development Workers. DIANE. pp. 39–40. ISBN 0-7881-3280-6.
  5. ^ a b Hambling, David (2022-03-10). "Russia Accused Of Using Air-Dropped Butterfly Mines To Block Ukrainian Evacuation Route". Forbes. Retrieved 2022-03-11.
  6. ^ Braithwaite, Rodric (2011). Afgantsy : the Russians in Afghanistan, 1979-89. Oxford University Press. pp. 234–235. ISBN 9780199832668.
  7. ^ "Soviet Toys of Death". The New York Times. 10 December 1985. Retrieved 11 March 2019.
  8. ^ a b c "Landmine, APERS, PFM-1 Birdmine | Bullet Picker". www.bulletpicker.com. Retrieved 2023-09-14.
  9. ^ a b Yu.G., Veremeev; N., Iliev. "Engineering ammunition -Soviet army - Anti-personnel mine PFM-1S (PFM-1)". tewton.narod.ru. Archived from the original on 2008-12-25.
  10. ^ a b c Cauderay, Gérald C. (1993). "Anti-Personnel Mines" (PDF). International Review of the Red Cross. 33 (295): 273–287. doi:10.1017/S0020860400080530. S2CID 31512388. Retrieved 2022-02-27.
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