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{{Short description|American biochemist}}
{{Infobox scientist
{{Infobox scientist
|name = Robert K. Crane
| image = Robert K. Crane.jpg
| image = Robert K. Crane.jpg
| birth_date = {{birth date|1919|12|20|mf=y}}
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| birth_place = [[Palmyra, New Jersey]], U.S.
| image_size = 150 px
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| death_date = {{death date and age|2010|10|31|1919|12|20|mf=yes}}
|caption = Robert K. Crane circa 1960.
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| death_place = [[Williston, Tennessee|Williston]], [[Tennessee]], U.S.
| birth_date = {{birth date|1919|12|20|mf=y}}
⚫
| nationality =
⚫
|birth_place = [[Palmyra, New Jersey]], [[United States]]
| education = [[Washington College]], [[Harvard]]
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| death_date = {{death date and age|2010|10|31|1919|12|20|mf=yes}}
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| field = [[Biochemistry]]
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| death_place = [[Williston, Tennessee|Williston]], [[Tennessee]], USA
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| work_institution = [[Washington University in St. Louis]]<br>[[Chicago Medical School]]<br>[[Robert Wood Johnson Medical School|Rutgers Medical School]] of the [[University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey]]
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|nationality = [[United States|U.S.]]
|alma_mater = [[Washington College]]
| known_for = [[Co-transport|Cotransport]]
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| prizes = [[American Gastroenterological Association]] Distinguished Achievement Award (1969)<br>Dr. Harold Lamport Award, [[New York Academy of Sciences]] (1977)
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|field = [[Biochemistry]]
| relatives = [[Stephen Crane]], novelist (greatuncle)
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|work_institution = [[Washington University in St. Louis]]<br>[[Chicago Medical School]]<br>[[Robert Wood Johnson Medical School|Rutgers Medical School]] of the [[University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey]]
|doctoral_advisor = [[Fritz Lipmann]]
|known_for = [[Co-transport|Cotransport]]
⚫
|prizes = [[American Gastroenterological Association]] Distinguished Achievement Award (1969)<br>Dr. Harold Lamport Award, [[New York Academy of Sciences]] (1977)
}}
}}
'''Robert Kellogg Crane''' (December 20, 1919 – October 31, 2010) was an American [[biochemist]] best known for his discovery of sodium-glucose [[Co-transport|cotransport]].
'''Robert Kellogg Crane''' (December 20, 1919 – October 31, 2010) was an American [[biochemist]] best known for his discovery of sodium–glucose [[Co-transport|cotransport]].


==Biography==
==Early life==
Crane was born on December 20, 1919 in [[Palmyra, New Jersey]], to Wilbur Fiske Crane, Jr. architect and engineer, and Mary Elizabeth McHale Crane. He is the grandson of [[Stephen Crane]]'s brother Wilbur.<ref>Robert K. Crane. "Stephen Crane's Family Heritage". ''Stephen Crane Studies'' 4.1, 1995.</ref>
Crane was born on December 20, 1919, in [[Palmyra, New Jersey]], to Wilbur Fiske Crane, Jr. architect and engineer, and Mary Elizabeth McHale Crane. He is the grandson of [[Stephen Crane]]'s brother Wilbur.<ref>Robert K. Crane. "Stephen Crane's Family Heritage". ''Stephen Crane Studies'' 4.1, 1995.</ref>


He received a [[Bachelor of Science|B.S.]] from [[Washington College]] in 1942. After serving in the Navy during World War II, Crane studied in [[biochemistry]] with Eric Ball at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] from 1946 to 1949, then spent a year with [[Fritz Albert Lipmann|Fritz Lipmann]] at [[Harvard Medical School]], and received a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in Medical Sciences in 1950. He then joined [[Carl Ferdinand Cori|Carl Cori]]'s Department of Biological Chemistry at [[Washington University in St. Louis|Washington University]] School of Medicine in St. Louis, where he began his long interest in [[Carbohydrate metabolism|glucose metabolism]] and worked until 1962. After that, he was professor and chairman of the department of Biochemistry at the [[Chicago Medical School]] until 1966 and then became professor and chairman of the department of Physiology and Biophysics at Rutgers Medical School (now known as [[Robert Wood Johnson Medical School]]) of the [[University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey]] until 1986. He received a [[Doctor of Science|Sc.D.]] from [[Washington College]] in 1982.<ref name=The_road_to>Robert K. Crane. "The road to ion-coupled membrane processes". In: ''Comprehensive Biochemistry''. Vol 35: ''Selected Topics in the History of Biochemistry'', Personal Recollections l. (Neuberger, A., van Deenen, L. L. M. and Semenga, G., Eds.), [[Elsevier]], Amsterdam, 1983, pp. 43–69. Model of cotransport on page 64.</ref>
He received a [[Bachelor of Science|B.S.]] from [[Washington College]] in 1942. After serving in the Navy during World War II, Crane studied in [[biochemistry]] with Eric Ball at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] from 1946 to 1949, then spent a year with [[Fritz Albert Lipmann|Fritz Lipmann]] at [[Harvard Medical School]], and received a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in Medical Sciences in 1950.
== Career ==
He joined [[Carl Ferdinand Cori|Carl Cori]]'s Department of Biological Chemistry at [[Washington University in St. Louis|Washington University]] School of Medicine in St. Louis, where he began his long interest in [[Carbohydrate metabolism|glucose metabolism]] and worked until 1962. After that, he was professor and chairman of the department of Biochemistry at the [[Chicago Medical School]] until 1966 and then became professor and chairman of the department of Physiology and Biophysics at Rutgers Medical School (now known as [[Robert Wood Johnson Medical School]]) of the [[University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey]] until 1986. He received a [[Doctor of Science|Sc.D.]] from [[Washington College]] in 1982.<ref name="The_road_to">Robert K. Crane. "The road to ion-coupled membrane processes". In: ''Comprehensive Biochemistry''. Vol 35: ''Selected Topics in the History of Biochemistry'', Personal Recollections l. (Neuberger, A., van Deenen, L. L. M. and Semenga, G., Eds.), [[Elsevier]], Amsterdam, 1983, pp. 43–69. Model of cotransport on page 64.</ref>


==Discovery of cotransport==
In the 1950s, Crane played a central role in establishing that glucose transport into the cell was the first step in [[Carbohydrate metabolism|glucose metabolism]] and its control. He demonstrated that neither the [[phosphorylation]]-[[dephosphorylation]] mechanism nor other covalent reactions accounted for glucose transport in the intestine.
In the 1950s, Crane played a central role in establishing that glucose transport into the cell was the first step in [[Carbohydrate metabolism|glucose metabolism]] and its control. He demonstrated that neither the [[phosphorylation]]-[[dephosphorylation]] mechanism nor other covalent reactions accounted for glucose transport in the intestine.
[[File:Model of cotransport.jpg|right|275px|thumb| Model of cotransport coupling of glucose transport to an Na<sup>+</sup> pump by an Na<sup>+</sup> circuit. Redrawn from Crane et al.<ref name= The_road_to/><ref name=The_restrictions_on>Robert K. Crane, D. Miller and I. Bihler. "The restrictions on possible mechanisms of intestinal transport of sugars". In: ''Membrane Transport and Metabolism''. Proceedings of a Symposium held in Prague, August 22–27, 1960. Edited by A. Kleinzeller and A. Kotyk. [[Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic|Czech Academy of Sciences]], Prague, 1961, pp. 439–449. Model of cotransport on page 448.</ref>]]
[[File:Model of cotransport.jpg|right|500px|thumb| Model of cotransport coupling of glucose transport to an Na<sup>+</sup> pump by an Na<sup>+</sup> circuit. Redrawn from Crane et al.<ref name= The_road_to/><ref name=The_restrictions_on>Robert K. Crane, D. Miller and I. Bihler. "The restrictions on possible mechanisms of intestinal transport of sugars". In: ''Membrane Transport and Metabolism''. Proceedings of a Symposium held in Prague, August 22–27, 1960. Edited by A. Kleinzeller and A. Kotyk. [[Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic|Czech Academy of Sciences]], Prague, 1961, pp. 439–449. Model of cotransport on page 448.</ref>]]
In August 1960, in Prague, Crane presented for the first time his discovery of the sodium-glucose [[Co-transport|cotransport]] as the mechanism for intestinal glucose absorption.<ref name=The_restrictions_on/> [[Co-transport|Cotransport]] was the first ever proposal of flux coupling in biology and was the most important event concerning carbohydrate absorption in the 20th century.<ref>Ernest M. Wright and Eric Turk. [http://www.springerlink.com/content/c7ryue6u68ge924t/fulltext.pdf?page=1 "The sodium glucose cotransport family SLC5".] ''Pflügers Arch'' 447, 2004, p. 510. "Crane in 1961 was the first to formulate the cotransport concept to explain active transport [7]. Specifically, he proposed that the accumulation of glucose in the intestinal epithelium across the brush border membrane was coupled to downhill Na<sup>+</sup> transport cross the brush border. This hypothesis was rapidly tested, refined and extended [to] encompass the active transport of a diverse range of molecules and ions into virtually every cell type.”</ref><ref>Boyd, C A R. [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/119410531/main.html,ftx_abs#b12 "Facts, fantasies and fun in epithelial physiology".] ''Experimental Physiology'', Vol. 93, Issue 3, 2008, p. 304. "The insight from this time that remains in all current text books is the notion of Robert Crane published originally as an appendix to a symposium paper published in 1960 (Crane et al. 1960). The key point here was 'flux coupling', the cotransport of sodium and glucose in the apical membrane of the small intestinal epithelial cell. Half a century later this idea has turned into one of the most studied of all transporter proteins (SGLT1), the sodium–glucose cotransporter."</ref>
In August 1960, in Prague, Crane presented for the first time his discovery of the sodium-glucose [[Co-transport|cotransport]] as the mechanism for intestinal glucose absorption.<ref name=The_restrictions_on/> [[Co-transport|Cotransport]] was the first ever proposal of flux coupling in biology and was the most important event concerning carbohydrate absorption in the 20th century.<ref>Ernest M. Wright and Eric Turk. [http://www.springerlink.com/content/c7ryue6u68ge924t/fulltext.pdf?page=1 "The sodium glucose cotransport family SLC5".]{{dead link|date=February 2020|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} ''Pflügers Arch'' 447, 2004, p. 510. "Crane in 1961 was the first to formulate the cotransport concept to explain active transport [7]. Specifically, he proposed that the accumulation of glucose in the intestinal epithelium across the brush border membrane was coupled to downhill Na<sup>+</sup> transport cross the brush border. This hypothesis was rapidly tested, refined and extended [to] encompass the active transport of a diverse range of molecules and ions into virtually every cell type.”</ref><ref>Boyd, C A R. [https://archive.today/20121210063230/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/119410531/main.html,ftx_abs%23b12 "Facts, fantasies and fun in epithelial physiology".] ''Experimental Physiology'', Vol. 93, Issue 3, 2008, p. 304. "The insight from this time that remains in all current text books is the notion of Robert Crane published originally as an appendix to a symposium paper published in 1960 (Crane et al. 1960). The key point here was 'flux coupling', the cotransport of sodium and glucose in the apical membrane of the small intestinal epithelial cell. Half a century later this idea has turned into one of the most studied of all transporter proteins (SGLT1), the sodium–glucose cotransporter."</ref>


⚫
Crane's discovery of [[Co-transport|cotransport]] led directly to the development of [[oral rehydration therapy]].<ref>C. A. Pasternak. [http://www.bioscirep.org/bsr/013/0183/0130183.pdf "A Glance Back Over 30 Years"]. ''[[Biochemical Society|Bioscience Reports]]'', Vol. 13, No. 4, 1993, [http://www.bioscirep.org/bsr/013/0183/0130183.pdf p. 187.] Crane: "I have recently been reassured that this formulation of sodium ion-coupled glucose transport in the intestine was the basis for the development by others of the simple glucose-sodium chloride solution taken by mouth that is used world-wide to treat victims of life-threatening diarrhea as in cholera. A practical development based on my little piece of basic research has saved thousands upon thousands of lives."</ref><ref>J. D. Snyder. [http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/extract/328/23/1705 "Can Bismuth Improve the Simple Solution for Diarrhea?"] ''[[New England Journal of Medicine]]'', Vol. 328, issue 23, 1993, p. 1705. "The discovery in the mid-1960s of the coupled transport of sodium and glucose across the intestinal mucosa led directly to the development of oral rehydration therapy".</ref> This treatment counterbalances the loss of water and [[electrolyte]]s caused by cholera via a glucose containing salt solution that accelerates water and electrolyte absorption. This is possible because cholera does not interfere with sodium-glucose cotransport.<ref>Arthur C. Guyton and John E. Hall. ''Textbook of Medical Physiology''. Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, 2006, pp. 814–816.</ref><ref>Canadian Paediatric Society, Nutrition Committee. [http://www.cps.ca/english/statements/N/N06-01.htm "Oral rehydration therapy and early refeeding in the management of childhood gastroenteritis'.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090904230955/http://www.cps.ca/english/statements/N/N06-01.htm |date=2009-09-04 }} ''Paediatrics & Child Health'', Vol. 11, issue 8, 2006, pp. 527–531.</ref>
===Application in oral rehydration therapy===
⚫
Crane's discovery of [[Co-transport|cotransport]] led directly to the development of [[oral rehydration therapy]].<ref>C. A. Pasternak. [http://www.bioscirep.org/bsr/013/0183/0130183.pdf "A Glance Back Over 30 Years"]. ''[[Biochemical Society|Bioscience Reports]]'', Vol. 13, No. 4, 1993, [http://www.bioscirep.org/bsr/013/0183/0130183.pdf p. 187.] Crane: "I have recently been reassured that this formulation of sodium ion-coupled glucose transport in the intestine was the basis for the development by others of the simple glucose-sodium chloride solution taken by mouth that is used world-wide to treat victims of life-threatening diarrhea as in cholera. A practical development based on my little piece of basic research has saved thousands upon thousands of lives."</ref><ref>J. D. Snyder. [http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/extract/328/23/1705 "Can Bismuth Improve the Simple Solution for Diarrhea?"] ''[[New England Journal of Medicine]]'', Vol. 328, issue 23, 1993, p. 1705. "The discovery in the mid-1960s of the coupled transport of sodium and glucose across the intestinal mucosa led directly to the development of oral rehydration therapy".</ref> This treatment counterbalances the loss of water and [[electrolyte]]s caused by cholera via a glucose containing salt solution that accelerates water and electrolyte absorption. This is possible because cholera does not interfere with sodium-glucose cotransport.<ref>Arthur C. Guyton and John E. Hall. ''Textbook of Medical Physiology''. Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, 2006, pp. 814–816.</ref><ref>Canadian Paediatric Society, Nutrition Committee. [http://www.cps.ca/english/statements/N/N06-01.htm "Oral rehydration therapy and early refeeding in the management of childhood gastroenteritis'.] ''Paediatrics & Child Health'', Vol. 11, issue 8, 2006, pp. 527–531.</ref>


Oral rehydration therapy saves the lives of millions of cholera patients in underdeveloped countries since the 1980s.<ref>W.B. Greenough. ''[[The Lancet|Lancet]]'' 345, June 1995, p. 1568. "The life saving power of oral rehydration therapy was first demonstrated in cholera patients. By 1971 there was sufficient knowledge to reduce death from 40% to less than 3%, even under chaotic field conditions — 'Now used for all diarrheal diseases it saves the lives of over one million children a year and if fully used could save 3–4 million lives every year."</ref> In 1978, ''[[The Lancet]]'' wrote: "the discovery that sodium transport and glucose transport are coupled in the small intestine, so that glucose accelerates absorption of solute and water, was potentially the most important medical advance this century."<ref>Editorial. "Water with sugar and salt". ''[[The Lancet|Lancet 2]]'', August 5, 1978, pp. 300–301.</ref>
Oral rehydration therapy saves the lives of millions of cholera patients in underdeveloped countries since the 1980s.<ref>W.B. Greenough. ''[[The Lancet|Lancet]]'' 345, June 1995, p. 1568. "The life saving power of oral rehydration therapy was first demonstrated in cholera patients. By 1971 there was sufficient knowledge to reduce death from 40% to less than 3%, even under chaotic field conditions — 'Now used for all diarrheal diseases it saves the lives of over one million children a year and if fully used could save 3–4 million lives every year."</ref> In 1978, ''[[The Lancet]]'' wrote: "the discovery that sodium transport and glucose transport are coupled in the small intestine, so that glucose accelerates absorption of solute and water, was potentially the most important medical advance this century."<ref>Editorial. "Water with sugar and salt". ''[[The Lancet|Lancet 2]]'', August 5, 1978, pp. 300–301.</ref>


⚫
Crane's discovery is also used in blockbuster drugs, such as the [[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor|SSRI]] [[Fluoxetine|Prozac]], which treat depression by inhibiting the Na/serotonin cotransporters in the brain. Furthermore, major pharmaceutical companies are developing inhibitors of the Na/glucose cotransporters to treat diabetes and obesity.<ref>[http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=104&STORY=/www/story/10-09-2007/0004678689&EDATE= "High Rider Reaches Agreement in Principal(sic) with French Biopharmaceutical Company".] [[PR Newswire]], October 9, 2007. "High Rider Capital Inc. (...) [will] develop a chemical process to achieve synthesis of a new class of Sodium Glucose Cotransporters inhibitors (...), for the treatment of Type 2 Diabetes, obesity and other possible metabolic syndrome applications."</ref>
===Applications in pharmaceutical drugs===
Crane's discovery is also used in blockbuster drugs, such as the [[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor|SSRI]] [[Fluoxetine|Prozac]], which treat depression by inhibiting the Na/serotonin cotransporters in the brain.

⚫
Furthermore, major pharmaceutical companies are developing inhibitors of the Na/glucose cotransporters to treat diabetes and obesity.<ref>[http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=104&STORY=/www/story/10-09-2007/0004678689&EDATE= "High Rider Reaches Agreement in Principal(sic) with French Biopharmaceutical Company".] [[PR Newswire]], October 9, 2007. "High Rider Capital Inc. (...) [will] develop a chemical process to achieve synthesis of a new class of Sodium Glucose Cotransporters inhibitors (...), for the treatment of Type 2 Diabetes, obesity and other possible metabolic syndrome applications."</ref>


==Awards and honors==
==Awards and honors==
* First Place, Southeast Regional Scholarship Competition, [[Lehigh University]], 1938.
<!--* First Place, Southeast Regional Scholarship Competition, [[Lehigh University]], 1938.
* Kent County Scholar, [[Washington College]], 1941–42.
* Kent County Scholar, [[Washington College]], 1941–42.
* [[United States Atomic Energy Commission|Atomic Energy Commission]] Predoctoral Fellow, 1948–49.
* [[United States Atomic Energy Commission|Atomic Energy Commission]] Predoctoral Fellow, 1948–49.
Line 44: Line 42:
* Headmaster's Alumni Medal, [[St. Andrew's School (Delaware)|St. Andrew's School]], 1963.
* Headmaster's Alumni Medal, [[St. Andrew's School (Delaware)|St. Andrew's School]], 1963.
* Alumni Award, [[Washington College]], 1963.
* Alumni Award, [[Washington College]], 1963.
* Fellow, [http://www.theaic.org American Institute of Chemists], 1968.
* Fellow, [http://www.theaic.org American Institute of Chemists], 1968.-->
* Distinguished Achievement Award, [[American Gastroenterological Association]], 1969.<ref>[http://www.gastro.org/user-assets/Documents/07_Membership/Rec_Prizes/desc_Distinguished_Achievement.pdf Distinguished Achievement Award]. [[American Gastroenterological Association]], 2008, [http://www.gastro.org/user-assets/Documents/07_Membership/Rec_Prizes/desc_Distinguished_Achievement.pdf p. 2.]</ref>
* Distinguished Achievement Award, [[American Gastroenterological Association]], 1969.<ref>[http://www.gastro.org/user-assets/Documents/07_Membership/Rec_Prizes/desc_Distinguished_Achievement.pdf Distinguished Achievement Award]{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. [[American Gastroenterological Association]], 2008, [http://www.gastro.org/user-assets/Documents/07_Membership/Rec_Prizes/desc_Distinguished_Achievement.pdf p. 2.]{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* Sir Arthur Hurst Memorial Lectureship, [[British Society of Gastroenterology]], 1969.<ref>[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1553016&blobtype=pdf "The British Society of Gastroenterology"]. ''[[Gut (journal)|Gut]]'', Vol. 10, 1969, [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1553016&blobtype=pdf p. 1044.] "The Sir Arthur Hurst Memorial Lecture 'Digestion and Absorption at the Brush Border Membrane: A Lesson in Functional Organisation' was given by Dr Robert K. Crane (Rutger's Medical School, New Jersey, USA)".</ref>
* Sir Arthur Hurst Memorial Lectureship, [[British Society of Gastroenterology]], 1969.<ref>[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1553016&blobtype=pdf "The British Society of Gastroenterology"]. ''[[Gut (journal)|Gut]]'', Vol. 10, 1969, [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1553016&blobtype=pdf p. 1044.] "The Sir Arthur Hurst Memorial Lecture 'Digestion and Absorption at the Brush Border Membrane: A Lesson in Functional Organisation' was given by Dr Robert K. Crane (Rutger's Medical School, New Jersey, USA)".</ref>
* Gastrointestinal Section Lectureship, [[American Physiological Society]], 1971.<ref>[http://www.springerlink.com/content/f552540t8152836w/fulltext.pdf?page=1 "American physiological society".] ''Digestive Diseases and Sciences'', Vol. 16, No. 4, 1971, p. 332. "Dr. Robert K. Crane, Department of Physiology, [[Robert Wood Johnson Medical School|Rutgers Medical School]], will give the Twenty-First Annual Lecture for the Gastrointestinal Section of the [[American Physiological Society]] on Thursday, April 15, 1971, at 8:00 PM fit the Conrad Hilton Hotel during the Spring Meeting of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology in Chicago, Ill. ''The title of his lecture is Speculations About Mechanism: The Ecstasy of Transport''."{{closed access}}</ref><ref>Robert K. Crane. "Speculations about mechanism: The ecstasy of transport". 21st annual meeting of the Gastrointestinal Section, [[American Physiological Society]], 1971, pp. 1–16.</ref>
* Gastrointestinal Section Lectureship, [[American Physiological Society]], 1971.<ref>[http://www.springerlink.com/content/f552540t8152836w/fulltext.pdf?page=1 "American physiological society".]{{dead link|date=February 2020|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} ''Digestive Diseases and Sciences'', Vol. 16, No. 4, 1971, p. 332. "Dr. Robert K. Crane, Department of Physiology, [[Robert Wood Johnson Medical School|Rutgers Medical School]], will give the Twenty-First Annual Lecture for the Gastrointestinal Section of the [[American Physiological Society]] on Thursday, April 15, 1971, at 8:00 PM fit the Conrad Hilton Hotel during the Spring Meeting of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology in Chicago, Ill. ''The title of his lecture is Speculations About Mechanism: The Ecstasy of Transport''."{{closed access}}</ref><ref>Robert K. Crane. "Speculations about mechanism: The ecstasy of transport". 21st annual meeting of the Gastrointestinal Section, [[American Physiological Society]], 1971, pp. 1–16.</ref>
* Fellow, [[New York Academy of Sciences]], 1976.
<!--* Fellow, [[New York Academy of Sciences]], 1976.-->
* Dr. Harold Lamport Award, [[New York Academy of Sciences]], 1977.
* Dr. Harold Lamport Award, [[New York Academy of Sciences]], 1977.
* [[Doctor of Science]] ([[Honorary degree|honoris causa]]), [[Washington College]], 1982.
* [[Doctor of Science]] ([[Honorary degree|honoris causa]]), [[Washington College]], 1982.
* Honorary Chairman, International Symposium on the 25th Anniversary of the Gradient Hypothesis, Aussois, France, 18, 19 and 20 September 1985.<ref>Robert K. Crane. "Questions". In: [http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/534834 the proceedings of an International symposium on 25 years of Research on the Brush Border Membrane and Na<sup>+</sup> gradient-coupled transport], Editors: Francisco Alvarado and others, [[Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale|INSERM]] symposium, No. 26, [[Elsevier]]-North Holland, Amsterdam, 1986; pp. 431–438.</ref>
* Honorary Chairman, International Symposium on the 25th Anniversary of the Gradient Hypothesis, Aussois, France, 18, 19 and 20 September 1985.<ref>Robert K. Crane. "Questions". In: [http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/534834 the proceedings of an International symposium on 25 years of Research on the Brush Border Membrane and Na<sup>+</sup> gradient-coupled transport], Editors: Francisco Alvarado and others, [[Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale|INSERM]] symposium, No. 26, [[Elsevier]]-North Holland, Amsterdam, 1986; pp. 431–438.</ref>


==Selected bibliography==
==Selected publications==
* Robert K. Crane and Anna K. Keltch. [http://jgp.rupress.org/content/32/4/503.full.pdf "Dinitrocresol and phosphate stimulation of the oxygen consumption of a cell-free oxidative system obtained from sea urchin eggs".] ''[[The Journal of General Physiology]]'' 32, 1949, [http://jgp.rupress.org/content/32/4/503.full.pdf pp. 503–509.]
* Robert K. Crane and Anna K. Keltch. [http://jgp.rupress.org/content/32/4/503.full.pdf "Dinitrocresol and phosphate stimulation of the oxygen consumption of a cell-free oxidative system obtained from sea urchin eggs".] ''[[The Journal of General Physiology]]'' 32, 1949, [http://jgp.rupress.org/content/32/4/503.full.pdf pp. 503–509.]
* Robert K. Crane and Eric G. Ball. [http://www.jbc.org/content/188/2/819.full.pdf "Factors affecting the fixation of C1402 by animal tissues".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 188, 1951, [http://www.jbc.org/content/188/2/819.full.pdf pp. 819-832.]
* Robert K. Crane and Eric G. Ball. [http://www.jbc.org/content/188/2/819.full.pdf "Factors affecting the fixation of C1402 by animal tissues".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 188, 1951, [http://www.jbc.org/content/188/2/819.full.pdf pp. 819-832.]
* Robert K. Crane and Eric G. Ball. [http://www.jbc.org/content/189/1/269.full.pdf "Relationship of C1402 fixation to carbohydrate metabolism in retina".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 189, 1951, [http://www.jbc.org/content/189/1/269.full.pdf pp. 269–276.]
* Robert K. Crane and Eric G. Ball. [http://www.jbc.org/content/189/1/269.full.pdf "Relationship of C1402 fixation to carbohydrate metabolism in retina".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 189, 1951, [http://www.jbc.org/content/189/1/269.full.pdf pp. 269–276.]
* Robert K. Crane and [[Fritz Albert Lipmann|Fritz Lipmann]]. [http://www.jbc.org/content/201/1/245.full.pdf "The relationship of mitochondrial phosphate to aerobic phosphate bond generation".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 201, 1953, [http://www.jbc.org/content/201/1/245.full.pdf pp. 245–246.]
* Robert K. Crane and Fritz Lipmann. [http://www.jbc.org/content/201/1/245.full.pdf "The relationship of mitochondrial phosphate to aerobic phosphate bond generation".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 201, 1953, [http://www.jbc.org/content/201/1/245.full.pdf pp. 245–246.]
* Robert K. Crane and [[Fritz Albert Lipmann|Fritz Lipmann]]. [http://www.jbc.org/content/201/1/235.full.pdf "The effect of arsenate on aerobic phosphorylation".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 201, 1953, [http://www.jbc.org/content/201/1/235.full.pdf pp. 235–243.]
* Robert K. Crane and Fritz Lipmann. [http://www.jbc.org/content/201/1/235.full.pdf "The effect of arsenate on aerobic phosphorylation".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 201, 1953, [http://www.jbc.org/content/201/1/235.full.pdf pp. 235–243.]
* Robert K. Crane and Alberto Sols. [http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/203/1/273.pdf "The association of hexokinase with particulate fractions of brain and other tissue homogenates".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 203, 1953, [http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/203/1/273.pdf pp. 273–292.]
* Robert K. Crane and Alberto Sols. [http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/203/1/273.pdf "The association of hexokinase with particulate fractions of brain and other tissue homogenates".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 203, 1953, [http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/203/1/273.pdf pp. 273–292.]
* Alberto Sols and Robert K. Crane. [http://www.jbc.org/content/206/2/925.full.pdf "The inhibition of brain hexokinase by adenosinediphosphate and sulfhydryl reagents".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 206, 1954, [http://www.jbc.org/content/206/2/925.full.pdf pp. 925–936.]
* Alberto Sols and Robert K. Crane. [http://www.jbc.org/content/206/2/925.full.pdf "The inhibition of brain hexokinase by adenosinediphosphate and sulfhydryl reagents".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 206, 1954, [http://www.jbc.org/content/206/2/925.full.pdf pp. 925–936.]
* Robert K. Crane and Alberto Sols. [http://www.jbc.org/content/210/2/597.full.pdf "The non-competitive inhibition of brain hexokinase by glucose 6-phosphate and related compounds".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 210, 1954, [http://www.jbc.org/content/210/2/597.full.pdf pp. 597–606.]
* Robert K. Crane and Alberto Sols. [http://www.jbc.org/content/210/2/597.full.pdf "The non-competitive inhibition of brain hexokinase by glucose 6-phosphate and related compounds".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 210, 1954, [http://www.jbc.org/content/210/2/597.full.pdf pp. 597–606.]
* Alberto Sols and Robert K. Crane. [http://www.jbc.org/content/210/2/581.full.pdf "Substrate specificity of brain hexokinase".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 210, 1954, [http://www.jbc.org/content/210/2/581.full.pdf pp. 581–595.]
* Alberto Sols and Robert K. Crane. [http://www.jbc.org/content/210/2/581.full.pdf "Substrate specificity of brain hexokinase".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 210, 1954, [http://www.jbc.org/content/210/2/581.full.pdf pp. 581–595.]
* Robert K. Crane, Richard A. Field and [[Carl Ferdinand Cori|Carl F. Cori]]. [http://www.jbc.org/content/224/2/649.full.pdf "Studies of tissue permeability I. The penetration of sugars into Ehrlich ascites tumor cells".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 224, 1957, [http://www.jbc.org/content/224/2/649.full.pdf pp. 649–662.]
* Robert K. Crane, Richard A. Field and Carl F. Cori. [http://www.jbc.org/content/224/2/649.full.pdf "Studies of tissue permeability I. The penetration of sugars into Ehrlich ascites tumor cells".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 224, 1957, [http://www.jbc.org/content/224/2/649.full.pdf pp. 649–662.]
* Robert K. Crane and T. Hastings Wilson. [http://jap.physiology.org/cgi/content/citation/12/1/145 "In vitro method for the study of the rate of intestinal absorption of sugars".] ''Journal of Applied Physiology'', Vol. 12, 1958, pp.&nbsp;145–146.
* Robert K. Crane and T. Hastings Wilson. [http://jap.physiology.org/cgi/content/citation/12/1/145 "In vitro method for the study of the rate of intestinal absorption of sugars".] ''Journal of Applied Physiology'', Vol. 12, 1958, pp.&nbsp;145–146.
* Stephen M. Krane and Robert K. Crane. [http://www.jbc.org/content/234/2/211.full.pdf "The accumulation of D-galactose against a concentration gradient by slices of rabbit kidney cortex".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 234, 1959, [http://www.jbc.org/content/234/2/211.full.pdf pp. 211–216.]
* Stephen M. Krane and Robert K. Crane. [http://www.jbc.org/content/234/2/211.full.pdf "The accumulation of D-galactose against a concentration gradient by slices of rabbit kidney cortex".] ''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'' 234, 1959, [http://www.jbc.org/content/234/2/211.full.pdf pp. 211–216.]
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* Robert K. Crane. "Speculations about mechanism: The ecstasy of transport". 21st annual meeting of the Gastrointestinal Section, ''[[American Physiological Society]]'', 1971, pp.&nbsp;1–16.
* Robert K. Crane. "Speculations about mechanism: The ecstasy of transport". 21st annual meeting of the Gastrointestinal Section, ''[[American Physiological Society]]'', 1971, pp.&nbsp;1–16.
* Alexander Eichholz and Robert K. Crane. "Isolation of plasma membranes from intestinal brush borders in Methods in Enzymology". Vol. 31, part A, ''Biomembranes'', S. Fleischer and L. Packer, Eds., Academic Press, 1974, pp.&nbsp;123–134.
* Alexander Eichholz and Robert K. Crane. "Isolation of plasma membranes from intestinal brush borders in Methods in Enzymology". Vol. 31, part A, ''Biomembranes'', S. Fleischer and L. Packer, Eds., Academic Press, 1974, pp.&nbsp;123–134.
* Robert K. Crane. [http://www.springerlink.com/content/w08x70125u3l02u9/ "The gradient hypothesis and other models of carrier-mediated active transport".] ''Reviews of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology'', Vol. 78, 1977, pp.&nbsp;99–159.
* Robert K. Crane. [https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBFb0027722 "The gradient hypothesis and other models of carrier-mediated active transport".] ''Reviews of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology'', Vol. 78, 1977, pp.&nbsp;99–159.
* Robert K. Crane. "Digestion and absorption: water-soluble organics". ''International review of physiology, Gastrointestinal physiology II'', Vol. 12, Robert K. Crane, Ed., University Park Press, 1977, pp.&nbsp;325–365.
* Robert K. Crane. "Digestion and absorption: water-soluble organics". ''International review of physiology, Gastrointestinal physiology II'', Vol. 12, Robert K. Crane, Ed., University Park Press, 1977, pp.&nbsp;325–365.
* Robert K. Crane. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1638101/pdf/envhper00478-0008.pdf "Intestinal structure and function related to toxicity".] ''[[Environmental Health Perspectives]]'' 33, 1979, [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1638101/pdf/envhper00478-0008.pdf pp. 3–8.]
* Robert K. Crane. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1638101/pdf/envhper00478-0008.pdf "Intestinal structure and function related to toxicity".] ''[[Environmental Health Perspectives]]'' 33, 1979, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1638101/pdf/envhper00478-0008.pdf pp. 3–8.]
* Robert K. Crane. "The road to ion-coupled membrane processes". ''Comprehensive Biochemistry''. Vol 35: ''Selected Topics in the History of Biochemistry, Personal Recollections'' l. (Neuberger, A., van Deenen, L. L. M. and Semenga, G., Eds.), [[Elsevier]], Amsterdam, 1983, pp.&nbsp;43–69.
* Robert K. Crane. "The road to ion-coupled membrane processes". ''Comprehensive Biochemistry''. Vol 35: ''Selected Topics in the History of Biochemistry, Personal Recollections'' l. (Neuberger, A., van Deenen, L. L. M. and Semenga, G., Eds.), [[Elsevier]], Amsterdam, 1983, pp.&nbsp;43–69.
* Robert K. Crane. "Questions". In: [http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/534834 the proceedings of an International symposium on 25 years of Research on the Brush Border Membrane and Na<sup>+</sup> gradient-coupled transport], Editors: Francisco Alvarado and others, [[Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale|INSERM]] symposium, No. 26, [[Elsevier]]-North Holland, Amsterdam, 1986, pp.&nbsp;431–438.
* Robert K. Crane. "Questions". In: [http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/534834 the proceedings of an International symposium on 25 years of Research on the Brush Border Membrane and Na<sup>+</sup> gradient-coupled transport], Editors: Francisco Alvarado and others, [[Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale|INSERM]] symposium, No. 26, [[Elsevier]]-North Holland, Amsterdam, 1986, pp.&nbsp;431–438.
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* C. A. Pasternak. [http://www.bioscirep.org/bsr/013/0183/0130183.pdf "A Glance Back Over 30 Years"]. ''[[Biochemical Society|Bioscience Reports]]'', Vol. 13, No. 4, 1993, [http://www.bioscirep.org/bsr/013/0183/0130183.pdf pp. 183–190.]
* C. A. Pasternak. [http://www.bioscirep.org/bsr/013/0183/0130183.pdf "A Glance Back Over 30 Years"]. ''[[Biochemical Society|Bioscience Reports]]'', Vol. 13, No. 4, 1993, [http://www.bioscirep.org/bsr/013/0183/0130183.pdf pp. 183–190.]
* [[Robert Joseph Paton Williams]]. [http://www.bioscirep.org/bsr/013/0191/0130191.pdf "The History of Proton-Driven ATP Formation".] ''[[Biochemical Society|Bioscience Reports]]'', Vol. 13, No. 4, 1993, [http://www.bioscirep.org/bsr/013/0191/0130191.pdf pp. 193, 200–201, 203, 207.]
* [[Robert Joseph Paton Williams]]. [http://www.bioscirep.org/bsr/013/0191/0130191.pdf "The History of Proton-Driven ATP Formation".] ''[[Biochemical Society|Bioscience Reports]]'', Vol. 13, No. 4, 1993, [http://www.bioscirep.org/bsr/013/0191/0130191.pdf pp. 193, 200–201, 203, 207.]
* Daphne A Christie, E M. Tansey (eds). [http://eprints.ucl.ac.uk/2072/1/wit8.pdf "Intestinal absorption".] ''Wellcome Witnesses to Twentieth Century Medicine'', Vol. 8, The [[Wellcome Trust]], London, 2000, [http://eprints.ucl.ac.uk/2072/1/wit8.pdf pp. 17–35.]
* Daphne A Christie, E M. Tansey (eds). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110609155522/http://eprints.ucl.ac.uk/2072/1/wit8.pdf "Intestinal absorption".] ''Wellcome Witnesses to Twentieth Century Medicine'', Vol. 8, The [[Wellcome Trust]], London, 2000, [https://web.archive.org/web/20110609155522/http://eprints.ucl.ac.uk/2072/1/wit8.pdf pp. 17–35.]
* Stephen M. Kavica, Eric J. Frehmb and Alan S. Segalc. [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=2579035&blobtype=pdf "Case Studies in Cholera: Lessons in Medical History and Science".] ''Yale Journal Of Biology And Medicine'', Vol. 72, Issue 6, 1999, [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=2579035&blobtype=pdf p. 404.]
* Stephen M. Kavica, Eric J. Frehmb and Alan S. Segalc. [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=2579035&blobtype=pdf "Case Studies in Cholera: Lessons in Medical History and Science".] ''Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine'', Vol. 72, Issue 6, 1999, [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=2579035&blobtype=pdf p. 404.]


==See also==
==See also==
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{{Authority control}}
{{Authority control}}


{{Persondata
| NAME = Crane, Robert K.
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Biochemist
| DATE OF BIRTH = December 20, 1919
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Palmyra, New Jersey]], [[United States]]
| DATE OF DEATH = October 31, 2010
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Williston, Tennessee|Williston]], [[Tennessee]], USA
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Crane, Robert K.}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Crane, Robert K.}}
[[Category:1924 births]]
[[Category:1919 births]]
[[Category:2010 deaths]]
[[Category:2010 deaths]]
[[Category:American biochemists]]
[[Category:20th-century American biochemists]]
[[Category:Washington College alumni]]
[[Category:Washington College alumni]]
[[Category:Harvard Medical School alumni]]
[[Category:Harvard Medical School alumni]]
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[[Category:Washington University in St. Louis faculty]]
[[Category:Washington University in St. Louis faculty]]
[[Category:People from Palmyra, New Jersey]]
[[Category:People from Palmyra, New Jersey]]
[[Category:United States Navy personnel of World War II]]

Latest revision as of 17:08, 18 November 2024

Robert K. Crane
Born(1919-12-20)December 20, 1919
Palmyra, New Jersey, U.S.
DiedOctober 31, 2010(2010-10-31) (aged 90)
Williston, Tennessee, U.S.
EducationWashington College, Harvard
Known forCotransport
RelativesStephen Crane, novelist (greatuncle)
AwardsAmerican Gastroenterological Association Distinguished Achievement Award (1969)
Dr. Harold Lamport Award, New York Academy of Sciences (1977)
Scientific career
FieldsBiochemistry
InstitutionsWashington University in St. Louis
Chicago Medical School
Rutgers Medical School of the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey
Doctoral advisorFritz Lipmann

Robert Kellogg Crane (December 20, 1919 – October 31, 2010) was an American biochemist best known for his discovery of sodium–glucose cotransport.

Early life

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Crane was born on December 20, 1919, in Palmyra, New Jersey, to Wilbur Fiske Crane, Jr. architect and engineer, and Mary Elizabeth McHale Crane. He is the grandson of Stephen Crane's brother Wilbur.[1]

He received a B.S. from Washington College in 1942. After serving in the Navy during World War II, Crane studied in biochemistry with Eric Ball at Harvard from 1946 to 1949, then spent a year with Fritz Lipmann at Harvard Medical School, and received a Ph.D. in Medical Sciences in 1950.

Career

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He joined Carl Cori's Department of Biological Chemistry at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, where he began his long interest in glucose metabolism and worked until 1962. After that, he was professor and chairman of the department of Biochemistry at the Chicago Medical School until 1966 and then became professor and chairman of the department of Physiology and Biophysics at Rutgers Medical School (now known as Robert Wood Johnson Medical School) of the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey until 1986. He received a Sc.D. from Washington College in 1982.[2]

In the 1950s, Crane played a central role in establishing that glucose transport into the cell was the first step in glucose metabolism and its control. He demonstrated that neither the phosphorylation-dephosphorylation mechanism nor other covalent reactions accounted for glucose transport in the intestine.

Model of cotransport coupling of glucose transport to an Na+ pump by an Na+ circuit. Redrawn from Crane et al.[2][3]

In August 1960, in Prague, Crane presented for the first time his discovery of the sodium-glucose cotransport as the mechanism for intestinal glucose absorption.[3] Cotransport was the first ever proposal of flux coupling in biology and was the most important event concerning carbohydrate absorption in the 20th century.[4][5]

Crane's discovery of cotransport led directly to the development of oral rehydration therapy.[6][7] This treatment counterbalances the loss of water and electrolytes caused by cholera via a glucose containing salt solution that accelerates water and electrolyte absorption. This is possible because cholera does not interfere with sodium-glucose cotransport.[8][9]

Oral rehydration therapy saves the lives of millions of cholera patients in underdeveloped countries since the 1980s.[10] In 1978, The Lancet wrote: "the discovery that sodium transport and glucose transport are coupled in the small intestine, so that glucose accelerates absorption of solute and water, was potentially the most important medical advance this century."[11]

Crane's discovery is also used in blockbuster drugs, such as the SSRI Prozac, which treat depression by inhibiting the Na/serotonin cotransporters in the brain. Furthermore, major pharmaceutical companies are developing inhibitors of the Na/glucose cotransporters to treat diabetes and obesity.[12]

Awards and honors

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Selected publications

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Further reading

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See also

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References

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  1. ^ Robert K. Crane. "Stephen Crane's Family Heritage". Stephen Crane Studies 4.1, 1995.
  2. ^ a b Robert K. Crane. "The road to ion-coupled membrane processes". In: Comprehensive Biochemistry. Vol 35: Selected Topics in the History of Biochemistry, Personal Recollections l. (Neuberger, A., van Deenen, L. L. M. and Semenga, G., Eds.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1983, pp. 43–69. Model of cotransport on page 64.
  3. ^ a b Robert K. Crane, D. Miller and I. Bihler. "The restrictions on possible mechanisms of intestinal transport of sugars". In: Membrane Transport and Metabolism. Proceedings of a Symposium held in Prague, August 22–27, 1960. Edited by A. Kleinzeller and A. Kotyk. Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, 1961, pp. 439–449. Model of cotransport on page 448.
  4. ^ Ernest M. Wright and Eric Turk. "The sodium glucose cotransport family SLC5".[dead link‍] Pflügers Arch 447, 2004, p. 510. "Crane in 1961 was the first to formulate the cotransport concept to explain active transport [7]. Specifically, he proposed that the accumulation of glucose in the intestinal epithelium across the brush border membrane was coupled to downhill Na+ transport cross the brush border. This hypothesis was rapidly tested, refined and extended [to] encompass the active transport of a diverse range of molecules and ions into virtually every cell type.”
  5. ^ Boyd, C A R. "Facts, fantasies and fun in epithelial physiology". Experimental Physiology, Vol. 93, Issue 3, 2008, p. 304. "The insight from this time that remains in all current text books is the notion of Robert Crane published originally as an appendix to a symposium paper published in 1960 (Crane et al. 1960). The key point here was 'flux coupling', the cotransport of sodium and glucose in the apical membrane of the small intestinal epithelial cell. Half a century later this idea has turned into one of the most studied of all transporter proteins (SGLT1), the sodium–glucose cotransporter."
  6. ^ C. A. Pasternak. "A Glance Back Over 30 Years". Bioscience Reports, Vol. 13, No. 4, 1993, p. 187. Crane: "I have recently been reassured that this formulation of sodium ion-coupled glucose transport in the intestine was the basis for the development by others of the simple glucose-sodium chloride solution taken by mouth that is used world-wide to treat victims of life-threatening diarrhea as in cholera. A practical development based on my little piece of basic research has saved thousands upon thousands of lives."
  7. ^ J. D. Snyder. "Can Bismuth Improve the Simple Solution for Diarrhea?" New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 328, issue 23, 1993, p. 1705. "The discovery in the mid-1960s of the coupled transport of sodium and glucose across the intestinal mucosa led directly to the development of oral rehydration therapy".
  8. ^ Arthur C. Guyton and John E. Hall. Textbook of Medical Physiology. Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, 2006, pp. 814–816.
  9. ^ Canadian Paediatric Society, Nutrition Committee. "Oral rehydration therapy and early refeeding in the management of childhood gastroenteritis'. Archived 2009-09-04 at the Wayback Machine Paediatrics & Child Health, Vol. 11, issue 8, 2006, pp. 527–531.
  10. ^ W.B. Greenough. Lancet 345, June 1995, p. 1568. "The life saving power of oral rehydration therapy was first demonstrated in cholera patients. By 1971 there was sufficient knowledge to reduce death from 40% to less than 3%, even under chaotic field conditions — 'Now used for all diarrheal diseases it saves the lives of over one million children a year and if fully used could save 3–4 million lives every year."
  11. ^ Editorial. "Water with sugar and salt". Lancet 2, August 5, 1978, pp. 300–301.
  12. ^ "High Rider Reaches Agreement in Principal(sic) with French Biopharmaceutical Company". PR Newswire, October 9, 2007. "High Rider Capital Inc. (...) [will] develop a chemical process to achieve synthesis of a new class of Sodium Glucose Cotransporters inhibitors (...), for the treatment of Type 2 Diabetes, obesity and other possible metabolic syndrome applications."
  13. ^ Distinguished Achievement Award[permanent dead link‍]. American Gastroenterological Association, 2008, p. 2.[permanent dead link‍]
  14. ^ "The British Society of Gastroenterology". Gut, Vol. 10, 1969, p. 1044. "The Sir Arthur Hurst Memorial Lecture 'Digestion and Absorption at the Brush Border Membrane: A Lesson in Functional Organisation' was given by Dr Robert K. Crane (Rutger's Medical School, New Jersey, USA)".
  15. ^ "American physiological society".[dead link‍] Digestive Diseases and Sciences, Vol. 16, No. 4, 1971, p. 332. "Dr. Robert K. Crane, Department of Physiology, Rutgers Medical School, will give the Twenty-First Annual Lecture for the Gastrointestinal Section of the American Physiological Society on Thursday, April 15, 1971, at 8:00 PM fit the Conrad Hilton Hotel during the Spring Meeting of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology in Chicago, Ill. The title of his lecture is Speculations About Mechanism: The Ecstasy of Transport."Closed access icon
  16. ^ Robert K. Crane. "Speculations about mechanism: The ecstasy of transport". 21st annual meeting of the Gastrointestinal Section, American Physiological Society, 1971, pp. 1–16.
  17. ^ Robert K. Crane. "Questions". In: the proceedings of an International symposium on 25 years of Research on the Brush Border Membrane and Na+ gradient-coupled transport, Editors: Francisco Alvarado and others, INSERM symposium, No. 26, Elsevier-North Holland, Amsterdam, 1986; pp. 431–438.
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